AP US History Course Lecture Notes
Earliest Americans to Korean War
The Earliest Americans
The Mongollan people lived in pit houses found in New Mexico around 500 A.D.
The Anasazi Indians moved into the Southwest near present-day Arizona, Colorado, and
New Mexico about 1050 A.D. These ancestors of the Pueblo Indians made use of mud and
straw to construct adobe structures, which, when hardened and baked by the sun, would last for
centuries. The Anasazi flourished until nearly 1550, when the years of inter-tribal warfare and
threat from Spanish settlement finally forced their end. These Southwestern Indians, primarily
peaceful, even built cliff dwellings onto the sides of steep peaks in the mountain valleys that
were easily defended by simply pulling up the ladders that granted entrance to the pueblos.
Pueblos were also built on flatlands in the Southwest by the Pueblos. One of these, found
in the Sangre de Cristo mountains, controlled the trade routes from the Pueblo farmers and the
nomadic plains Indian groups. The civilized society of Pueblos at the Pecos Pueblo was not
unique, but it was the dominant grouping of their tribe. Inter-tribal warfare with both Plains
Indians (including Sioux, Ute, Navajo, although mostly Apache) occurred occasionally, but by
and large, the Pueblos were peaceful, and interested in trade, benefiting the Spanish who would
arrive later. The Plains tribes would trade slaves (mostly war captives), buffalo hides, flint, and
shells in return for pottery, crops, turquoise and textiles. Pueblos raised corn, beans and squash,
using immigration to further swell their yields. The conquistador Coronado, when he visited the
Pecos Pueblo, estimate their storerooms to hold three years' supply in 1541. With a stable source
of food, the Pueblo communities grew, including some that housed thousands of people.
Early Colonization of the Americas
Although the Vikings made landfall on the North American coast, the first major attempt
at significant exploration and colonization of the New World took place by the Spanish.
Following Columbus' voyage to the Bahamas, several explorers, called conquistadors, made their
way to find their fortunes. Because the Spanish crown took 20% of all accumulated booty, there
was plenty of economic incentive to explore (Rice 8). Hernando Cortes conquered the Aztecs in
Mexico, acquiring their golden treasures accumulated by their king, Montezuma. Cortes killed
Montezuma as a demonstration of his power and also to eliminate the king as a potential rival for
the loyalties of the Aztec people. Francisco Coronado explored much of the American
Southwest on a quest for gold, including New Mexico, Arizona, and up into Kansas. Ponce de
Leon explored much of Florida in his 1513 quest to find the mythical fountain of youth; he
obviously did not.
Spain was attracted to the colonialization of the New World for two reasons. First and
foremost, the economic factor mentioned above-- gold. As Spain frequently found itself
competing on the world stage with other nations, money was needed to finance expeditions, as
well as the all-too-often war. Queen Isabella of Columbus fame financed his venture largely to
raise her own personal financial situation by the expected profits such a voyage would bring, for
example. Spain took advantage of the Treaty of Tordesillas line that divided the New World
holdings with Portugal, and explored the lands of the Americas in search of mines. Several were
found, and mints were established to coin the Spanish Empire's monies. Sites were established
in Potosi, Bolivia, Mexico City, and others.
Spanish Colonization of the Americas
Spain primarily colonized the Americas in three waves.
I. Initial probings
Attempts were made by some explorers, notably Balboa in 1513. His crossing and
exploration of the isthmus of Panama was the first large attempt at gauging the size and scope of
the growing empire.
II. Latin America
Hernando Cortes explored the area of Mexico, subjugating the Incas to the Spanish
throne and enslaving them in an effort to acquire their mineral wealth. Coronado explored the
American Southwest, including New Mexico and Arizona, up as far as Kansas. Still, there was
no strong movement yet to colonize north of Mexico. The first settlement the Spanish ever
founded came in 1493 on northeast Hispanola known as La Isabela. The first capital they ever
created, Santo Domingo, was established in 1496. (Milam 7)
III. South America
Pizarro defeated the Inca tribe, and established the city of Lima, Peru in 1535. The
important mining city of Potosi with its silver was quickly assimilated, and produced coins from
an early date.
By this time the Spanish empire in the New World stretched nearly 8000 miles, from the
Southern portion of South America to the fringes of North America. Her empire the largest in
the world, Spain controlled millions of people outside of her own borders. Because the crown
was very much involved in the settlement of the colonies (investment and tithes,) a board of
trade was established which controlled all aspects of trade with the colonies to insure the proper
payment was received by the crown. As an indicator of the importance Spain placed upon these
colonies, note that the highest level of government official below the king was that of the
viceroy, and there were two assigned to the New World, one in Peru, and one in New Spain
proper.
The social breakdown of the Spanish colonies worked as follows: the top level, called
peninsulares, was of native Spanish birth. Creoles were children of two Spanish parents, yet
born abroad. Mestizos were combinations of Spanish and Indian blood, although usually 1/4-1/3
Spanish blood. Native Americans made up half of the population, and the bottom was filled out
by imported Africans.
Spain's American empire was vital to her strength and growth. Colonies in the Americas
produced many valuable goods, including exotic dyes, sugar, tobacco, chocolate, pearls,
hardwoods, silver and gold. Most of these products were previously unavailable in the Old
World, and so their continued importation gave an enormous boost to Spain's treasury. Products
from Spain's colonies in the Pacific also were shipped from the Atlantic coastal ports, such as the
goods borne on the Spanish Philippines spice fleets, which docked at Acapulco, where the goods
would be carried overland to Veracruz. To get these products from the New World to Spain
required their loading at a coastal port such as Veracruz, Cartagena, San Juan, La Habana
(Havana), and then sailing along the Florida coast until using the Gulf Stream currents to return
them home to Cadiz. Travel back to the Americas was also aided by the use of strong ocean
currents that led to the Caribbean.
IV. North America
Spain's first foothold in North America followed the exploits of further adventurers and
safety-conscious officials. The first attempt at colonizing North America was begun in 1526,
when the Spanish attempted to establish a colony at what was called San Miguel de Guadalupe
near the Waccamow River in present-day central South Carolina. The colony suffered from
hunger and sickness, forcing its survivors to return to Spanish Hispanola the following year.
Spain's colony of Florida originally were much larger than the borders of the modern-day
sunshine state. As originally perceived, "Florida" ranged from the current peninsula north to
Newfoundland, and west to Mexico. (Lyon 1) Florida received its name from the day it was
landed upon, Easter (its Spanish translation is Florida) by its explorer, Juan Ponce de Leon. The
rights to Florida were made during Ponce de Leon's exploration, yet France settled first, at Fort
Caroline, in the year 1564. This fort, on the St. Johns River, unsettled the Spanish government
with its easy reach of vulnerable treasure fleets making their trek home to Spain. King Philip II
ordered Fort Caroline to be subdued, and sent Don Pedro Menendez de Aviles to accomplish the
attack and settle the area in 1565. After being rebuffed at first , Menendez sailed south and
established St. Augustine as his base to conduct attacks against the French. This founding
established the first permanent settlement in North America, and its purpose as the last northern
outpost of the Atlantic treasure fleets was taken very seriously. A raid by the French on the new
outpost was destroyed by a storm, leaving Fort Caroline with weakened defenses, and so it was
captured, and most of its inhabitants were executed following Menendez' move north overland to
take the forts. France's foothold in Florida was lost. England's Sir Francis Drake, Britain's most
notorious raider, attacked and burned St. Augustine in 1586. The city was attacked again in
1668 by British pirates, and with the British inching southward in settlements, including
Charleston in 1670, Spain built the Castillo de San Marcos in 1672, a large, permanent coquinastone fort that stands today. Several missions in Georgia were burned and St. Augustine was
attacked in the War of Spanish Succession in 1702, and despite the successful capture of the
town by the British, and a siege of the Castillo for 50 days, the Castillo survived, and Spain's
holdings remained secure again until yet another British attack in 1740. One difference in
Spain's and Britain's policies concerned slavery, as exemplified by the 1738 decision by Spain's
governor in Florida to grant runaway slaves their freedom, which they used to found the town of
Fort Mose. Britain was naturally upset over the loss of its property, and relations remained
strained.
While colonization had begun in Florida, the explorers of the American Southwest were
earnestly exploring and seeking lands and riches as well. In 1540, Hernando de Alvarado
followed the Rio Grande northward to explore. His more famous counterpart, Francisco
Vasquez de Coronado, came northward from Mexico searching for the famed seven cities of
Cibola. He brought with him a large contingent of 1200 troops, cooks, priests and animals,
exploring over the next year. Coronado's attempt to find the "Seven Cities of Gold" was
probably brought on by tales told by a shipwrecked Spanish sailor that had made his way back to
Mexico, and also by a Plains Indian captive that had tried to lure the Spaniards into the plains to
die (he was strangled for this offense). Coronado first attacked the pueblos of the Zunis, six
months after his trek began, and looted it for its supplies. He proceeded to the Pecos Pueblo,
where met with a strong welcome of singing and gifts, he spared them. Here he met and
acquired the slave that would lead him on to the Plains fruitlessly. Coronado returned to Mexico,
harassed by Indians and unsuccessful in his quest.
With the discovery of silver in Northern Mexico near 1581, interest in the area grew.
Whereas gold and silver were never found insufficient quantities, farming was a much better
livelihood. A stronger try at settlement began by 1598, culminating when Santa Fe was founded
in 1609-1610, making it the oldest capital city in the United States today. The young town grew
steadily, with its Place of Governors being built in 1610, and San Miguel Chapel in 1625, both
of these being the oldest continually used government building and chapel in the United States,
respectively.
Converting the local Indian groups to Christianity was a major goal of the Spaniards.
Early setbacks caused by overzealous leaders (some destroyed the local Indians' idols, fearing
heathenism) were overcome, and eventually, a strong Christian influence was put in place by
painstaking missionary work. Yet, the Spanish authorities also demanded allegiance to the king,
and this message of paying tribute to both the Christian God and the king created problems
between religious and civil authorities who had competing demands for the Indians' attention.
The Spanish succeeded in colonizing the area because of their ability to work with nearby
Indian groups. For instance, to win the support of the Hopi Indians, Spain's governor sided with
them against their enemies, the Utes and Navajos. Spain then defeated and befriended the
ferocious Comanches, then joined them against the Apaches. This caused the Navajos and
Apaches to attack each other, and ignore the efforts of the growing Spanish settlements. (Gibson
8)
Growing dissatisfaction with the Spanish authorities and influence in the southeastern
United States led to the Pueblo Revolt of 1680. Religious and civil authorities were attacked,
and driven back to Mexico. The Indians further demonstrated their resentment by building
religious structures called kivas in the missions. The Spanish return in 1692 saw a humbled
attitude, with the abolition of tribute payments that had been demanded previously, and was met
with some of the Pueblos' eagerness to have the Spanish settlements and missions return. When
the Spanish negotiated a treaty with the Comanche, settlements were made even further east, but
events on the other side of the continent and in Europe would overshadow this in the long run.
French colonization
French efforts at colonization were led by explorer Jacques Cartier in the 1500s. On his
first voyage in 1534, he sighted the Labrador coast. On his next visit in 1535, he explored the St.
Lawrence River, establishing Montreal and Quebec.(Grun 239) Of course, he found no great
civilizations or great wealth. Quebec was made into the first permanent colony in 1608, by
Samuel de Champlain. Robert de La Salle explored the Great Lakes in 1678, and claimed the
Louisiana territory and Mississippi valley for France in 1682. France also used the "two G's"
principle in colonization, seeking wealth, which they found especially in the fur trade, but also
by bringing with them Jesuit priests to convert the Indians they encountered to Christianity. St.
Louis was established primarily as a fur trading center for French couerer des bois, or "runners of
the woods" (trappers).
Louisiana's settlement began with the explorer Pierre le Moyne, Sieur d'Iberville, in 1699.
He followed the Mississippi River and claimed the land for France. New Orleans was made the
colony's capital in 1723. Louisiana would be transferred to the Spanish in 1763, but returned to
French control again in 1800. (Time Traveler, Feb. 1996, p. 58)
English colonization
Originally, English attempts consisted of harassing moves by "seadogs," who would raid
Spanish settlements and ships in the attempt to take what wealth they could. Chief among these
was Sir Francis Drake, who was given tacit permission to loot Spanish possessions and ships in
the Pacific. Returning to England with 2 millions pounds of plundered Spanish gold, Drake was
knighted for his efforts, infuriating Spain's King Phillip II. Drake sailed again in 1580 with 19
ships under his command, starting by sacking Vigo, Spain, continuing on to the Caribbean
(raiding Spanish vessels along the way). The fleet continued on, attacked Santo Domingo, and
eventually attacked and burned St. Augustine. With all of this done in defiance of a "peace" with
Spain, the enraged King Phillip II could do little else but declare war on England. (Milam 12)
Things changed in 1604, as 25 years of warfare with Spain ended, allowing England to
consider other avenues to explore. Because trade began to wane with the Benelux countries,
Britain turned to other nations for markets, at first trying the Mediterranean, and then Russia.
Needing an outlet for their products, Britain noticed with jealousy what her rivals Spain and
France were achieving. Initial attempts at colonial settlement failed, and it wasn't until 1607 that
Jamestown was founded as the first successful English colony, under the care of the Virginia
Company, a joint-stock company. A burst of colonialism ensued, as people emigrated to Ireland
and the Caribbean. Almost all of the colonies had "starving times", so-called from lack of food
caused by inappropriate planning for the winter months, when resupply by ship was impossible.
This "seasoning," a measure of a person's ability to survive the rough life in America, may have
been caused by malaria and dysentery.
NEW ENGLAND
New England was healthy by nature. The first inhabitants settled in Plymouth and
Massachusetts Bay colonies. Plymouth was founded and run by the "separatists," who wanted
nothing to do with the Church of England. More radical Puritans chose to keep the Church of
England, yet continue to reform it. Many of the original Pilgrims were laborers contracted by the
Virginia Company, yet on their voyage, over 50% died of various causes. As a group, the
Puritans had to work together from 30-40 years to pay off their debts incurred in the
establishment of their colony. Plymouth was incorporated into Massachusetts Bay in 1691.
John Winthrop aided in the development of the Massachusetts Bay colony by establishing
a company to be based in North America. Although royal charters were not to leave England,
the company founders snuck theirs out with them as they left. Their original goal was to
establish a Puritanical haven, as an example of what they thought Britain should eventually
resemble. One notable difference that contributed to their success was that the Puritans
emigrated with their families, both increasing the population while also preserving familial
bonds. From 1630 to 1643, the population swelled to 13,000. To guarantee success, the Puritans
brought their own supplies, including seeds and farm tools, a feature few colonial fathers thought
out in advance. Evidence of their bounty is borne out by comparing their birth rate and mortality
rate with that of the mother country.
Birth rate
Mortality rate
Mass.
2.7%
72 years
Eng.
1%
59-60 years
The Massachusetts Bay colony also had a very English-style government, but was still
referred to as the "Bible Commonwealth." There was no separation of church and state, as only
Puritan Church members received the vote, allowing only 40% of the male population to cast
ballots.(Rice 20) Anne Hutchinson's views regarding Calvinistic predestination were too
controversial and too much for the conservative Puritans, who banned her to Rhode Island.
Roger Williams went a step too far by advocating the separation of church and state, and was
similarly banned, where he founded the colony of Rhode Island.
Overall, their economic goal was an economic self-sufficiency, in order to receive less
pressure from Britain. To do so, they produced food, fish, and timber.
In one other area, Massachusetts was a leader again. In 1652, the colony became the first
to induct free and enslaved blacks into its militia. (Powell 61) This would not be the last
example of Massachusetts' ability to forge ahead of its times.
MIDDLE ATLANTIC
New Amsterdam was established in 1626 by the Dutch. In an effort to succeed, the
Dutch decided to open immigration for all Europeans. There was no official language or church.
18 languages overall were spoken. The wealthy citizens succeeded in persuading the crown to
grant large manorial-style holdings called patroons, of which there were ten. Each was staffed
by tenant farmers who paid yearly tithes. A series of bad governors weakened the colony, and
led to continual warfare with the Lenni Lenape Indians, as well as the Delawares. In 1664, the
New Netherlands surrendered to the British Duke of York, who renamed the colony New York.
New Jersey was granted to Berkeley and Cateret, who split the land into West and East Jersey.
The land was reunited after being made a crown colony in 1702.
Pennsylvania was granted to William Penn to repay a debt owed to Penn's deceased
father. Within 19 years, the colony had grown to 21,000 residents.
Maryland was founded in March 1634, governed by St. Mary's City. The land itself was
former Yaocomaco Indian land, and the 140 Catholic and Protestant settlers on board the Ark
and supply ship Maryland Dove were grateful to settle there. The colony was established by
Cecil Calvert, the second Lord Baltimore, as a haven for Catholics fleeing religious persecution
in England. This problem forced the new settlers to erect a fort for their defense against
Protestant Virginian settlers nearby. Virginians led by William Claiborne and Richard Ingle
attacked the city in 1645, claiming it for Virginia, but the city was retaken by Leonard Calvert.
(Stanford 54) Until 1695, the colony was owned and ruled by the Calverts, and became the first
to allow religious freedom in the English colonies. (Miller 46) By 1704, however, this toleration
had ended due to new legislation from the new capital at Annapolis. (47)
South Atlantic
Georgia was founded by James Oglethorpe. With the threat of Spanish settlements
nearby, Oglethorpe led an expedition to attack St. Augustine in 1740, lasting 27 days, yet was
unsuccessful.
Indentured Servitude
Indentured servitude perhaps contributed the most to overall immigration to the English
colonies. Combined with the higher birthrate mentioned above, note the following statistic:
year 1730
1750
1770
pop. 629,000
1,017,000
2,148,000
In essence, every 20 years, the population would double itself.
More than 1/2 of all arrivals south of New England fell into this category. As English
industry, especially in manufacturing, grew, unemployment rose steadily. Some recruiting
agents, known as "spirits", sought out the dispossessed and less fortunate as passengers to
America. Drunks would be walked aboard, children lured by candy, and fantastic promises
made to the easily-convinced. In addition, both criminals and fugitives sought refuge and
passage away from their past. (Hofsteader 60)
Within sight of land, many of the passengers experienced a shocking fate. Only those
who had the wherewithal to pay for their entire trip were allowed to disembark, while the others
were held until sold off to the highest bidder. Some parents were forced to sell their children to
other masters other than their own to pay their costs of 10 pounds, while the selling cost reached
13. (Hofsteader 45)
Overall the mortality rate of the crossing can be considered very high. One example was
made of a minister in the New Netherlands, who sent back each of his sons to be ordained in
Amsterdam. Of the five sons, only two survived the travel. (Hofsteader 80) Provisions were
stocked for 14 weeks, but this did not always last. As some ships encountered poor weather, or
for some other reason were taken off course, starvation became a real threat. Water would turn
stale, butter rancid, and meat rotten, especially in the hotter summer months. Another example,
the Love and Unity, left port with 150 passengers from Europe, and upon reaching shore nearly a
year later, had 34 souls left. Things reached such poor proportions that water, rats and mice were
sold among the crew and passengers. Belfast's Sea Flower left with 106 passengers, of which 46
died of starvation, of which 6 were cannibalized. (Hofsteader 41-42)
One Georgia philanthropic group, concerned with the health problems that the servants
faced on their trip overseas, organized a relief of sorts. They provided turnips, carrots, onions
and potatoes for the trip over, in order to prevent scurvy. By 1741, of the 1500 people they had
sponsored to come over, only 6 had died on the trip.
{
Slavery existed in the early Americas, but unlike the later generations of incoming slaves,
Virginia and Maryland's slaves were typically freed after 7 years of service or following their
conversion to Christianity. By 1660, the situation had changed, and statutes in those colonies
reflected the classical belief that slavery was a lifetime condition, was passed onto children from
the mother, and that baptism did not change the slave's rights whatsoever. (Stampp 22)}
Mercantilist laws prohibited the colonies from manufacturing goods from raw materials
so as not to compete with established native English industries. These laws were designed to
keep the mother country economically superior to the colonies that were existing at the whim of
the king. Examples of manufactured goods prohibited from sale in other colonies and mother
country included wool in the Woolen Act of 1699, hats in the Hat Act of 1732, and anything but
crude iron in the 1750 Iron Act. (Gordon 30)
FRENCH AND INDIAN (SEVEN YEARS) WAR
At the conclusion of the war, Spain gave Florida to Great Britain in return for La Habana,
Cuba.
When the First Continental Congress ended, Committees of Safety were formed to
enforce the boycott of British goods.
In February of 1775, the British government declared Massachusetts "in rebellion," and it
fell to Lord North, the British prime minister, to offer some form of a peace plan. The offer was
made to end Parliamentary taxes with the exception of trade taxes, as long as the colonies found
a way of their own to make up the rest. In the following month, Parliament passed the
Restraining Act, which would force New England to trade with only the Mother Country or other
British colonies, such as the West Indies. (Rice, Vol. I, 61)
The double messages sent by London did little to reassure the colonists, and when word
was received that the British were concerned about the militia's storage of weapons would be
used against their troops, the final nail was driven into the deteriorating relationship that existed.
The British redcoats were ordered to march on the armory, located in Concord, New Hampshire.
Warnings of the impending attack went out to the minutemen, citizen-soldiers trained to be ready
to fight and out the door within a minute of receiving notification. Carrying these warnings were
Paul Revere AND OTHERS. The militia dug into position on one side of the Lexington Bridge,
along the route the British would be taking to impound the arms. When the British appeared, the
Battle of Lexington had begun, the first armed clash in what would become the American
Revolution. Between both the American and British forces, Lexington produced 1,000
casualties, but the real impact came in the famous "shot heard 'round the world," the fight for the
world's first democracy. Following the skirmish in Lexington, the British regrouped and pressed
on to the now-alerted Concord armory, and were met by further militia groups, who routed them.
The British soldiers were stunned by the American militia's refusal to fight European-style (in an
open plain, with clear rows of soldiers shooting at each other.) Instead, the Americans used
tactics developed against the Indians, and used walls, trees, and other defensive protection to
launch attacks.
By May of 1775, pockets of militia resistance had begun asserting themselves, and taking
action. Ethan Allen led Vermont's Green Mountain Boys to attack and capture the strategic Fort
Ticonderoga, which controlled access to the Hudson River. In addition, Americans were
successful in taking over the British fort at Crown Point, New York.
Diplomacy fails
The Second Continental Congress reconvened after the armed resistance had begun.
Many countries watched interestedly to see what the result would be, and this session would not
disappoint. An offer to peaceably settle the situation, the Olive Branch Petition, was sent to
London,
proposing
(insert information)
Despite the peaceful offer, King George refused to read it, and declared all of the colonies in
open revolt in November. To reinforce the 15,000 troops present in the colonies, another 25,000
were sent to restore order and end the rebellion. (Rice, Vol. I, 62) In addition, he contracted with
his cash-strapped German relatives to hire thousands of Hessian soldiers as mercenaries to
provide further strength. December was no better, because the king, seeing no attempt at
reconciliation from the revolting colonists, issued the Prohibitive Acts, which ordered the closing
of all American ports by the British Navy.
In June of 1776 work was begun on the formal process of separation from England at the
suggestion of Virginian Henry Lee; the task of writing the document fell to fellow Virginian
Thomas Jefferson. The reasons for the long delay from Lexington to the forthcoming
Declaration of Independence mainly came from a hope things would be settled, and for several
reasons:
a) attachment to the Mother Country that had founded and nurtured the colonies for years;
b) a fear that anarchy and despotism would occur without the British government's control;
c) hopes that new ministers and government officials sympathetic to America's requests would
take power in London;
d) commercial traders were not interested in losing their profitable trade with the British empire;
e) poor communications systems used by colonies to their congressional delegates.
Anti-British sentiment, however, was little abated by the hiring of the Hessians, or the closing of
ports, or the incitement of Indian attacks on western settlements by the British. This was done to
distract the colonists, as well as tie up militia groups. Ineffective and despotic government by a
long series of pro-England, pompous royal governors also did little to cool the flames of war.
(Rice, Vol.I, 63)
German mercenary soldiers hired by the British government comprised "nearly half of
the British fighting force in America in 1776." Hired because recruiting was down from constant
years of warfare, King George III found himself in the situation of needing troops to control his
restive colonies in America. In all, he hired nearly 30,000 troops from the rulers of HesseCassel, Hesse-Hanau, Brunswick-Luneberg, Anspach-Bayreauth, Anhalt-Zerbst, and Walbeck.
Because the great majority came from the first two principalities, the name "Hessians" was
applied. (Brill 21) The rulers who hired out their troops profited handsomely, especially the
Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, whose 16,000 troops earned him over three million British pounds
sterling in payment. (Brill 22)
The first Hessian soldiers sailed for America in April of 1776, and these first soldiers
were among the best the German princes could offer. Later shipments included victims of
kidnapping and conscription, as well as men found to be "undesirable" in their communities.
These later soldiers were obviously of lesser quality and had less loyalty than their predecessors.
Many of the arriving German soldiers found America to be pleasant and beautiful, with one
writing, "The wealth of the inhabitants was apparent everywhere." Another wrote, "I can form
no mental picture of an earthly paradise without including the jerseys and Long Island." In
fairness, not all of the arrivals found America so lovely, especially the officer class, because of
their unfamiliarity with the American concept of all men being created equal. The Americans, for
their part, were not always hospitable. (Brill 23) Yet, as the two communities grew accustomed
to each other, the situation improved. A planned campaign to encourage Hessian desertions was
undertaken and proved successful. Nearly 5,000 deserted or stayed behind with their monarch's
permission when the war was over. (Brill 70)
The American Revolution
{5,000 blacks fought for the United States. (Powell 61)}
Spain played an important role in the revolution as an ally prepared to provide both
supplies and military muscle to combat the British. Spain would contribute two million dollars,
cannons, ammunition, and men. The Spanish governor of Louisiana closed the Mississippi to the
British in the Battle of Pensacola during 1781. New Orleans was opened to American trade and
use, while Spain also attacked British settlements in both West and East Florida. Spain financed
the Marquis de Lafayette's trip to the U.S., on a Spanish vessel sailing from Pasajes, Spain.
(Milam 9)
The British held Florida successfully throughout the war, yet were forced to return it to
Spain as part of the conditions established by the Treaty of Paris 1783.
Russian Colonization begins on the West Coast
As America was beginning its experience of self-rule, another European country began
its American colonization efforts in Alaska. In 1783, Grigory Ivanovich Shelikhov established
Russia's first colony on Kodiak island in order to exploit the rich otter and seal fur trapping
resources of the rugged Alaskan region. Sixteen years later, the Russian-American Company
was founded by a group including Shelikhov's widow and also his main competitor, and
chartered by Czar Paul I. (Dillon 37) The colony at Kodiak was replaced by one at Sitka Island,
named New Archangel. (38) The Russians would continue to explore the region, and once fur
stocks were depleted, would also establish an outpost in California in March of 1812. (39)
The Articles of Confederation Government
(1783-1789)
Characteristics
The government established by the Articles was substantially different than what is found
in the United States today. For example, in place of three branches of government, power
resided in one legislative body, its members elected their respective state legislatures. Each state
could send from two to seven delegates, yet each state only was allowed one vote when decisions
had to be made. The Congress was given the ability to make war or peace, coin money, establish
post offices, and oversee Indian affairs, much like Congress' power today. In addition to these
responsibilities, the current executive duties of sending and receiving ambassadors, as well as the
authority to make treaties and alliances was granted. It seemed as if Congress would have strong
powers for the new nation, but this was not the case.
The political climate in the late 1770s, in the midst of a revolutionary war from
monarchical Britain, was not one that welcomed strong central government powers. King
George III's abuses of power, and the indifferent attitude shown to the colonies were legitimate
fears of a country that had been forced to bend to these policies with little hope of individual
and/or local rights. To keep the new government from assuming too much power, provisions
were put into place to keep the central government dependent upon the states to succeed. For
instance, the new American government could not levy taxes for any reason; instead, specific
sums of money could be requested from each state, with the state having the right to refuse or
partially grant the request. Also, the Articles prohibited the country from regulating business.
This last rule allowed each state to enforce its own trade laws and policies, potentially confusing
for businessmen with national sales efforts. Amendments to the Articles would require a
unanimous vote; major issues had to pass with a 2/3 approval from the states.
Within the document, each state was granted its own sovereignty, freedom and
independence, and all powers not specifically granted by the Articles were given to the states
(very similar to later constitutional reserved powers). A common defense and welfare issues of
common interest were called for, and state and personal liberties were to be guaranteed.
The Articles were approved by the Second Continental Congress in 1777, but final
approval from the states took until 1781. The French government had to be assured until then a
viable national government had been established, in order to continue their secret aid to the
young American republic.
Articles in action
The Congress took over the reins of power, and proceeded to continue the coordination of
the war effort. With the war winding down in favor of the Americans in late 1782, Benjamin
Franklin was instructed to meet with the British representative in Paris to negotiate an end to the
war. Franklin, already in France to raise support for the American cause, was joined by John
Adams and John Jay. Ordered by Congress to work with the French to produce a settlement, Jay
instead quietly struck deals with eager British representatives desiring to crack the relationship
between their capable foes. The resulting Treaty of Paris 1783 officially ended the war, with the
United States having been granted all lands east of the Mississippi in recompense for the war by
the British.
Federalist Politics
The election of George Washington in 1789 established the short reign of the Federalist
party. Followed by John Adams, the last Federalist president, Washington relied mainly on the
advice of his secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton. Hamilton
{
The world's first hotel opened in New York City, in 1794-96. Called the city hotel, it
boasted 73 rooms on five floors (Gregory 172)}
{
During the Quasi-War with France, the United States sent two of its frigates to the Cape
of Good Hope to protect American merchant shipping. (Palmer 2)}
Jefferson in Power
(1800-1808)
Jefferson favored strict interpretation of the Constitution originally, as in opposing the
Bank of the United States, but he wasn't doctrinaire about it in power.
He supported loose construction when he believed it was in the national interest, as in the
purchase of Louisiana. He reversed Federalist policies like:
a) got Congress to repeal the excise tax on whiskey;
b) curtailed army and navy expenditures to help Treasury Secretary Gallatin reduce the
national debt;
c) secured the repeal of the Naturalization Act, permitting the Alien and Sedition Acts to expire,
while pardoning persons imprisoned under these laws;
d) replaced some Federalist officeholders with Democrat-Republicans;
e) repealed the Judicial Act, removing the layer of the judiciary with the midnight judges.
(Gordon 167)
He DID continue to :
a) allow the Bank of the U.S. to continue uninterrupted, and pay the debt fully;
b) kept up our neutrality, saying in his inaugural address "peace, commerce, and honest
friendships with all nations, entangling alliances with none." (Gordon 168)
DOMESTIC AFFAIRS
Jefferson worked to reduce the debt of $83 million. To do this, the number of diplomatic
missions overseas was cut from 7 to 3. Also, the army was cut by a third to 3312. (He believed
standing armies were inherently dangerous as a power against the government, and that militias
were sufficient enough to defend the country.) The navy was cut to 6 ships, to pose less threat to
Europe, and appear defensive in nature. In 1802, the military portion of the budget was half of
the amount allocated in 1800. The Judiciary Act of 1801 created 10 new positions on the
federal district court system, as well as a new category of appellate circuit court of appeals. It
also reduced the Supreme Court by one justice. The Judiciary Act of 1802 replaced the previous
one, designating one Supreme Court justice and district court judge to oversee the circuit courts.
2 federal judges were targeted for their critical attacks on Jefferson and his policies, and attempts
were made to impeach them. The first, John Pickering of New Hampshire, was removed easily
due to his being mentally deranged, yet Salmon P. Chase kept his job after the Senate failed to
follow the House's impeachment of him based on partisanship. (Rice 103)
In an effort to improve the officer quality of the United States military, Jefferson created
the first service academy. The United States Military Academy, also known as West Point,
opened in 1802, training future officers of the United States Army. (Rice, Vol.I, 115)
Jefferson did have a problem with congressional Democrat-Republicans during his
second term, who believed he was too Federalistic. The opposition was led by John Randolph of
Virginia, who strongly believed in strict construction and states' rights. (Rice 108)
LOUISIANA PURCHASE
Louisiana was useful to the west thanks to the ability to move goods easier, and also from
Pinckney's Treaty with Spain. 50,000 Americans used it for shipping goods, making it vital
economically. However, in 1800, Napoleon gained La., and suspended the right of deposit
granted in Pinckney's Treaty. There had been talk of aiding France against the Haitians to
promote a secure hemisphere, but that idea was canceled with word of the secret cession by
Spain. He believed New Orleans so vital that he warned if the French would not sell, "we must
marry ourselves to the British fleet and nation." (Rice 105)
Jefferson believed that the foreign nation holding New Orleans was " our natural and habitual
enemy." He thus ordered Livingstone and Monroe to Paris to negotiate for New Orleans and
western Florida. Napoleon had already decided to sell, due to:
a) the costs of operations in Europe against England;
b) the fact that resupplying the colony was impossible while England ruled the seas;
c) armies could not defend the empire- as the Haitian revolt proved;
d) Louisiana and Haiti were supposed to work together, providing markets and
resources for the other, now not possible.
In the event France would not sell, the two had orders to secretly negotiate with the British for an
alliance against the French. (Gordon 168)
Besides the $2 million (they were allowed to go as high as 10) appropriated to buy New
Orleans and west Florida, funds were also approved to increase the army and riverboats able to
conduct riparian warfare. Napoleon shocked our delegates with the offer for the whole territory
for $15 million, they agreed without presidential approval sensing the opportunity. The treaty
was signed in May, although Jefferson was upset because the Constitution did not give the
federal government the power to purchase territory. Suggesting an amendment, but fearing the
opportunity could be lost if the French withdrew the proposal, he took it. Congress ratified the
plan in October, and the transfer came in December. Opposition was made slightly by the
Federalists fearing an eventual loss of their power.
FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Tripoli declared war on the United States in 1802, harassing and burning our ships in the
Mediterranean. Jefferson retaliated by ordering the construction of hundreds of light vessel
gunboats, known as the mosquito fleet. Four regular naval ships were sent to the region in the
meantime. The navy quickly defeated the Barbary pirates, and the crisis ended.
In Europe, both Britain and France took their conflict with each other to us, restricting
American trade with each other. Britain issued the Orders in Council in April of 1806,
forbidding trade with France, and allowing the halt of American ships with goods bound for their
enemy's ports. Napoleon followed suit, with the Berlin and Milan decrees. France's Berlin
Decree, issued in November 1806, attempted to emulate the British Orders, by forbidding trade
with Britain or her possessions, and allowing the seizure of ships that came into French waters
from British ports. The Milan Decree of December 1807 made all ships that had paid a tax to
Britain or obeyed the orders in Council legal targets for search, seizure, and sinkings. Britain
was in far better position to enforce its declaration, thanks to its far superior fleet, and did not
hesitate to do so. Altogether, 1500 ships were eventually lost to these rules. (Rice 111)
In addition to the problems with international trade, Britain reserved the right to stop
American ships at any time to search for naval deserters. Because conditions in the British navy
were poor, many sailors jumped ship for the chance at better pay and better working conditions
including no more threats of being whipped for punishments. Many of these sailors joined
American ships when they docked in foreign ports, creating the problem. If the British found
deserters, or even people they thought were, they would impress them back into service. Many
innocent Americans were kidnapped this way. While Jefferson complained, the British
continued, even stopping the U.S.S. Chesapeake, a ship of the U.S. Navy, within sight of the
Virginia coast in June of 1807. (Rice 111) The British ship, the Leopard, took four sailors, of
whom three were U.S. citizens. (Gordon 170) As a result of the following furor from Jefferson,
the British agreed to return the sailors and compensate for damages. Yet despite this action,
Britain continued the practice, a constant thorn in the side of Anglo-American relations.
As a result of continued British and French seizures, Jefferson hastily ordered the
Embargo Act of 1807 into existence in December of that year. The Act forbade all exports and
imports of goods by sea, in an attempt to deprive either France or Britain of opportunities to take
their ships. In addition, the threat of impressment was thus thwarted. The president's hope was
to make these powers recognize their dependence on both American goods and sales, yet neither
side changed position as a result of this "peaceful coercion."
Hardest hit by the Embargo was the Northeast, dependent upon trade, shipping, and
shipbuilding as its livelihood. As a Federalist stronghold, the party of Washington and Adams
achieved great success in noting the effects upon their constituents. In New York, even
Republicans were spilt over the issue. New Englanders were understandably shocked by the
Force Act of 1809, which permitted federal officials to seize goods they suspected may have had
a destination overseas, reached via smugglers. Federalist New England, resistant to the Virginia
and Kentucky resolutions, began debating the same principles of states' rights vs. the federal
government, an apparent borrowing of a convenient philosophy. Nullification debates were even
heard in February 1809, after two years of the hated embargo. Three days before his term ended,
Jefferson signed the Non intercourse Act of 1809, allowing trade with all nations except the two
nations, and alleviating pressure built by the Federalists. He then left matters to his successor,
his Secretary of State, James Madison. (Morison 102)
James Madison
(1809-1817)
Political Power
Madison was a gifted writer and legal scholar, but was poorly suited to the tasks of
managing the country. In his defense, Madison inherited several unresolved foreign policy
issues from Jefferson, but was not able to solve them by his own efforts. Although the
Federalists were steadily losing ground, his great fear of providing them with political
ammunition allowing their comeback haunted his actions. The Virginia president would reverse
decisions, as in the Bonus Bill, believing the Constitution needed added amendments for the
federal government to pursue and use the powers it had evolved.
Domestic Politics
Federal power continued to be tested in the courts. The case of Fletcher v. Peck, in
1810, did affirm the Supreme Court's right to review state laws and determine their
constitutionality. The case had arisen over colonial grants voided by New Hampshire, and
restored by the Supreme Court's decision.
In the congressional elections of 1810, dissatisfaction with Madison's performance was
measured in the support given to his political allies. In a sweeping indictment, older members of
Congress, nearly half of which had supported the Macon's Bill vote and long Republican
supporters, were pushed aside by younger candidates eager to avenge the national honor.
(Morison 107) Known as the War Hawks, most of this new generation of lawmakers came from
the Republican strongholds of the South and emerging West. Led by Henry Clay of Kentucky
and John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, they quickly took the reins of power, electing Clay to
the Speakership of the House. United by frustration with ineffective, continued economic
alternatives to war, as well as hostility towards Indians along the western borders believed to be
aided by the British, the War Hawks pushed for war with Britain. Another goal was the
continued expansion of the United States, to ensure the abundant supply of available farmland in
the interior and freedom from attacks by Indians, as well as the removal of all non-American
territories (Spanish Florida, British Canada) from the United States' path. In order to accomplish
these goals, one of their immediate achievements was the passage of funds increasing the size of
the army to 25,000. (Morison 108)
Indian Problems Increase War Fever
Alarmed by the constant stream of settlers flooding into Indian lands, native Americans
began to organize amongst themselves a system of intertribal defense and cooperation. This was
especially necessary given that while the Indians in the Ohio River Valley could muster 4,000
braves, there were 100,000 white men of fighting age in the same region. (Morison 109) Under
the Harrison Land Act of 1800, land ownership of former Indian lands became easier to achieve.
(Rice 113) The author of that law, William Henry Harrison, was appointed governor of the
Indiana Territory, and successfully oversaw the withdrawal of the Indians westward such that
between 1795 to 1809 the Indians parted with 48 million acres of land. JeffersonianRepublicanism depended upon the continued strength of an agrarian economy, and these lands
were the means to do it. (Morison 109) Thomas Jefferson and his party eventually adopted the
policy That gave the Native Americans three choices with regards to their culture, land and way
of life:
A) Be assimilated into the United States and adopt the ways of the whites;
B) Move peacefully to the Mississippi River (and then across to the West soon thereafter);
C) Be destroyed.
In response, a Shawnee chief, Tecumseh, organized a confederation of Indian tribes in the
Mississippi River Valley to promote Native American culture and resist continued resettlement,
which thus far had been achieved relatively easily. Aided by his brother, Tenskwatawa, also
known as the Prophet, he advocated a return to the life they had known. Tecumseh believed, as
most Indians did, that land ownership was impossible, that "<it> belongs to us all...it was never
divided, but belongs to us all. No tribe has the right to sell, even to each other, much less to
strangers...Why not sell the air...the great sea...as well as the earth?" (quoted in Conlin 113) In
July of 1811, Tecumseh met with Harrison, and assured him that his reasons were purely
defensive in nature as he and his followers moved south to enter discussions with the Creek
Indians. Harrison and his men followed closely behind, camping within sight of each other, and
with tensions already high, a skirmish broke out that turned into the battle of Tippecanoe. With
superior numbers and armament on the side of the settlers, this November 1811 battle was used
as an excuse to renew attacks on Indian settlements and against the British who had been arming
them (reports were filed of British ammunition and arms being found following the battle). The
new British governor general of Canada welcomed Tecumseh after he had escaped from
Tippecanoe, allowing him to rest and gather supplies. (Morison 109) This did not sit well with
American settlers, and demands grew louder for action against Britain from the interior of the
country.
Foreign Relations Problems
The new president quickly faced the issues of continued French and British violations of
American freedom of the seas. The policy of making allowances for European demands was
referred to as "peaceable coercion" during this time, and was the immediate problem. (Rice, Vol.
I, 112) However, his actions were hasty as in the Erskine Fiasco of 1809. The British minister
to Washington, David Erskine, met with Madison early during his administration, negotiating an
end to the trade crisis. Believing that Erskine represented the views of the British Foreign
Ministry, Madison agreed to end the embargo against Britain, and continue with an embargo
against France, in return for the repeal of the hated Orders in Council. Erskine did not, however,
reveal the full wishes of the London government, and when American ships were being taken as
usual, the heat under Madison grew stronger. Parliament, for its part, never passed the
agreement.
Macon's Bill # Two produced an economic inducement to persuade the foreign powers to
end their practices. Under the terms of the Bill, passed in May 1810, the United States was free
to trade with any country. The change included a clause that if our neutral shipping was harassed
by other nations, the president could impose an immediate embargo upon that country until the
offending nation changed its policies. In addition, trade with the other nation (France or Britain)
would then resume at full strength. Obviously, it was in both countries' best interests to repeal
their laws, for the slower of the two would face the American embargo. Napoleon was the first
to do so, ordering that the law would be changed on November 1, 1810, as written in the Cadore
letter to Madison. Napoleon had no intention of changing the rules, however, and French ships
continued to stop and capture U.S. vessels. Pro-British Federalists protested to Washington, but
Madison held firmly to the conviction that the British-only embargo would continue owing to the
fact that Napoleon had complied with Macon's Bill, at least in word, not in deed. Madison went
further, announcing that Britain had to comply with the American provision within three months
after the receipt of the Cadore letter, or sanctions would begin. John Quincy Adams, American
ambassador to Russia, warned Madison in vain that France was baiting the U.S. and
untrustworthy. He wrote that Napoleon's plan was simply "a trap to catch us into a war with
England." (Morison 106) Madison continued down the chosen path, and declared Britain under
an American embargo on March 2, 1811.
On paper, the United States was in relatively decent shape for war, although the British
navy ruled the seas. To match the British navy, the Americans could call on 6 frigates, 3 sloops
of war, and seven other ocean-going vessels in 1813. The army totaled 7,000 men, as opposed to
5,000 British soldiers based in Canada. As a final figure, the total population England could
count on in North America was less than half of a million, while the U.S. enjoyed a prosperous
7.5 million. Clearly, if the United States would be able to attack quickly and seize the
advantage, the war would clearly start in their favor. (Morison 111)
Another naval armed clash occurred with Britain in May of 1811. The U.S.S. President,
a frigate, engaged the H.M.S. Little Belt, a smaller corvette, with embarrassing results. The
President was easily outmaneuvered and less-skilled, earning it an embarrassing defeat. With
this battle occurring not long after the Chesapeake-Leopard battle, it further inflamed passions
against the British. (Morison 106)
It was at this time that a very unfortunate event took place in England. The winter of
1811-1812 proved to be unusually cold in England, causing shortages of food and other
necessary materials made worse by the French, who had blockaded all European ports used by
England with the exception of Portugal. With crop failures and little trade, public sentiment in
Britain faded from disdain to hopefulness towards America. The British prime minister,
desperate to help his people, prepared negotiator and American supporter Lord Castlereigh to
leave for the United States. However, just after he had made his decision to end the Orders in
Council, the prime minister was assassinated and replaced by a less-conciliatory official.
(Morison 107)
In addition to France and England, Madison also engaged in activities that enraged the
Spanish government. Long a base for Indian attacks coming from Spanish territory and a haven
for escaping slaves, Florida lay quietly to the south, a victim of weakening Spanish influence in
the Americas. Claiming that a portion of Spanish-held western Florida was in fact American
territory included in the Louisiana Purchase, the president accepted into the Union territory
including Baton Rouge that had revolted against Spanish rule and "self-determined" to join the
United States. (Morison 105) A second piece was also taken in May of 1812, between the Pearl
and Perdido Rivers.
The War of 1812
The first efforts undertaken in the War of 1812 by the United States centered on Canada.
Because of the light defenses built by England, Canada appeared to be an easy target, and home
to people who might also wish to be free of the British yoke. In the summer of 1812, a threepronged attack was launched that was to fail miserably. General William Hull, the governor of
the Michigan territory, was an aged veteran of the Revolutionary War, and appointed a general.
His campaign against Ontario was quickly ended by his surrender of Detroit, and now one of the
thrusts into Canada was halted. Generals Smythe and Van Rensselaer's charge near Niagara,
New York was similarly defeated, and the final attempt was launched by General Dearborn, who
never even crossed the border on his way to attack Montreal before his force was turned back by
heavy resistance. Two forts, Mackinac (at the base of Lakes Michigan and Huron) and Dearborn
(present-day Chicago) also fell, destroying any hope the Americans had of a quick, decisive
victory before the arrival of British reinforcements.
With American morale and hope deteriorating, and the armies and militias unable to
complete their objectives, the navy unexpectedly gave the young country a morale boost. The
navy proved successful in taking control of Lakes Ontario and Erie in 1813. With this
opportunity, U.S. troops headed in April to York, Ontario, the capitol. The effort was not
coordinated well, and the entire assault amounted to some burned ships and buildings before the
American soldiers went home. The burning of these properties in York, including a government
building, were later used as justification by the British for what happened to Washington.
The efforts to rally America once again fell to the navy. Captain Oliver Hazard Perry led
his sailors in the construction of naval ships along Lake Erie, and when finished, led this small
squadron into combat in the battle of Lake Erie. His decisive defeat of the British ended their
supply routes and forced their evacuation from Detroit, which returned to American control.
With this success, William Henry Harrison, now commanding all military forces in the West,
pushed across the Michigan upper peninsula into Canada, routing the British and their Indian
allies at the battle of the Thames in September 1813. A significant result of this battle was the
demoralization of the Indians, caused by the death of the new British brigadier general
Tecumseh.
Actions at sea
Within the first six months of the war, the surprising American navy were achieving
unexpected success. American frigates succeeded in capturing five British ships, while U.S.
privateers took 300 merchantmen. Captain Isaac Hull, commanding the U.S.S. Constitution,
engaged the larger British man-of-war H.M.S. Guerriere, and gave the U.S. its first success
against the feared British naval fleet at sea. Yet the success was not to last. With the collapse of
the war in Europe, Britain was able to turn its full attention and military force towards the upstart
United States. Britain had little difficulty in unleashing its naval strength, and by the spring of
1814, an effective blockade of American ports had been established, with the exception of New
England. The New Englanders were not so much in favor of war from the start, and even traded
openly with Britain and Canada.
Britain's Year of Success-1814
Taking a page from an earlier United States game plan, British forces planned a threepronged attack on the United States. One assault was to enter from Canada, one would invade
and attack from Chesapeake Bay, and the third from the mouth of the Mississippi River. Action
by naval captain Thomas MacDonough ended the assault through the Northeast in the battle of
Plattsburgh, during September 1814.
The assault on the Chesapeake Bay region was far more successful. What little resistance
was offered by local defenders was easily brushed aside, as the British marched on Washington.
Determined to crush the morale of the United States by the seizure of its capitol, British
commanders also hoped to capture the president and congressional leaders. They almost
succeeded. Dolly Madison, wife of the president, barely had enough time to save a White House
portrait of George Washington before forced to flee with her husband and the government. The
arriving British troops found a still-warm dinner set out for the Madisons, ate it leisurely, and
then set fire to the executive mansion. Much more of Washington was burned before the British
were forced to retreat, due to a possibility of attack on the resupply train and defensive fleet.
Fresh from the battles of Europe came the soldiers of Sir Edward Pakenham. His orders
were to seize the mouth of the Mississippi at New Orleans, bottling up the West, and providing a
back door for British attacks. Facing him was American general Andrew Jackson. Jackson
hastily organized a defense of the city, enlisting anyone able to fight-slaves, soldiers, militia, and
Jean Lafitte's pirates, promised clemency for their efforts if success was to be had. Jackson had
proven his ability against the Creek Indians in March of 1814, and against the Spanish against
their fortifications in Pensacola. The Battle of New Orleans came in January of 1815, with the
Americans holding firm behind their strong defenses and the advantages provided by the western
long rifle. American casualties were eight dead, and 13 wounded to Pakenham's 700 dead, 1400
wounded, and 500 captured. This ended the military efforts of the War of 1812.
Peace at Ghent
With neither side really gaining much ground, and popular support for war waning in the
face of other potential adversaries, negotiators met at Ghent, Belgium beginning in 1814. The
United States was chiefly represented by John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay. At first, as
events favored the British, England's demands to end the war called for the United States to give
up Maine and part of New Hampshire to start. The Great Lakes were also to be controlled by the
British, and no American ships were to use the Newfoundland fishing banks. Finally, a buffer
state belonging to the Indians was to be created south of the Canadian border. (Rice, Vol. I, 118)
As the United States continued to battle back from defeats, American demands surfaced
as well. Adams countered by demanding Canada and help in getting Spain to recognize
American neutrality rights. With neither side conceding much, and neither side achieving a
knockout blow militarily, the Treaty of Ghent was signed on Christmas Eve, 1814, before the
battle of New Orleans. When word of the treaty reached the United States, already heady with
excitement over Jackson's success, it was cheered loudly. With the treaty calling for a return to
pre-war boundaries and relations, the war didn't really seem that great a success for the small
nation. Yet, in retrospect, the War of 1812 showed the United States would stand up for itself
and that it could stand on its own against a superior foreign nation. (Rice, Vol. I, 118)
Disunion during the War of 1812
Many citizens of the Northeast believed the war was the result of those opposed to
Northern commercial interests. While no military support was raised to aid Britain, banks and
businesses formed boycotts against bond sales raising money for the war. Farmers even sold
their products to the British army. Daniel Webster, a powerful Federalist from Massachusetts,
called the war unnecessary. As a result, calls for an end to the war led to the Hartford
Convention. (Rice, Vol. I, 118)
Federalists from Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire, and
Vermont gathered in Hartford, Connecticut to seek an end to war. One option even called for
secession! In all, these Federalists called for three ideas. One sought to end the practice of using
slaves to count in population counts for congressional representation (3/5 rule), another sought to
increase the amount of states needed to declare war, allow a state into the Union, or impose
commercial restrictions (which typically had been aimed at the commercial North). The final
plank demanded that presidents could only serve for one term, and that no state could have two
citizens elected to the office of president consecutively. The final demand obviously sought to
end the "Virginia Dynasty" that had produced Washington, Jefferson, and Madison, while other
states, presumably northern ones, would be given the opportunity. (Rice, Vol. I, 118)
Two events overshadowed the Hartford demands. Andrew Jackson's victory at New
Orleans put the country in a euphoric mood, and the announcement of the end of the war by the
Treaty of Ghent continued the mood. With few people interested in the demands of the everdistant Federalists, the Hartford Convention received little attention and support, one of the last
dying gasps of the shrinking Federalist party.
Postwar foreign actions
Following the War of 1812, with the threat of Britain and France diminished, the military
began to take on some changes to reflect the needs of the nation. The army was increased to
guard against future land attacks similar to what happened to Washington, to 10,000. Many of
the navy's gunboats were either sold or moth balled, but kept available to provide for future
defense. (Rice, Vol. I, 122)
Captain Stephen Decatur led a naval squadron to Algiers to protest and defend against
pirate attacks that had begun to reoccur during the War of 1812. Congress declared war, and a
blockade was erected. The dey of Algiers paid reparations to the American shippers holding
claims, and similar action was taken against Tunis and Tripoli, with the same effect. These
actions greatly added to the American-originated concept of freedom of the seas. (Rice, Vol.I,
123)
James Monroe
1816-1824
The Era of Good Feelings
President James Monroe took office as the recipient of a very prosperous and satisfied
country. Nationalistic feelings of pride were up, and the collapse of the Federalists left only one
political party behind, unifying the country politically for an unusual period of harmony known
as the "Era of Good Feelings." The Democrat-Republicans welcomed their old foes into their
ranks, embraced their ideas with their own, and looked to the future. This cooperation would last
eight years, all during the reign of the capable James Monroe.
Domestic Actions
Monroe used "bonus" money, $1.5 million annually made from the Bank of the United
States' profits, for the purpose of funding internal improvements where needed. Madison had
once implored Congress, "Let us bind the republic together with a perfect system of roads and
canals." The Bonus Bill had been supported by both Madison and Monroe (although Madison
had reversed his policy by vetoing a Bonus Bill authored by John C. Calhoun in 1817 after he
had asked for its passage by Congress), and the whole nation embraced the concept. (Rice, Vol.
I, 126) The North would benefit by sales of its products carried over the transportation network,
as would the West, who stood to benefit from receiving Eastern manufactured goods. Believing
that industrialization would also occur in the South and enable them profits as well, Southern
leaders backed the plan, although future Southern leaders found this was not to become a reality.
President Monroe was successful enough in his term at binding the nation together that he
received every electoral vote except one in his successful re-election bid in 1820. The lone
holdout, William Plummer of New Hampshire, did so believing that the administration had
needlessly wasted money. (Rice, Vol. I, 132)
The Supreme Court also assumed more power for the federal government in the 1816
Martin v. Hunter's Lessee decision. This case gave the Supreme Court the ability to rule on state
constitutionality when decisions were appealed. (Morison, Vol. II, 131)
The West also continued its growth and relative political power. Following the
congressional reapportionment of 1822, the West's voting strength in the House was 47 seats out
of 213, with western Senate seats at 18 of 48. This trend would continue, and lead to greater
influence in the future. (Rice, Vol. I, 122) Because the expansion west required additional
soldiers to guard against problems, Congress allowed the army to grow to 6,000 troops,
stabilizing frontier fears. (Morison, Vol. II, 140) Another success of the Monroe administration
came in 1821, when the Santa Fe Trail opened for trade, an 800 mile route linking Independence,
Missouri (and its links to the East) with the growing Southwest. This would remain the principal
route of trade and travel into the 1880s.
International Success
Diplomats completed the Rush-Bagot Agreement in 1817, reducing military tensions
between Britain and the United States. The agreement called for naval disarmament on the Great
Lakes, and would lead to similar actions along the entire border. This respect shown to the
Americans as an equal resulted in stronger relations between the two nations and opened the way
for future cooperation. Further negotiations solved remaining disputes between the two
countries. The succeeding Convention of 1818 (also known as the Treaty of 1818 line) fixed the
common border of Canada and the United States at the 49th parallel, from Lake of the Woods,
Minnesota, to the Rockies. Because both nations claimed the Oregon territory as their own, both
sides agreed to rule jointly for ten years to see if a mutually agreeable result would occur.
Mexico's 1821 independence from Spain allowed the Mexican authorities to invite
American settlement of the sparsely-populated Texas territory. Moses Austin began the initial
call for settlers after having been promised large amounts of land for his efforts. Moses died
before the plan was a success, leaving his son Stephen Austin to complete the settlement and
lead the settlers from mostly Southern states into Texas.
The Anglo-American Treaty between the United States and Britain cleared up problems
that festered on the U.S.-Canada border, which had not been established fully. The Treaty of
1818 Line fixed the northern United States border with Canada at the 49th parallel, from the
eastern Oregon border to Lake of the Woods, in present day Minnesota. Oregon was contested
by Britain and the United States, and an agreement was reached to rule it jointly for ten years.
Problems in the Americas gave the United States continued cause for concern during the
early 1820s. Many Spanish colonies followed the example of the U.S. by revolting against the
rule of the crown, especially when Spain was heavily involved in the wars against Napoleon
beginning in 1822. The U.S. found the situation to its advantage for three reasons.
a) The colonies had followed the American example;
b) weakened republics south of the United States would pose less threat than a European power;
c) the U.S. would be allowed to trade openly with the colonies, having been turned away by
the Spanish authorities. (Gordon 178) One example of this was the open arms sales by
the United States to the emerging countries in large amounts against the Spanish. (Rice, Vol.I,
133)
As such, the U.S. acted quickly in recognizing the independence of Colombia, Argentina, Peru
and Mexico in 1822.
The U.S. decision to issue the Monroe Doctrine was an effort to dissuade other European powers
from intervening or strengthening their holds in the Americas. Concerned by the fact that
European powers such as Russia, Austria, Prussia, and France (the Quadruple Alliance, meeting
at the Congress of Vienna) were willing to restore order in the Spanish colonies to send a
message to their own territories, the United States feared the additional presence of European
countries that could pose a threat to U.S. interests. Not only concerned by the European
rumblings, Secretary of State Adams noted the announcement by Russia that had announced
their holdings in Alaska would extend down into present-day Oregon.
Britain also was profiting from the new markets in the Americas, now free of Spanish
trade restrictions. In fact, British exports exceeded those of the nearer United States. (Morison,
Vol. II, 147) Prime minister George Canning proposed that England and America should issue a
joint declaration demanding that European powers would not be tolerated beyond their current
levels of involvement. Adams was opposed, mainly because the United States could not enforce
the declaration on its own, and would then appear to be reliant upon the British navy for success.
He also was concerned that the British were interested in Cuba as a stepping stone to the U.S.
Adams was not being overly worried, because he had grown up in the courts of Europe, and
knew the machinations possible in European capitals among dueling monarchs. Monroe
overrode these objections, and announced the Monroe Doctrine in his 1823 state of the Union
address.
The provisions of the Monroe Doctrine were fairly straightforward. First, further
colonization (foundation of new colonies) by European powers was prohibited. Second, in
return, the U.S. would not interfere in the management of current colonies by their mother
countries. Further, the U.S. pledged to remain out of European affairs in return for acceptance of
these terms. Finally, any attempt to interfere would be viewed as "dangerous to our peace and
safety." (Gordon 179) Although the European nations (except Britain) thought the upstart
country had exceeded its authority by telling them what to do, no one dared to cross swords with
Britain's navy, or had spare forces able to fight in the Americas with problems still present on the
European continent.
Russia, realizing these points, notified the U.S. and Britain that Russian territory would end at
latitude line 54 degrees, 40 minutes, farther north than the Washington-Canada border. The
Monroe Doctrine was achieving its goals.
One further episode of U.S.-U.K. cooperation was a result of the earlier of the Treaty of
Ghent. The 1812 treaty had called for both countries to abolish the slave trade, which the British
had outlawed in 1808. Ships involved in the slave trade were declared as pirates in 1820. The
British had suggested a joint-naval operation off of the African coast to intercept slave ships, but
was rejected (memories of British ships boarding American vessels and impressing sailors were
hard to forget). The U.S. did send a squadron to Africa, searching for U.S.- flagged vessels,
which eventually altered course to sail to Cuba or the southern Caribbean. (Morison, Vol. II,
140)
Changes In the American Spirit
(1815-1824)
Growth of Nationalism
Following the War of 1812, Americans felt a strength of spirit they had never felt beforea strong sense of nationalism. Having successfully conducted, and arguably won, a war against
the far superior British nation, feelings of pride and loyalty to the nation rather than a specific
"region first" attitude began to become the prevailing sentiment. As such, movements to
increase the power of the central government and the sense of considering issues from the
national standpoint received great support.
Economic Nationalism
The surging effects of nationalism greatly aided the ongoing economic rise of the young
country. Beneficiaries included the Second Bank of the United States, young "infant" industries,
and those who sought better links nationally.
The Second Bank of the United States came into being in 1816. The original bank,
having been allowed to disappear after its charter was not renewed in 1811, had regulated the
money supply and been a sound depository for federal funds. State banks, which attempted to
fill the void created by the bank's demise, did poorly, lending out far more than they had in
reserve for their creditors. Inflation rose as the banks, in an attempt to stave off problems,
printed more currency than they had in specie, or hard moneyed reserves like gold or silver,
whose value was known, and therefore less prone to drastic price fluctuations. Only
Massachusetts controlled its money supply carefully, while the others fueled a widespread
demand for credit by those seeking to cash in on the country's growth, which had seen the money
supply double between 1811 and 1816. (Rice 128) Democrat-Republicans, by now the only
active party following the collapse of the Federalists, reversed their earlier position on a federal
bank's constitutionality, and sought a reining in of the credit-driven inflation. In an effort to sell
the bank to investors, the federal government held only 20% of the stock, while 31,000 citizens
bought shares in the remaining 80%. It appeared that things would stabilize, but the efforts
would be aftershocks more serious in just three years.Protection of the fledgling industries in
America was aided by the passage of the Tariff of 1816. The combined lobbying efforts of the
so-called "infant industries" that had grown during the War of 1812, the tariff was an effort to
avoid British industries' dumping of their warehoused goods on the market at lower rates than
domestic items. These industries, which flourished in the absence of British goods during the
war, included Kentucky hemp (used for rope), New England textiles, western farmers, and
Pennsylvania iron and coal smelting operations. This important growth even caused pro-farmer
Thomas Jefferson to call U.S. manufacturers "necessary to our independence." (Rice, Vol. I, 177)
Factories had started to dot the country. Eli Whitney had first demonstrated the concept
of interchangeable parts by randomly assembly musket parts formed by molds rather than
individually crafted pieces in 1799. In 1813, Francis Cabot Lowell created the Lowell system of
textile works by bringing in adolescent farm girls to work the machines, while giving them
schooling and religious instruction, and enabling them to help support their family back home.
This employment opportunity for females did not extend as neatly to males, who, upon finding a
lack of available farmland, would often ship out to sea without having seen the ocean before.
(Rice, Vol. I, 130)
Large transportation networks began to link parts of the nation around this time, and the
presence of navigable waterways in the North was capitalized into the construction of canals.
Steamboats were introduced on the Ohio and Mississippi River valleys in 1816, and four years
later, at least 70 were in use on the nation's waterways (Rice, Vol. I, 126) Most notably,
"Clinton's Ditch," named after New York governor Dewitt Clinton, was constructed from 18171824 and became the Erie Canal. When completed, the Erie Canal linked New York City to
Lake Erie and the Great Lakes, providing a strong alternative for shipment of goods and people.
These savings occurred because the water travel was smoother than travel over the poor, uneven
roads, and because shipping products in bulk as opposed to wagonloads was more economical.
Seeing the success of the Erie Canal, other projects sprang up. The Lancaster Pike was
built in Pennsylvania, the first successful turnpike. The tolls were used to keep the roadway
clear and smoother than other public roads, which were notoriously poor for travel. It eventually
reached from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh, and to other turnpikes. Five other turnpikes were built
soon after the Lancaster started operations in other states, and the building boom was on.
The federal government got into the act in 1806 by approving the construction of the
Cumberland (National) Road. The new highway would provide a smoother and clearer western
transportation route westward. Beginning in Maryland, and extending across the Appalachians
to the Ohio River town of Wheeling, it was built far more slowly than anticipated. By 1816,
funds had only allowed construction 20 miles west, and Congress had to appropriate the funds to
finish the job as quickly as possible in order to finish the project. (Rice, Vol. I, 177)
Another benefit of the end of hostilities allowed the freedom of movement west. In 1829,
25% of the population lived west of the Appalachians, but the number would swell greatly. Only
ten years later, 50% of all Americans would be found in the area. (Harper 125)
Case Study-Effect of the Erie Canal
The Erie Canal's effect upon a small farming community was studied in Paul Johnson's
book The Shopkeeper's Millennium. This small town, Rochester, New York, had produced a
total of 26,000 barrels of grain in the year 1818. Access to New York City markets, and the
opportunity for farmers from all over the nearby area to now ship their grain cheaply gave
Rochester a strong impetus for growth. Ten years later, 200,000 barrels left Rochester, and by
the end of the following decade, 500,000 barrels were shipped out from the 10 flour mills on the
Erie Canal. With this spectacular rise in production came a growth in population, from a few
hundred to 20,000 souls. (Johnson 18)
An illustration of the town life is also carefully woven. The rich upper class of Rochester
had all come from the local area, growing up with their community. As such, they invested in
the growth of the town, and were the first people approached for investment and loans outside of
one's own family. Businessmen who prospered the most provided moral examples, and their
business dealings with their neighbors in the community were essential to becoming trusted
members of the community. Local wealth also remained concentrated in the hands of a few
families that had taken the earliest opportunity to invest in surrounding land and the town.
Newcomers were welcomed into the community especially if they were related to or had
someone in town able to vouch for their credibility.
Once again, the key to individual success came from strong community ties, and one
further example of this factor is the role of the church. Church membership was considered
important as a social network and moral influence, which encouraged the town's prospering
citizens to join- millers, lawyers, etc. (One group noted for their prosperity despite being apart
of the town was the hoteliers, situated near the canal itself.) With the established community
members being church members then, revivals such as those of Charles Grandison Finney tended
to have an impact most strongly on those already a success in their communities.
Society itself was quite young. With the growth in prosperity came jobs, and usually
young men seeking work and their fortunes that they might acquire land nearby as well. The
population in 1830 was noted as being 75% under the age of 30, with much of this number
viewed as shiftless and drifting westward for any one of many reasons. A local editor estimated
in 1826 that a typical day brought in 130 newcomers a day, with 120 leaving (much of this can
be assumed to be passing through on the canal). Newcomers to Rochester in 1827 are further
expected to remain less than six years. (Johnson 37) In all, in 1827, 352 new houses were built,
an average of 1.5 per carpenter, and strong evidence of the strong growth and expansion that
developed by being along the canal.
The average workman, however, was less effective than today's equivalent. With a
strong flow of immigrants making their way west gradually, they brought their customs with
them, and in the case of the predominant Irish, distinguished themselves less by what they did as
opposed to what they didn't do. The working class would work at a frantic pace Tuesday-Friday
in order to meet production goals, and once achieved, would proceed to drink all weekend,
including Sunday. The drying-out came during "Saint Mondays," so-called because employers
recognized little or no work could be done. Mondays were spent "visiting their friends,
sharpening their tools, and clearing their heads." (Johnson 42) Workers had good reason to try to
forget work on the weekends. Rochester carpenters struck for a 10-hour day in 1834, and most
shopworkers lived in the same home as their employers. This close contact forced the employer
to act as a surrogate father, and was even held liable for offenses committed by their
boarders/workers entrusted to their care.
Sectional Problems Unravel the Era of Good Feelings
In the midst of this period of national unity, two large episodes caused wrinkles in the
national fabric. One of these, charted the course of domestic policy for many years, while the
other involved involvement in European affairs. These were the Missouri Compromise, and the
other involved Andrew Jackson and Spanish Florida.
The Missouri Compromise
In 1789, population amounts between the South and North were relatively even, but by
1820, the story was completely different, and the issue of slavery began to make itself known as
the primary issue of contention between the two regions in the arena of national politics. The
North, with a population of 5,125,000, held 105 seats in the House of Representatives and 30 in
the Senate, a number matched by the South. This region counted 4, 485,000 citizens, giving it
only 81 House seats. (Morison 137) Although equal in the Senate, control in the House was
easily held by northern interests, a significant threat to slavery supporters in the South. The
three-fifths compromise, enacted to count southern slave numbers for population purposes
(allowing each slave to count as such a fraction, or for every five slaves, three would count in the
total), could not even give the South much solace, as it accounted for an estimated 20 votes in the
above House totals. Federal policy had long ensured that free and slave states would be brought
into the Union in such a way to preserve this Senate equality, yet this nonconfrontational
approach was the cause of the largest sectional crisis to date in 1820.
A perfect balance of 15 states, or 30 Senate votes per side, existed when the Louisiana
territory, founded by the French, (who had allowed slavery to exist prior to its sale to the Unites
States), met the requirements of the Northwest Ordinance in 1812, and subsequently entered the
Union. By February of 1819, slavery had expanded to the fertile lands around St. Louis,
Missouri, enabling the citizens of the territory to petition Congress for admittance to the Union in
1820. With no free territory in a position to counteract the imbalance, this caused an angry
outcry from Northern interests opposed to the extension of slavery, as well as those who feared
Southern dominance in crucial Senate votes. In an effort to stall the issue, Rep. James
Tallmadge (NY) tried to amend the bill with the Tallmadge Amendment. His proposal, which
prohibited further importation of slaves into Missouri as well as requiring slaves in the future to
be freed upon their 25th birthday, easily passed the Northern-dominated House of
Representatives. In the evenly-distributed Senate, however, the proposal died in time for the end
of the congressional session of 1819.
When the 1820 session opened, the issue was unavoidable. Old-time Federalists, now in
the Democrat-Republican party, rose in power by noting the growing strength the South was
acquiring. Thus, in an effort to maintain party and national unity, Northern Republicans began to
push for compromise. Leading their efforts was Henry Clay, demonstrating how his nickname of
the "Great Compromiser" was earned. Seeking common ground, he worked out the following
provisions of the Missouri Compromise:
1) Missouri would enter the Union as a slaveowning state;
2) Maine, which had been a territory of Massachusetts, was created as a free state as a balance to
the temporary majority in the Senate held by the South;
3) The latitude line of 36 degrees, 30 minutes N, was established as a border between future
expansion for slavery. North of the line, except for Missouri, slavery was not permitted,
while slavery was allowed south of this compromise line. The South was pleased because it was
able to add more territory to its fold, while the North was relieved to see that the South did not
receive an advantage in the Senate. The South was guaranteed further expansion in what would
later become Arkansas and Oklahoma, but the North had the larger share of territory, which
would later comprise far more states than what the South could foresee. The crisis temporarily
averted, the nation turned to other issues, leaving the issue of slavery to remain in the
background for a few more years.
Andrew Jackson and Florida
In March of 1816, President Monroe named two generals to head the nation's defenses.
The North was the domain of General Jacob Brown, and the South controlled by Andrew
Jackson, the defender and victor in the Battle of New Orleans. In the states bordering what
remained of Spanish Florida, several problems had developed that were getting harder to ignore.
Florida and the Spanish crown offered escaped slaves a refuge free from pursuit, the Seminole
Indians a safe haven from United States expansion, and opportunities for smugglers and pirates.
With the decline in Spanish abilities and colonial power, Spain was expected to abide by the
terms of Pinckney's Treaty (1795), which required Spanish control over its territories' citizens in
Florida. Spain, however, could not, and attacks by Seminoles and free blacks using the colony as
their base infuriated and alarmed the southern United States. Jackson, as a slaveowner himself,
resented Florida's acceptance of the runaway slaves, and their easy incorporation into its society
(some even joined the local Indian tribes). Charged with the defense of the southern US, he also
viewed Indian raids as unacceptable.
Jackson was not alone in this belief. The US Secretary of State, John Quincy Adams,
having been exposed for years as ambassador to Russia, Prussia, and others, and also negotiator
of the Treaty of Ghent (1815), saw the threat of an American neighbor actively subverting US
law by accepting runaways, as well as the possibility of plots against the vulnerable southern
United States. The American South considered the land in East Florida's Appalachicola River
valley some of the best farmland in the Southeast, and the long Floridian coast as strategic for its
defense, especially for Alabama and Mississippi. (Chace 136)
Suspicions along the border were raised by the rumor that at least two British agents, a
Scottish trader named Arbuthnot and an English army lieutenant Robert Ambrister, were secretly
aiding the Indians against the United States. (Morison 143) The general in charge of Georgia's
defense, Edmund Gaines, called in local chiefs following one raid that had killed one white
woman and her two children, and was astonished to learn that the tribes had meticulously
maintained a count of Indians killed by settlers or soldiers in the area. Each subsequent attack
the tribes made was to even this brutal score. (Chace 144) He dispatched troops to the Indian
town of Fowltown to investigate, and as local settlers' believed he would, British uniforms and
goods were found. Gaines ordered the town burned on Nov.12, 1817, killing five inhabitants in
the process. Once again, in retaliation, the tribes struck an army-escorted group of settlers on
their way to seek help for various medical reasons, killing 34 soldiers, 6 women, and 4 children.
The group's leader, an army lieutenant, was reportedly tortured to death. Another boat was
attacked soon after, but escaped. (Chace 145-6)
Jackson received orders to subdue the Indian threat in 1818 from the Secretary of War,
John C. Calhoun. Sweeping into Florida, the better-supplied American forces easily captured the
first of three Spanish forts at St. Marks on April 7, 1818. Jackson and his men captured
Arbuthnot and two chiefs; Ambrister was captured after American forces raised a British flag,
which he thought nothing of, arriving in the fort only to learn of his mistake. With him, he
carried an offer for 10 kegs of gunpowder. (Morison 144) Jackson convened a military trial,
which recommended the British captives be given lashes. Jackson overrode their
recommendation, and executed both of them and the chiefs as an example to nearby tribes. That
being done, he left for his home, the Hermitage, in Tennessee, for a period of rest and relaxation.
In world capitols, however, relaxation was definitely not their reaction. In Washington,
Secretary of War Calhoun demanded Jackson's court martial for committing acts against other
countries and their citizens without authorization. Both President Monroe and the rest of the
cabinet agreed, with the exception of Secretary Adams. Adams pleaded for Jackson's case,
noting that the Spanish had not followed their treaty obligations, and the Britons had committed
acts against the United States and her citizens. Further arguing that a US apology would make
the government seem weak and disorganized, he finally succeeded in unifying official
Washington to his view. Britain was understandably outraged, yet when presented with the
evidence of their citizens' actions, all talk of the loss of the "peaceful British traders" ended
quickly. (Morison 145)
The U.S. acquires Florida
Spain's reaction to the episode was not ended so easily. Spain, although in no position to
challenge the United States militarily in a time of European conflict, was infuriated at U.S. action
upon her soil and against her citizens. The Spanish ambassador to Washington, Luis de Onis,
originally demanded action be taken against Jackson, but following his exoneration by John
Quincy Adams, this demand was dropped. Adams sent a letter to the Spanish government,
demonstrating without doubt that Spain was unable to control its own colony, and that America
had acted in its own self-defense against Florida-resident attackers. Spain protested U.S. action
inside its territory and the continued occupation of formerly Spanish forts; Adams asked why
there had been no similar reaction from Madrid when the British had a free hand in Florida
previously. Their situation having been made clear, Spain agreed to the terms of the AdamsOnis Treaty (1819), which transferred the colony to the United States in return for the U.S.'
assumption of nearly $5 million in suits against Spain by U.S. citizens. The purchase of Florida
was hailed as a further example of nationalist spirit, and the South thus garnered further space to
expand itself.
Economic Chaos in the Midst of Prosperity
By 1819, the rechartered 2nd Bank of the United States had experienced a short period of
land over-speculation by the issuance of easy loans, and the resulting inflation that the Bank was
reborn to extinguish had continued. As a new set of directors came in, the decision was made to
contract the economy by calling in some of these risky loans, and reduction of federal money in
circulation. This caused the Panic of 1819. Redemption of state bank notes with hard currency
was demanded, and when the banks were proven unable to match their specie reserves with their
circulating money, banks were forced to close, taking down their shareholders and investors with
them. The Western farmers were also hard hit, as desperate banks demanded payment for their
loans, and foreclosures became common. The rapid deflation in the less-circulated dollar caused
a minor depression, with unemployment increasing. (Rice 128) As a conciliatory gesture to the
West, Congress lowered the price of land to $1.25 an acre, and a lower minimum of 80 acres
necessary per sale in 1820-21. This Public Land Act of 1820 helped to draw attention away
from the crisis, in addition to allowing more people to emigrate west, and finally, ending the
period of instability caused by the Bank's actions. The losses borne the heaviest by the Western
farmers, and blamed on the Northeast, however, were not easily forgotten, and would play a role
in future events. (Morison, Vol. II, 137)
The most direct, though, was the case of McCullough v. Maryland. In this case,
Maryland had levied a tax upon the Bank, in an effort to take advantage of the large revenues
generated by the Bank within Maryland's borders. Chief Justice John Marshall ruled for the
Court, noting that "the power to tax is the power to destroy," i.e. nothing prevented a taxing body
from enacting a 100% tax in an effort to destroy an entity. Maryland also felt the bank
unconstitutional, yet the Court interpreted the Constitutional clause giving Congress the power to
coin and borrow money, both actions performed by the bank, as justification for its existence.
In this case, Marshall ruled for the federal government, upholding federal supremacy over the
states. This reinforced the views of federal supporters, in that states could not hold power over
the national government. A strong blow to the states' rights' supporters, it firmly entrenched the
Bank's actions.
Another Supreme Court case added to the federal government's authority to oversee
growing interstate commerce. Gibbons v. Ogden resulted when steamboat operator Thomas
Gibbons attempted to establish a steamboat service in New York state, only to be denied by state
officials who had granted Robert Fulton, inventor of the Clermont, the first steamship, a
monopoly. The Court ruled in favor of Gibbons, striking down the New York rules because they
gave control of interstate trade, which was a constitutional congressional power, not one granted
to the states. (Rice, Vol. I, 131)
John Quincy Adams
1824-1828
Election of 1824
The election of 1824 effectively killed the Era of Good Feelings. William Crawford, the
Monroe administration's Secretary of the Treasury, had been approved by the Republicans as
their candidate by an 1823 congressional caucus made up of the party's senators and
representatives. Owing to the fact that of these only 1/4 were present, however, other party
members did not accept Crawford's being handed the reins of power, and challenged their fellow
party member in a long-remembered presidential contest. (Morison 152)
Four men rose to contest the caucus' nominee, who had begun to feel in ill health. First
among them was John Quincy Adams, son of the second president, who had made a name for
himself by diplomatic work beginning at the age of 15, including posts as ambassador to Russia,
Prussia, and others, finally culminating in the Secretary of State under Monroe. Adams was
from the state of Massachusetts, inheritor of conservative philosophy, a believer in national
security (as previously mentioned), and also of the importance of industry and banking. His
support understandably came from the North.
Andrew Jackson, the hero of New Orleans, stepped out from the state of Tennessee,
known as a strong military leader against the British and the Indians (the actions in Florida). He
previously had no record of a political stance, yet as a slaveowner, he appealed for obvious
reasons to the South, and to the West, as one of its defenders against their chief concern- lack of
safe territory to expand.
Henry Clay, the speaker of the House, also courted the Western vote being from
Kentucky. He ran on a plan to improve and coordinate the United States economy through his
American system. Under the plan, there were three goals:
1) The United States would pass a strong, defensive tariff to protect and enable growth of the
American industries, along with a strong national bank, thus appealing to the North with Western
and Southern support;
2) A system of internal improvements such as roads, bridges and other "improvements" upon the
land to make it supportable and especially to link the country through the accompanying ease in
transportation of goods, materials, and people;
3) Each region would thus specialize in its strengths in order to take advantage of the above
benefits. The South would produce its traditional cash crops of tobacco and cotton; the West
would produce the bulk of food production; the North would cease its difficult efforts of
producing food items and concentrate on industry, manufacturing, and trade. (Gordon 182)
South Carolina's favorite son, John C. Calhoun, was the fifth and final candidate, yet
when he saw the strength of Andrew Jackson on the areas he had counted on, he withdrew to be
named the party's sole vice-presidential nominee, which he became unopposed.
When the time for elections came, a period of time set aside by Congress as any date an
individual state wished between October 27 and December 1, 1824, Adams won the New
England as expected along with 26 of New York's 36 votes, totaling 84 electoral votes. (Morison
154) Jackson made a strong showing by taking Pennsylvania, New Jersey, the Carolinas, and a
combination of Western and Southern states for a total of 99 electoral votes, the most of
candidates, and also the receiver of more popular votes, yet he did not have the constitutional
majority of electoral votes necessary to decide the election. William Crawford took his native
state of Georgia and Virginia, while Clay, competing for the same electors of Jackson and
Crawford, finished fourth, ending his chances. Thus these two men, controlling the electoral
votes that could swing the balance to either side, became extremely important to the Adams and
Jackson camps. (Morison 153)
In January of 1825, the House met to open ballots and elect the president as required in
the Constitution. In an unfortunate development, Crawford had suffered a paralyzing stroke, and
was not able to do much negotiating. Clay, however, as speaker and holder of the crucial votes,
took the opportunity to enjoy his considerably greater attention. Jackson controlled 11 states'
votes, needing 2 more. His opponent had seven, and needed 6. Clay controlled three states, a
crucial factor in deciding the outcome. James Buchanan of Pennsylvania made an effort to join
Andrew Jackson and Clay, but Jackson refused to negotiate. Wanting desperately to receive a
top political appointment, Clay let it be known that he wanted the position of secretary of state,
traditionally a key stepping stone used to the presidency. In the past, Adams and Clay had
experienced frosty relations, shouting insults at each other across the negotiating table in Ghent,
but now the two began to maneuver into position to arrange a settlement. After having sat next
to each other at a New Year's Day Banquet in honor of the visiting Marquis de Lafayette, the two
agreed to meet and discuss their respective ambitions. As the country grew worried in the days
preceding the conference about not knowing who their president was, Thomas Jefferson called
Jackson "unfit" to the media, adding to the tension. The two men met on January 9, coming to
the understanding that Adams would appoint Clay to his secretaryship. (Dangerfield 338)
The vote came on the night of February 9, 1825, after a month of electoral vote
wrangling. Clay had obviously thrown his backing and support (votes), delivering his three
states. Adams had courted both the Missouri and Illinois delegations, earning their votes,
totaling five of his needed six votes. A group of Maryland delegates, calling themselves a
Federalist wing of the party, met with and were assured by Adams that he would not punish their
efforts if they weren't always following the direction set by Adams as the in-office head of the
party. As the sixth and final state needed, Maryland gave Adams the presidency by one vote.
(Morison 154) The timing was fortunate, because two days later, the state of Kentucky's
directions to Clay arrived that ordered him to give his votes to Jackson. (Morison 339)
Adams was notified of his election the next day, and his initial reaction was
underwhelming. Knowing that his popular support was originally far less than 50%, he feared
his election would be deemed as less than legitimate. This came true almost immediately after
the announcement that Clay would receive the job he had wanted, causing the Jackson supporters
to deem the entire election as a "Corrupt Bargain." Adams asked to hold a run-off election
between himself and Jackson nationally to satisfy the critics, but as there was no provision
constitutionally, it was not allowed, and Adams was sworn in as president. (Dangerfield 335)
Administration
Adams took over the presidency with little popular support and constant criticism from
Jacksonian supporters in Congress and out. His agenda included internal improvements, so much
so that when Henry Clay was informed of the president's plans, they were much more extensive
than proposed under the American system. Continuing to be concerned with national defense, he
advocated the building of further warships for the navy. The new president, in keeping with his
conservative New England heritage, refused to remove any officeholder that was competent,
even if they were hostile to his administration. His sincerity and serious conservatism was
distinctly at odds with the prevailing national climate. (Rice 136)
To satisfy his critics and attempt to build trust among his party, Adams named many of
his rivals' allies in his administration. Samuel Southard, a friend of Vice-President Calhoun's,
stayed on as secretary of the navy, while another, John McLean, was made postmaster general.
The war department was given to Crawfordite James Barbour, while Crawford himself was
offered the treasury position again. Following his refusal, Adams installed a Clay supporter to
complement Clay's protectionist policies and interests. With these moves, though, the
conciliation was ended, and Adams supporters from the crucial state of New York were virtually
ignored (Dangerfield 346-7).
Adams' first inaugural address, having first followed the custom of being announced to
the cabinet with little opportunity for discussion, produced problems. His cabinet was opposed
to the address' contents, yet these were still presented before Congress. His plans included a
national university, scientific exploration, an astronomical observatory, patent law reforms, a
system of standard weights and measures, and massive amounts of internal improvements.
(Dangerfield 348) His goals had little in common with his country's present needs, and his
lobbying efforts for his pet projects were not well received when one of his major lobbying
points was the respective item's contemporaries in Europe. Although his long term goals were
jobs and investment, most of these remained unfulfilled.
A major blow to the administration's cohesiveness came in March of 1826. Observing in
the Senate chambers during a long session, the vice-president oversaw a blistering and
discourteous assault on the president and his policies from a member of the Jackson wing.
Feeling betrayed and victimized by a lack of support from Calhoun for his failure to restrain such
actions as the president of the Senate, Adams sent off a letter to the editor of a supportive
newspaper signed "Patrick Henry" attacking the failure by Calhoun. In return, Calhoun fired
back in a different newspaper, because the editor Adams had used refused to print such a
rebuttal. The sniping in the press continued until October of that year, treating the public to an
amazingly public war between the two leaders. (Dangerfield 363-4)
President Adams took an unpopular stance in a court case that earned him little support in
the West. The Creek Indians of Georgia, having been granted their land under a 1791 treaty with
the federal government, were threatened with being forced off of these same lands under an
agreement with unscrupulous white land speculators. Believing the contract was fraudulent,
Adams dissolved the agreement, a signal to the West that the chief executive was against
expansion and sympathetic to the Indians. (Rice 136)
Adams also had to face the Jacksonian faction in the Congress. An embarrassing incident
occurred when the president requested funds for two delegates to travel to the Panama Congress
of Latin America, a gathering of representatives from North, Central, and South America, of
which the United States, by virtue of its Monroe Doctrine, was to have been the recipient of
thanks and prestige. Congress balked, refusing to appropriate money until public hearings were
held. By the time the delayed delegates arrived, the congress had ended without U.S.
participation. One delegate even died from a tropical disease, further marking the
embarrassment of the administration.
The continued struggle between the federal and state governments continued in the 1827
Martin v. Mott case. The Supreme Court ruled that states could not withhold state militias if
federalized for service by the War Department. (Morison, Vol. II, 134)
A final example of the stormy federal relationship between the legislative and executive
branch concerned the Tariff of 1828, or Tariff of Abominations. Originally conceived as just a
protective tariff for Northern industry, it grew with the aid of the Jacksonians into a much
harsher tariff than ever seen in America. Adams could not win either way- if he refused to sign it
in order to hold down prices for the average citizen, he would lose support from his power base,
the North. Yet if he did support the bill, the West and South would be lost, with complaints of
favoritism and higher prices brought upon by the protectionist move. Adams went for the second
option, and in the election-charged year of 1828, it was all the opening Jackson needed to take
the White House for his own. John C. Calhoun, in response to the pro-Northern tariff, wrote the
Exposition of 1828, calling for a familiar idea: nullification.
The concept of nullification argued that the states should have the ability to veto acts of
Congress, as a check on federal power, placing their powers above those of the federal
government. The Exposition argued strongly for this idea, based on the following points. 1)
The constitution was a compact between the states, created by them. 2) He also asserted the
theory of indestructible sovereignty, which meant that because the 13 states had made the
Constitution, they could judge if the federal government had exceeded the powers granted it by
the states. 3) Finally, if necessary, states should have the right to secede and end the compact
they had created if they wished. Overall, the Exposition was a strong indicator of later feelings,
but did not amount to much at the time. (Morison 172)
The two-party system is reborn
With the continued rise in sectional and political animosities, it was inevitable that the
mighty, all-encompassing Democratic-Republican party would be forced to polarize around its
leaders and be split in 1824. Those party members allied with forceful Henry Clay, John Quincy
Adams, and Daniel Webster formed the Whig party. Seeking support from all America, the
Whigs instead came to represent the established, property-owning upper class similar to what the
Federalists had achieved. As such, the Whigs supported the National Bank, a stronger federal
government, stronger tariffs, and the success of business interests.
The remaining Democrats were led by Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren. Their
base of support was the common man, and farmers, along with the growing middle class of
shopkeepers and urban workers. They advocated more democracy, and a weaker central
government than advocated by the Whigs.
Andrew Jackson
1828-1836
Election of 1828
Andrew Jackson had started campaigning for the 1828 election shortly after losing the
1824 election, and by the time the election rolled around, the public, having lost faith in a
president the majority did not elect, who squabbled publicly with the vice-president, and who
had plans not in keeping with their needs, elected Jackson handily. John C. Calhoun was
retained as vice-president, giving the North very little pull in White House decisions.
The change in the electorate
In the early part of the American voting experience, only those who were rich, white, and
male got the opportunity to vote. As the demographics changed, people began to leave the
agricultural life to move towards the city. With people able to remain wealthy without the need
for large tracts of land, changes became necessary to accommodate the change in population and
also the rise of the middle class. Change in the electorate came about for three reasons:
a) hotels allowed larger groups of people to concentrate in one place, meet together,
and remain able to stay in a concentrated setting;
b) elimination of the land-owning requirement allowing city folks to vote;
c) conventions provided citizens a greater opportunity to meet the candidates and also take
advantage of free food and especially drinks given away from parties wanting
more votes.
Spoils system
Jackson was the first president to use the system widely. Jackson believed rotation in
officeworkers was necessary because of two reasons:
a) it prevented a permanent class of officeholders becoming an aristocracy;
b) he said "The duties of public office are so plain and simple men of intelligence may
readily qualify themselves for their performance," allowing more people to be involved in
governmental decision-making. (Gordon 187)
He filled up 20% of federal positions with "deserving" members, replacing former ones. 252 of
612 appointees were replaced. The results were unfortunate, because there was no pension
system to provide for long-serving workers' benefits. Most appointments made by Jackson were
noted for their mediocrity, save Martin Van Buren. Some of those removed were in fact corrupt,
but some of Jackson's were no better. One example was Samuel Swartwout, a speculator in New
York, was given the role of collector of New York City, where he proceeded to embezzle $1
million in less than ten years. (Morison 165) Most of Jackson's closest advisors were not
government officials, though; loyal friends in all walks of life made up the unofficial "Kitchen
Cabinet." One of these men, William Louis, even lived in the White House. The actual Cabinet
members were mainly appointed to satisfy the party, and some owed more loyalty to vicepresident Calhoun. (Rice, Vol.I, 1989)
Economic aspects of Jacksonian Democracy
Several notable changes occurred in the national structure economically with the shift
towards the common man. These included the following:
a) Cheap land sales from the national holdings, selling 80 acres at $1.25 an acre. Squatters were
also given the first right to buy land they had improved and labored upon by several pre-emption
laws;
b) Trade unions grew into being as the common man began to take his place in an infant
industrial society, and armed with the vote, these citizens began to legislate and call for changes
to reflect their interests and needs, shifting from owner-dominant controls. (Gordon 187)
Social aspects
Once again, the common man began to benefit from the change in national leadership,
and several issues in society began to reflect the change in philosophy. They included:
a) A greater respect for women's rights, which Jackson notably supported, probably due to his
appreciation for the sacrifices and abilities to succeed that he was accustomed to in Western
frontier women;
b) The abolition of slavery, which was not totally coincidental with the British government's
decision in the early 1830s and Mexico's similar declaration in 1829. Abolition groups were
centered mostly in the North, as slavery was unnecessary owing to large-scale immigration and
factory work. Religious groups also protested against the violation of slaves' rights.
c) A call for prohibition, to end the problems drinking caused poorer families dependent upon
the low wage scale, but were unable to control the dominant male figure in the household.
Women and children were joined as well by industrial leaders frustrated by poor production and
sloppy carelessness exhibited by their workers following a heavy weekend of drinking that ended
(usually) on late Sunday night.
d) Care for the mentally ill, notably through the efforts of Dorothea Dix in her crusade to end
disgusting and horrifying conditions she observed in New England mental hospitals. These
conditions included beatings, confinement, sexual abuse, and other forms of "treatment."
e) Attention to public education, while although mainly paid for by taxes upon the upper classes,
resulted in an informed and educated electorate more able to work in a growing industrial
society, less likely to strip the rights and power of the merchant class. Their fear was related to
the Federalists' position with opening the ballot earlier on, because the uneducated agrarian
voters, having little involvement and respect for the merchants and owners, had replaced and
taken control of government in 1800. (Gordon 188)
A flare-up over states' rights erupted in again in 1830, this time in the Congress. Senator
Samuel Foot of Connecticut had proposed limiting land sales in the West, partly out of fear of
Northern citizens moving west and reducing the political power of the Northeast, which Senator
Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri was quick to accuse. Their colleague, Robert Hayne of South
Carolina, supported Benton, arguing "that the South and West were victims of the Northeast's
manufacturing interests." Daniel Webster, representing Massachusetts, countered that only in
their own states were the states sovereign. He continued to argue that the Constitution had been
created by the people, as evidenced in the preamble, and not the states. Constitutionality, he
reasoned, had been given to the Supreme Court to decide, and thus the theory of nullification
held little value. He closed by saying, "liberty and union, now and forever, one and inseparable."
The speech and debate over, the obvious victor in the Webster-Hayne debate was clear, and was
the recipient of a warm congratulatory letter from the president. (Webster 145)
Internal improvements and nullification clashes
A further issue of contention during the Jackson administration was that of internal
improvements. Internal improvements are actions that take unused land and "improve" it, by
adding roads or buildings, or canals. The federal government had looked into building and
providing the money for several of these road and canal projects, yet the proposal was not
received Western farmers needed roads and canals for their goods to be shipped to markets,
usually in towns or cities, which in turn sent their goods back to the farming communities to be
sold. Because the North and West could take advantage of many rivers and streams, they had a
lot to gain by these projects, and were then obviously in favor. The South protested, arguing that
their tax monies would be spent on enriching the North and West, without receiving much
benefit, since they already had enough waterways that reached the coast, and on to Northeast and
British markets. As the debate continued, many Northeastern projects to privately build such
networks were begun. (Gordon 192)
The way in which these improvements would be paid for was through a plan called
"distribution." It put the proceeds from the Western land sales to the states to be used for public
projects of the type mentioned above. The state where the land was sold was also given a bonus.
In order to get Southern support for these projects they opposed, a reduction in the tariff was
agreed upon, while the North agreed to allow pre-emption in the unorganized territories.
(Morison 173-174) Jackson himself had originally supported the internal improvements as
helpful to his region, but fearing a loss in Southern support, had allied himself with their
concerns. Jackson vetoed bills containing funds to extend the Maysville Road and Lexington
Turnpike at federal expense, but did request a constitutional amendment that granted the federal
government authority to complete such projects.
Moderately lower tariff rates were proposed in 1832 to facilitate the above conditions, but
the cuts were still below Southern requirements. South Carolina published an Ordinance of
Nullification, voiding the tariff within the state border and threatening secession if an attempt
was made to enforce it. Jackson rose to the challenge, speeding a Force Bill through Congress,
authorizing his use of the army and navy to enforce the law. Henry Clay, ever the compromising
specialist, offered the Compromise Tariff of 1833, reducing tariff rates over a period of 10 years
to reach 1816 tariff levels in 1843. Both it and the Force Bill passed Congress on the same day,
and South Carolina withdrew its ordinance only after defiantly nullifying the Force Bill. (Gordon
194-195)
Clashes with the Bank
By 1830, the Bank had 29 branches nationally, with the government owning 1/5 of the
stock, and appointing 1/5 of its directors. Jackson distrusted monopolistic banking and big
business. His term for the bank was the "moneyed monster." (Gordon 195-96) In an effort to
hurt Jackson politically in the election of 1832, Henry Clay tried to recharter the Bank four years
earlier than necessary by law. He thought it would help the Republicans if the bill passed
Congress, and be signed by Jackson. This would alienate the West, hurt by foreclosures by the
Bank historically. If Jackson vetoed the bill, he would lose support from the wealthy and
influential Northeast, who enjoyed the benefits and profits of the Bank. Jackson did veto the bill,
calling the Bank unconstitutional, but its legality had already been proved during McCullough v.
Maryland. (Rice 265-66).
The Bank did have its positive aspects:
a) served as an official depository for federal funds and sold bonds;
b) it held private deposits and issued loans backed by strong collateral;
c) it issued strong, supported banknotes;
d) it oversaw the local banks and established rules for their operations.
However, the West opposed the Bank for several reasons:
a) it prevented state banks form issuing their own banknotes, cheapening money value,
lowering interest rates, and inflating farm prices and easing debt payments;
b) the Bank refused many loans to small farmers without collateral. (Gordon 195-196)
Many people distrusted the Bank's paper money due to fluctuating value, as opposed to gold or
silver. The Bank also was political, making generous loans to members of Congress, even
retaining Daniel Webster as their attorney.
The relative strength of Andrew Jackson as president can be seen in his successful use of
the veto compared with his predecessors. Prior to 1828, there had been a total of 10 vetoes total,
yet Jackson would issue 12, with almost all being upheld. (Rice, Vol.I, 266) This power allowed
Jackson to win re-election in 1832 handily, which he believed gave him a mandate to continue
with his policies.
Following the election, all federal government monies were removed from the U.S. Bank,
and deposited in state banks, known as pet banks. The large availability of federal funds
delighted banking officials, who then made many unwise loans and printed their own money,
regardless of how much backing was available in their reserves, increasing inflation.
International affairs
On Sept. 21, 1833, US agents signed a treaty of "treaty of amity and commerce" with the
Sultan of Muscat (presently the country of Oman), opening the Middle East to trade with the
United States. While the U.S. traded for ivory, dates, and pearls, American manufacturers found
a willing market for their textiles, rum, and furniture goods. In addition to markets, U.S.
interests in the region included missionary work, an odd choice for a region largely devoted to
Islam. (Palmer 4)
Texans fight for independence
After Stephen Austin's initial attempts in 1821 to recruit settlers for the Texas territory,
Southerners who had leached their land's fertility with cotton saw Texas as a new hope. They
brought their slaves with them, and by 1830, the population of Texas stood at 20,000. Five years
later, the number had swelled to 35,000. (Rice 185) Mexico's decree outlawing slavery within its
border in 1829 was ignored; most Americans treated Texas as an extension of the United States.
By this time however, Mexico had established several policies with regard to its lands,
policies that the Texan-Americans had not followed too closely. These were:
a) the ban on slavery;
b) all citizens were to be or become members of the Catholic church.
In 1830, Mexico ordered further immigration from the United States ended, but rescinded
the order soon after. Mexico was concerned about growing demands from the American settlers,
who were demanding greater self-government, an end to duties on goods from the United States,
slavery, and exemption from the law requiring Catholicism. However, an attempt to elude duties
at a customs check on the Texas-U.S. border caused the Mexican government, now led by
dictator Santa Anna, to declare Texas a military province and move in troops to enforce the laws
he felt were being disrespected by Americans. This brought on the Texas War of Independence.
As Texans braced for the arrival of the Mexican army, Americans sympathetic to their
countrymen's plight hurried to defend Texas against the Mexican "aggressors." Davy Crockett
left his seat in the House of Representatives, and was joined by Jim Bowie at the Alamo, a
former Spanish Catholic mission in San Antonio. Inside, the defenders were led by William
Travis, in poor health but defiant as he lay in bed, preparing the men for the assault he knew to
be coming. The Alamo was surrounded, and a siege began, with the Mexican army arrayed to
prevent anything from either entering or leaving the mission. The Mexican army enjoyed a long
supply train, but the defenders inside were forced to survive on what they had, expecting
reinforcements from an army raised by Sam Houston elsewhere in Texas.
The battle finally came on March 5, 1836, and when it was completed the next day, all
inside the Alamo were dead- 183 men against 2400, although the tough resistance of the Texans
was proved. Across Texas and the U.S., the cry of "Remember the Alamo!" became a rallying
cry for support, which now began to flow into the besieged territory. (Boorstin 244)
At the Battle of San Jacinto, Sam Houston and his troops defeated and captured Santa
Anna. Forced into signing an agreement recognizing Texas' independence, the war was over.
Texas immediately applied for admission to the United States, but was denied, largely due to its
size. Northern legislators feared the newly independent Texas would be carved into several
states, thereby ending the delicate balance in the Senate between North and South. In the
meantime, Texas waited, and declared itself an independent country, the Lone Star Republic.
Panic of 1837
With the rapid rise in construction of turnpikes, canals, and railroads by ambitious
investors, markets were eagerly stimulated, as was western settlement hoping to cash in on the
rapid growth. In this era of success, inflation rose, enabling the government's receipts from land
sales and other federal action to increase 10 times higher from 1834 to 1836, to $24 million
annually. With the federal bank's control erased by President Jackson, speculation and risky
lending occurred by banks fearing to lose business to riskier rivals. Noting the surge in inflation,
Jackson ordered the Specie Circular Law in 1836. The new law required all payments to the
federal government be made in specie money, causing a rush on banks to exchange paper money
for silver or gold.. Investors overseas holding dollars dumped their reserves on the financial
exchange market, and also began to call in loans. New President Martin Van Buren, reacting to
the critical drop in the money's availability, panicked, and ordered $10 million in bills printed as
an emergency measure. Surplus budgetary funds to state banks were halted, forcing foreclosure
on many whose notes were called in by their lending institutions. (Harper 147-148)
The Second Great Awakening
Stirs Religion's Revival
A strong uprising on the part of the West, yearning to reintroduce the civilizing effects of
religion, spawned a Second Great Awakening. While begun in the West, it was by no means
confined to it, and many movements sprang up in the East. The rapid growth in the varieties of
religions was a contrast to the few religions present during the earlier Great Awakening, yet this
religious freedom allowed many to worship as they believed.
New Harmony was a utopia led by Robert Owen, a Scottish immigrant. The New
Harmony community outlawed private property, marriage, and organized religion. This utopian
experiment failed because the surrounding land was far cheaper than the cost of labor, leaving
the community with more land to reap than bodies were available, ultimately making the
experiment to costly to compete with other producers. (Rice 168)
Fourierist phalanxes were communities of no more than 1800 people. The members of
the group worked together in industry, science and art. Over 30 were organized in Northern and
Midwestern states at their height. Members were offered a choice of positions of work in the
community, and were ultimately paid in a way that the least desirable jobs earned the most
money. (Rice 172)
The Shakers were one of the best known groups. Forbidden to marry or engage in any
romantic relationships by their founder, Mother Ann Lee (herself a mother of many children
prior to the founding of the movement), the faith was to grow only by attracting new members
who agreed with and accepted the group beliefs. By 1825, the movement had produced twenty
such communities, most of which were in the Northeast, and by 1845, their membership totaled
6,000. (Rice 173) There was no democracy allowed; Lee controlled the movement entirely. The
simplicity and graceful Shaker furniture produced as a means of livelihood became highly sought
after and is very valuable today.
...as well as other reforms
With the reforming zeal of religion leading the way, other factors in American life began
to change as well. Schools, social conditions, and women's rights all began to rise in the national
consciousness as issues of importance.
Schools
Schooling was becoming an accepted fact of life for all Americans during the early
1800s. By 1850, the number of students in elementary schools was 3.3 million, with a further
6,000 high schools educating 250,000 students. Regionally, the North had far more of its
students enrolled in school, with 70% of its school-age students in school, while the South could
counter with only 35% of its white school-age children (blacks were, of course, not allowed to
enter school.) (Rice 174)
In addition to public schools, Thomas Gallaudet opened the first school for the deaf in
1816. The first school for the blind opened its doors in 1829, the Perkins Institute for the
Education of the Blind. Education was rapidly becoming a possibility for all free students.
Social movements
Reflecting a changing society, many social organizations were formed to combat the
problems of the day. Women and employers supported the American Temperance Society to
reduce drunkenness that had resulted in wasted industrial wages needed by the city family, as
well as domestic violence caused by the liberal policies on alcohol. Employers supported the
movement in order to end the practice of "Saint Mondays," days following weekends of heavy
drinking that reduced the productivity of industry.
Several prominent Americans founded the American Colonization Society as a method to
redress wrongs done to blacks. Their goal was to return as many blacks to land in Africa set
aside specifically by the society as wanted to go, from free blacks to slaves. The land itself was
purchased, and named Liberia, but despite the support of national figures such as James
Madison, James Monroe, John Marshall, and Henry Clay, the society ultimately transported only
close to 1,400 blacks to Africa after fourteen years of effort. (Rice 177)
Two other issues were beneficial to the plight of the American working man. One of
these was the abolition of the debtors' prisons, which did not encourage repayment of debts, and
had been used for debts of cents, not always dollars. The other boon came in the establishment
of the mechanic's lien law, which forbid the seizure of a skilled worker's tools for repayment of
debt, which would obviously leave the individual with no way to work off the remainder of the
debt.
William Henry Harrison
(1841-1841)
Our shortest-serving president
Harrison was swept into office and expected by Whig leaders to be their puppet, passing
what they sent him and following their instructions. Henry Clay and Daniel Webster eagerly
looked forward to this turn of events, with Webster even writing and pleading with Harrison to
use an inaugural address he wrote. Harrison refused, and after delivering a three-hour address in
damp, rainy Washington, he contracted pneumonia and died 31 days later.
John Tyler
(1841-1845)
John Tyler came into the presidency as an accident, inheriting a Whig party hoping for a
rubber stamp president. Harrison's unfortunate death from pneumonia put Tyler in, who shocked
the Whig leaders by refusing to be their supplicant servant. One of Clay's major goals was the
reintroduction of the Bank of the United States, yet Tyler vetoed the bill. Overall, Tyler had
several main goals as president:
a) One of Tyler's major goals was to revive the Virginian ideal of states rights, and as such
sought to strip the government of powers taken yet not granted by the Constitution;
b) He continued a purge of federal officials begun by Harrison along party lines;
c) gave the West a boost by passing a pre-emption bill, allowing squatters to have the right to
buy federal land they occupied for a minimum price;
d) accepted a stronger tariff to raise revenue;
e) refused to fund any internal improvements with federal money, pleasing Southern Democratic
interests.
Tyler's refusal to pass the Bank resulted in ugly clashes between Clay, as leader of the Whig
party, and Tyler. On Sept. 13, 1841, the entire Tyler cabinet resigned, except for Secretary of
State Webster, involved in detailed negotiations with England. Tyler was thus left without
support of his party. In a bid to gain support from the Democrats, he appointed Calhoun and
others into office, with the nullifier taking over from Webster at State. The prominence of states'
righters in office strongly tipped the Democratic party towards the Southern ideology, and the
Whigs polarized with Northern views.
Problems in Canada lead to U.S.-U.K. problems
Canada at this time was a loose confederation of provinces, much like the U.S. was prior
to the Revolution. British governors were still appointed overseas, with little direct knowledge
of how to run the growing nation. Revolts led by separatists were even launched from New York
and Vermont. By mistake, the British even appointed one man governor intending it to actually
be his cousin.
Americans were shocked, and rallied to the cause of their neighbors, believing that the
Spirit of 76 should continue. Martin Van Buren, a British supporter, moved carefully to remain
neutral. The Caroline incident was the result of the British sinking of an American resupply
vessel used by the rebels in New York, killing one, and appearing much like Jackson's foray into
Florida. Van Buren was upset, yet dispatched Gen. Winfield Scott to the area to disarm the
Americans. Other incidents also caused problems with England:
a) The British had freed rebel slaves who had overtaken an American ship, the Creole, and
sailed to the Bahamas;
b) British navy ships interfered with American ships they believed to be involved in the slave
trade off the coast of Africa;
c) The U.S. had a large debt owed to British creditors.
To reduce friction, the British sent over a more agreeable representative, Lord Ashburton.
In August of 1842, the Webster-Ashburton treaty was signed. Under its provisions,
a) A Maine-New Brunswick boundary line was set, splitting the disputed land with the majority
(7000 square miles out of 12,000) going to the United States;
b) American naval ships joined the British off of Africa to halt the slave trade.
Russia departs California
On January 1, 1842, the Russian settlers and colonists that had continued to live in
California left for home with the sale of the settlements in California to John Sutter. (Dillon 59)
Since the early years of Russia's interests, Moscow had turned a deaf ear to Spain and Mexico's
protests over land ownership rights. Neither country was strong enough to mount serious
challenges, but with the steady decline in furs, and disappointments in agriculture, Russian
leaders made the decision to abandon their colony, named Fort Ross. Mexico did not want to
pay for land it had already claimed, and as such was not an option for a sale. Swiss-born Sutter
was approached, and the Russian fort 70 miles outside San Francisco became his trade center for
$30,000. The Russians had found some successes, having never found it necessary to fight the
native Indian tribe, the Kashayas, who even made a treaty respected by both sides for the land
the Russians occupied.
Texas annexation
The independent nation of Texas caused problems for Tyler as well. American interests
in acquiring Texas were mixed, delaying its annexation. The North was strongly opposed, for
the following reasons:
a) the Northeast feared the expansion of slavery;
b) they feared a Southern increase in the House of Representatives;
c) they feared a Southern increase in the Senate, especially if it was carved into several states
instead of only one;
d) they feared war with Mexico would break out. Texas did have its supporters, though:
a) Those who believed in Manifest Destiny, or continual American expansion across the North
American continent;
b) People afraid of an independent Texas receiving great attention from England, which hoped
to bring in Texas to regain a foothold on the Americas;
c) Farmers interested in more available farmland for crops such as cotton;
d) Speculators in Texas land and bond sales looking for a profit. (Rice 186)
During the election of 1844, James K. Polk demanded the expansion of the nation,
including Texas. Tyler, in an effort to attract Southern Democrat voters, pushed a joint
resolution bringing Texas into the Union, urging it not for election purposes, but because of fears
of British interest and abolitionist involvement in the state, which he had hyped up unnecessarily.
Tyler, of course, lost the election.
James K. Polk
(1845-1849)
Domestic Affairs
President Polk opened the U.S. Naval Academy in October, 1845. (Cheevers 51)
Oregon Fever
James K. Polk was elected on the issue of expanding the United States.
With Texas being brought in by Tyler, Polk was able to turn his attention to the thorny problem
of Oregon. The U.S. and Britain had both had claims for some time over ownership, and the
U.S. had several valid reasons why it should be theirs:
a) exploration by Capt. Robert Gray (1792), named the Columbia River;
b) Lewis and Clark's expedition;
c) establishment of John Jacob Astor's trading post, Astoria (1811);
d) U.S. settlers in the territory.
In 1818 the two sides agreed to a settlement calling for joint ownership for 10 years.
Renewed in 1827, the line held until a large scale movement into the region began in the 1840s.
Up until that time, the area was mainly settled by trappers and traders. There are several reasons
why the 1840s beckoned settlement in Oregon:
a) propagandists organized a society for the settlement of the country;
b) Andrew Wyeth proved the practicality of an overland route to the Eastern cities;
c) missionary activity among the Indians to promote the Second Great Awakening. (Rice 187)
By 1845, 5000 Americans were in the area. (Rice 188)
In the past, John Quincy Adams had offered four times, as secretary of state and as
president, to divide the territory along the 49th parallel, as the rest of the border between Canada
and the U.S. existed. Britain refused each time, wanting all of the territory north of the
Columbia River. Adams objected because of the need for a window on the Pacific, because he
foresaw the practicality of a naval base on Puget Sound, and because of the desire for a shorter
trade route with China.
Following Polk's election, he persuaded Congress to allow him to terminate the 1818
treaty line, and the British, noting that American settlements easily outnumbered their holdings,
offered to separate Oregon at the 49th parallel. The Americans agreed quickly, having got what
they wanted originally, partly because the Mexican war was three weeks old by then. Some
called for all of the territory, but practicality showed we could not fight Canada and the British
while we fought the Mexicans in the South. (Morison 307)
California
Not satisfied with what he had, Polk wanted to add more Mexican territory in addition to
Texas, for two reasons.
a) California' strategic value in the East;
b) Britain's interest in buying it for themselves would expose us to attack from the West.
To press Mexico for territorial concessions, Polk sent troops to the disputed area between the
Nueces and Rio Grande Rivers, which both sides claimed. For further pressure, he sent a naval
squadron to the coast of California, and a "topographical and scientific exploration team" led by
Capt. John Fremont, to the California-New Mexico area to ferment revolt among the citizens.
(Rice, Vol. I, 189) Mexico already was upset about the United States for several reasons:
a) the annexation of Texas, which Mexico still thought of as their own;
b) the American claim that Texas' boundary was the southern boundary of the Rio Grande River,
further south than the Nueces border the Mexicans recognized;
c) U.S. ambition for further Mexican territory;
d) a mistake by a naval captain who captured the town of Monterey, thinking war existed, then
gave it back when he learned of his mistake.
The Mexicans refused special envoy John Slidell, and a revolt brought to power a military
government eager to attack the Yankees. Slidell's orders were to:
a) offer to assume U.S. citizens' claims against debts by the Mexicans;
b) offer $5 million for New Mexico;
c) offer up to $25 million for California and New Mexico.
The Mexicans saw this as an attempt to steal away the country, and naturally were upset.
Polk decided to order Gen. Zachary Taylor to cross the river into Mexico, and, not
hearing of a clash, was set to tell Congress Taylor had been attacked when word actually arrived
saying he had. Congress joined the president in declaring war, and approved 50,000 men for
service and $10 million for war costs. The South and West were jubilant, the Northeast
apathetic, believing it a furthering of slavery and imperialistic.
The Mexican War
Zachary Taylor quickly won northern Mexico, but it took Winfield Scott to take Mexico
City by way of Vera Cruz. John Fremont led the Californians against the Mexican overseers,
making that area secure. The war itself was quick, and ended with the Treaty of GuadelupeHidalgo. It:
a) got Mexico to accept the Rio Grande border;
b) gave up California and New Mexico, called together the Mexican Cession (which led to the
creation of five states);
c) gave Mexico $15 million and assumed U.S. claims against the Mexicans.
Gadsden
In 1853, 5 years after the war, the U.S. paid $10 million for a narrow strip of land that
offered the best rail route to the west. Many citizens thought the exorbitant price was a payment
of blood money, to ease our conscience over the war.
Immigration Expands America
The growing need for labor was a major reason for the growth in immigration beginning
in the 1820s. In fact, in the 1820s, 129,000 immigrants arrived on our shores. The following
decade saw that number swell to 540,000. Of that number, 44% were Irish seeking to escape the
potato blight back home, 30% were German, and 15% were English. The total for the 1840s
nearly tripled that of the 30s, leading to an enormous 2,814,554 arriving in the 1850s. Following
1840, of the immigrants arriving in the U.S., 50% were Irish, and the second largest group being
German. Observe the scale below:
Year
1820 1830 1840 1850
1860
1930
U.S. Population
9.6M 12.9M 17M
23.2M 31.5M 131.7M
This was the impact of the immigrant.
The first Scandinavians came over on the Restaurationen in 1825, with 53 aboard; they
and their followers made their way to Wisconsin and Minnesota, similar to their native lands.
Jackson Democrats were the first politicians to take advantage of the immigrant factor.
Those arriving in America found helpful public servants willing to aid in a quest for a job or
when the immigrant simply was in trouble. By doing so, a large constituent base was formed to
combat the pro-business factions against the rights of the common man. As immigrants were
employed largely in the cities in factories where work existed, the Jacksonians gained a natural
ally. In 1855, first generation Irish immigrants made up 34% of all voters.
Catholics were not significant in number until the Irish and Germans escaping
Protestantism arrived. Some governments aided Catholics to leave, "dumping" them on U.S.
shores. The overall need for work was so great that in order to remain competitive and take a
job, immigrants like the Catholics would voluntarily cut their wages so as to be the cheapest
laborer possible, and thus insure their jobs. Union fought against the loss of "native" jobs, but
weren't altogether successful. In the depression of 1837-40, wages fell to between 50 and 75
cents a day.
Manufacturing follows immigration
The rapid growth in immigration allowed more factories and jobs in the cities, also
pulling people off the farm to become urbanized. Between 1820 and 1850, the cities of New
York, Philadelphia, Baltimore and Boston went from a combined population of 343,000 to
1.162M.
The most famous example of the growth in manufacturing was provided by the Lowell
System. Found in Lowell, Massachusetts, this system encouraged young, teenage to early 20s
females to take jobs in the textile industry. Operating the textile machinery by day, the girls
went to church and were supervised in all social dealings to insure their wholesome image.
Appealing to rural parents to allow their daughter to leave, and thus allow the family more
money for themselves, the girls' earnings would be split evenly among Lowell for housing, food,
and clothing, and half to the family back home. This allowed many farm girls the chance to
broaden their experience and also make a contribution not possible back home. Lowell's success
allowed a woolen counterpart in nearby Lawrence.
Most mills were powered by water, rather than coal or iron because as a source in the
North, it was plentiful. The South was at a distinct disadvantage due to a lack of useful
waterways, and this explains much of the fact that the North was better industrialized and able to
outproduce the South during the Civil War.
Zachary Taylor
(1849-1850)
Election of 1848
Zachary Taylor was the second and last Whig elected president. The signal event of the
election of 1848 was the agreement between the Whig and Democratic parties to avoid the issue
of slavery in their platforms. Both knew that to take a strong stand would cripple their
campaigns in different-minded regions. The Whigs nominated Taylor, even with their past
opposition to the Mexican War. Whigs primarily called for popular sovereignty, earning votes
from the South and West, as well as southern Democrats who favored the issue. Many
Democrats and anti-slavery Whigs allied by forming the Free-Soil party, but proved
unsuccessful.
California Gold Rush
California caused a big problem with the discovery of gold in 1848. Discovered at John
Sutter's sawmill, gold had an immediate effect nationwide. Instantly, eastern towns locked in
declining economies found their populations depleted, and the whole world flocked to California
to cash in on the bonanza. There were three routes taken to the gold fields:
a) overland (the longest);
b) around Cape Horn, usually in a fast clipper ship (most dangerous);
c) by clipper to the isthmus of Panama, overland by rail, clipper to California (fastest).
Instantly, the population swelled, and prices rose to meet the demands, such as $10 for a dozen
eggs or a pinch of gold for a drink of whiskey. Levi Strauss was unsuccessful as a miner, yet
made a fortune making durable denim clothing. One prostitute taking advantage of the easy
money made $50,000 a month. (Gregory 72)
In 1848, locals had found $25,000 in nuggets, but little attention was paid. However, by
1852, 100,000 miners were present, taking gold valued at $81 million from the new state. By
1858, $345 million in gold was spent in San Francisco, all taken from the nearby hills. (Gregory
72)
{
In 1851, another large mineral deposit was discovered in Colorado, called the Comstock
Lode. A combination of silver and gold had naturally formed, and one ton of ore earned $4791,
of which $3196 was silver. (Gregory 75) The truly amazing fact comes that at one location in
the area, a vein of nearly solid silver close to 20 feet wide was found and mined. (Gregory 74)
As a further example of America's growing trading network, Persia agreed to a treaty
binding it to the United States for its primary goods, rather than Britain, seen as more
exploitative in nature, owing to the occupation of India. (Palmer 6)}
{
In 1854, Persia requested "several vessels of war and to procure the services of American
officers and seamen to navigate them," ostensibly for defense against hostile Persian Gulf
neighbors. Persia hoped to be spared further attacks and even requested that several of the shah's
ships be allowed to be reflagged as U.S. vessels. This offer was turned down. (Palmer 7)
{The ambitions of the United States were growing, and as early as 1856, diplomats were
boasting of America "destined one day to control the commerce of the world." (Palmer 8)}
Abraham Lincoln
(1861-1865)
The Civil War
220,000 troops fought for the Union during the Civil War, of which 37,500 died. (Powell
61)
The C.S.S. H.L. Hunley became the first submarine to sink an enemy ship on Feb.17,
1864, sinking the U.S.S. Housatonic in Charleston, S.C. Despite the victory, the Hunley itself
failed to return from its mission. This was not surprising, since the submarine had sunk twice
previously in training missions, both times with the loss of her crew. (CSS Hunley Found 17)
Southern general Jubal Early nearly overtook Washington D.C. on July 11, 1864 with his
II Corps of the Army of Northern Virginia. If the capitol was taken, it was possible that the
embarrassment could aid Lincoln's defeat in the presidential elections of 1864 to Democrat
George McClellan, who advocated a negotiated peace with the South. Early had argued against
secession prior to the war, but felt his duty lay with his state. Washington was originally
defended by 18,000 artillerymen and 900 guns along 37 miles of fortifications, but Grant's attack
on Petersburg, Virginia had sapped the figure to a much lower count of 4,000. Early had 14,000
soldiers, and knew he had to attack before the inbound 17,000 soldiers grant had sent for
reinforcement arrived. Early's men had to rest before their assault, having marched 250 miles in
three weeks. One general under Early of note was John Breckinridge, former vice-president, and
the second-place finisher in the presidential election of 1860 to election. On the morning of
Early's expected attack, he awoke to find that the reinforcements Grant had sent had arrived,
ending his bid to capture Washington. (Lewis 69)
Views towards the South
Lincoln issued the Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction in December of 1863 to
show the seceded Southern states that reentering the Union might not be as harsh as they may
have feared. The goals of the Proclamation were to ease the South back into the Union with very
little effort, to demonstrate an attitude of conciliation and forgiveness. There were two parts to
it:
1) He offered to pardon all who swore their allegiance to the Union, (only with the exception of
Confederate governmental leaders), and also swore to abide by the laws passed by Congress
during the time of the rebellion in regards to slavery.
2) New governments for the seceded states were authorized to form if a minimum of 10% of
the voters on the rolls from 1860 would make the above loyalty oath, providing the more
common name for the entire Proclamation, the "10 percent plan". Three states already under the
control of the Union army quickly accepted these conditions and were accepted, these being
Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee. (Rice 229)
Lincoln could continue to call on the support of moderate and conservative Republicans
who held the cause of Union most dear, but their power and influence lost ground to the
extremists of the Radical Republicans, who were assuming greater control in Congress.
Congressional Opposition
Congress proposed their own plan in July, 1864, called the Wade-Davis Bill. The antisouthern Radicals viewed the President's plan as too lenient, and their harsher requirements were
spelled out in the new bill. The bill authorized the president to conduct a census in the
conquered states before establishment of a government could proceed. In addition, state
constitutional conventions were required for rewriting each state's individual constitution to
incorporate abolition of slavery, prohibit former Confederate government workers or soldiers
from voting, and repudiation of all Confederate war debts. In addition, each state would have to
have 50% of its eligible voters from 1860 swear a loyalty oath affirming they had never taken up
arms against the Union. This measure was the hard part, because by the end of the Civil War,
most of the white males that had made up the electorate in 1860 had served the Confederacy in
some aspect, thus forcing a very slow readmission upon the Confederate states. Lincoln could
not afford to alienate the powerful Radicals, and fortunately for him, was able to pocket veto the
bill, denying its passage into law. (Rice 230)
Why the long readmission? Congress hoped to use the time to build up the Republican
Party in the South, protect the rights of blacks, and ensure that the South served out a punishment
while the North remade them into what the Radicals envisioned.
Characteristics of the Radicals
Following Lincoln's assassination, many policy-makers straddling the issue of a lenient
or harsh policy on Southern readmission found themselves solely on the side of the Radicals.
Led by Charles Sumner and Thaddeus Stevens, the Radicals in Congress had a well-developed
agenda, which Johnson had the poor luck to face. During the Johnson administration, they had
six features:
a) personal animosity to Johnson because they believed him unworthy of the office;
b) fear of encroachment on Congressional powers by the presidency;
c) desire to safeguard interests of freedmen;
d) resentment over the quick rise to power by former Confederates in the South;
e) determination to grow the Republican party in the South;
f) hope that a lack of Southern influence would allow government aid to industry.
Andrew Johnson
(1865-1868)
Domestic Affairs
Johnson had the unfortunate position to follow one of the most loved presidents in
American history, during a period when sectional bitterness was extraordinarily high. Originally
a Democrat, and hailing from Tennessee, Johnson was alienated from his own political party
from the moment he assumed the office. Congressional Radicals seeking to punish the South for
the Civil War hoped for a president eager to join their efforts, but instead found one with his own
agenda in mind.
Johnson followed Lincoln's belief that the rebel states should be brought back into the
Union quickly, and that they had never officially been "seceded." The 1869 Supreme Court case
Texas v. White later upheld this view, stating that the Union was constitutionally indestructible,
refuting the Radical's "conquered provinces" argument. In order to bring these states back into
the Union quickly, Johnson returned to the "Ten Percent Plan," while the Radical Republicans
saw this as being too easy, and urged a stronger policy using 50%. With Johnson seeking to
spare his native South from a vengeful process, the two sides were poised to clash.
Readmission Goals
Johnson had three steps to bring Southern states back into the fold:
a) repeal their ordinances of secession;
b) repudiate their Confederate war debts;
c) ratify the 13th Amendment to the Constitution.
The Radicals had altogether different agendas on their mind.
Following these rules, 7 governors were appointed by President Johnson, who in turn
were to select delegates to their own state constitutional conventions. All of them followed the
three steps above, and by the end of 1865 only Texas had complied with the Lincoln/Johnson
plan for readmission. As a further insult to the Radicals, Southern voters elected former
Confederate officials, including vice-president Alexander Stephens of Georgia, to seats in
Congress. The Radicals refused these credentials, and the South proudly and stubbornly stood
by their choices rather than accept the Congressional plans, leaving seats open in the Congress
for a period of time. (Rice 231)
One further issue that upset the Radicals was Johnson's "10% governments" had passed a
series of restrictive laws on the rights of blacks. The Black Codes did not allow the right to
public office, to serve on juries, bear arms, or work in any job except farming without a license
to do so. Blacks found idly passing time or drifting through town were put to work in the fields
in an effort to continue the weakened Southern economy.
As an attempt to combat the Black Codes, Congress created the Freedmen's Bureau.
Although Freedmen were its primary target, poorer whites in the South were also eligible to use
its services. The goals of the Bureau were to provide freed blacks with the necessities of life,
protect their civil rights, as well as take charge and care for abandoned Southern property.
Educating the freed slaves was a major goal, insuring that the responsibilities of citizenship and
the needs of daily life would be possible. By 1870, $5 million had been spent on freedmen's
education alone.
Aiding the process of rebuilding the South came from several groups of people, although
these were not always popular with the former Southern elites. Carpetbaggers were northerners,
so-called from the exteriors of their baggage that came south with them. The carpetbaggers were
usually ex-soldiers, eager to find work, or interested solely in profiting from the misfortunes of
their wartime antagonists. Yet their situation was somewhat better than what other Northern
soldiers found, because with hundreds of thousands of soldiers being released at the same time,
the economy and job market in the North were not able to hire at once. The jobs rebuilding and
repairing in the South were plentiful, and some of the soldiers had also come to appreciate the
countryside of the South, and thus wanted to relocate there. Some also wanted to aid the
freedmen. Scalawags were Southerners that aided the federal government either during the war
of afterwards with the Radical Republicans, freedmen, and carpetbaggers, hoping to improve
their standing. Most were-small-farm whites whose lack of slaves had kept them at the lower
end of the economic scale, but left them with smaller losses when the war ended, allowing a
quick rise to the top as they used their generations-old ability to persevere to their advantage.
In December of 1865, Congress refused the credentials of new Southern representatives
hoping to retake their seats they were entitled to because of early readmissions gained by
following the less stringent 10% Plan. Because the Constitution grants each house the ability to
judge the election and qualifications of its members, this was a slap in the face to what Johnson
had tried to accomplish.
In April of 1866, the Civil Rights Act of 1866 was passed by the Congress, assuring
equal legal treatment for both black and white. Johnson vetoed the bill, and was overridden. To
further protect the citizenship rights of the ex-slaves, the Fourteenth Amendment was passed in
June of that year, which Tennessee quickly passed, and was therefore readmitted to the Union.
Another bill passed to bring closure to the effects of the Civil War came with the
Reconstruction Act. The ten states that had not yet been either able or allowed to rejoin the
Union were organized into five military districts overseen by victorious Union Civil War
generals including Sherman and Sheridan. For a state to be readmitted at this point, a
constitutional convention elected by both blacks and whites would have to produce a constitution
guaranteeing universal male suffrage. Following that, the constitution had to be approved by
Congress. With that accomplished, the next stage demanded that a state's qualified voters elect a
state legislature. The Fourteenth Amendment had to be passed by the new legislature, and then
and only then would a state be allowed to apply for representation. Because of all the conditions,
and especially because congress was given the right to make the final say, Johnson vetoed this
bill as well, but was once again overridden.
Foreign Affairs
Johnson's inherited Secretary of State, William H. Seward, was actively involved in U.S.
policy during Johnson's term. In 1864, Napoleon III of France put Austria's Archduke
Maximilian on the Mexican throne. With the U.S. involved in the Civil War, troops were
unavailable to make a show of force against Maximilian and his French troops. The U.S.
protested this violation of the Monroe Doctrine, and what troops that could be spared were
ordered to take up positions along the U.S.-Mexico border once our own hostilities were over. In
1867, Napoleon III experienced problems at home, and the troops he had sent to Mexico were
returned home to aid in the struggle there. With Maximilian left unprotected, the Mexicans rose
up in revolt and executed their puppet leader. This ended European attempts to bypass the
Monroe Doctrine for many years.
Also in 1867, Seward negotiated for the purchase of Alaska, costing the U.S. $7.2
million. The Russians, believing that the frozen territory was running out of furs, and in need of
money, offered the land to Seward. Recognizing that the Russians were the only great power to
openly support the U.S. during the Civil War, Seward accepted the deal to great public criticism,
which obviously changed when the riches left undiscovered finally were uncovered.
The Russians, as said before, had actively supported the Union during the Civil War.
Their reasons for doing so were primarily because of their desire to see the United States remain
capable of keeping a check on the British in the region. To further underscore the point, Russia
dispatched several ships on a goodwill visit to San Francisco and New York in 1863, largely to
signal France and England to leave their forces out of the area.
Johnson Undone
The frequent and divisive conflict between the congressional Republicans and Johnson
reached its boiling point in 1867. Incensed over his public criticism and frequent vetoes of
congressional legislation, a trap was prepared for President Johnson. Secretary of War Edwin
Stanton was supportive of the Radicals in Congress, and refused to follow the directions of the
president. To keep their ally in office, Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act. This act
forbade the president from firing any federal officeholders, even those in the Senate. Their
reasoning was that congressional approval was necessary to appoint the officeholders, so why
not their firing? Johnson believed the act trespassed upon presidential authority and was
therefore unconstitutional; he then fired Stanton.
Having broken a federal law, Congress opened impeachment proceedings against the
president. Running from March 5 to May 26 of 1868, Johnson was indicted for nine counts
against the Tenure of Office Act (labeled "high crimes and misdemeanors"), one for failing to
properly execute the reconstruction acts, and one for giving public speeches that showed
disrespect for the Congress, Johnson was found to have violated all of the charges by the House,
and was thus tried by the Senate, which had the ultimate decision as to his fate. Johnson's fate
came down to one vote, because with 35 votes for his dismissal, 19 against, with seven
Republicans joining the Democrats, the necessary 2/3 was not reached. Despite his moral
victory, Johnson was finished, and the American public prepared for a new election. (The
Tenure of Office Act would be repealed later in 1887.) (Rice Vol.I, p. 233)
Ulysses S. Grant
(1868-76)
Election of 1868
In 1868, Grant was offered the Republican nomination for president, using his military
success as a springboard used before by others. One issue of the campaign involved hard and
soft money. Because greater availability of money decreases the value of the dollar, farmers and
western interests supported greenback availability. Called the Ohio Idea, Grant's Democratic
opponents in the 1868 election ran on a platform supporting this view. With pro-business and
northern Republicans in charge, however, businesses demanding sound money for mortgages
and other loans and payments carried the day. Grant won largely because of his wartime success
and popularity, untrained in civil government and domestic affairs.
Corruption during the Grant administration
Above anything else, Grant's term in office is largely remembered for the scandals and
corruption that came to light. One of the first episodes occurred as a result of the nation's
reliance upon gold. Bankers and speculators Fisk and Gould schemed to take over the U.S. gold
market, after receiving the indication from those around Grant that an upsurge in the national rate
paid for gold would not cause him to release government-held gold in an effort to hold down the
price. Fisk and Gould began to buy up most of the privately held gold, and when they had
enough even to control future production and sales by buying those contracts, the rate began to
rise quickly on the market. The largest impact was felt by businessmen reliant upon the
availability of the metal for wage and other payments. Grant surprised everyone on Black
Friday, Sept. 24, 1869, by dumping $4 million worth of gold on the market to drop the price,
which had risen to disastrous levels. With the availability increased, the price dropped, but not
in time for businessmen and farmers that had been bankrupted earlier.
Grant also presided over a system of nepotism. Many members of Grant's family and
friends were put into a variety of federal offices.
Corruption at the local level was evidenced by the power of political "bosses", such as
Tweed in New York City. His organization, known as Tammany Hall, was
responsible for the bribing of government officials and judges. With their help, the Tweed Ring
looted more than $100 million from New York City before they were shut down. Political
bosses had virtually entire control of a city, enforced by controlling both labor and housing
availability to the people. Lower-level bosses, called ward bosses, reported to the larger one, and
were responsible for keeping tabs on everything in their assigned ward. To breed support,
significant events such as birth of a child, marriage, etc. would be rewarded in some way, either
through giving gifts, or even free rent for a month.
The most scandalous tainting of Grant's administration came in the Credit Mobilier
scandal. Credit Mobilier was a construction company that had profited by building the Union
Pacific Railroad. The owners of the company, seeking government aid and benefits such as
loans, land, and relaxation of legal standards, used Democratic Rep. Oakes Ames of
Massachusetts to parcel out large amounts of stock to congressmen. Now having some stake in
the railroad business, they led the effort to pass railroad-friendly legislation. With Congress
aiding the railroad barons, profits were immense. When word reached the public, however, a cry
of uproar went up. Included in the list of congressmen involved were Grant's vice-president,
Schuyler Colfax (the Speaker of the House when the stock was distributed), and James Garfield,
the next speaker. Although the bribing was done late in the 1860s and did not surface until 1872,
public distrust of the Republicans resulted in the loss of the congressional elections of 1874,
putting the Democrats in the majority in Congress.
Turmoil in the Republican Party
Whereas the Radical Republicans had controlled Congress during the Civil War, and
during the opening of Reconstruction, a second group, disgusted by the corruption, scandal, and
disgrace emerged within the party. Called the Liberal Republicans, they opposed Grant and his
loosely-controlled administration, and favored better treatment of the South under
Reconstruction, similarly to Lincoln and Johnson's hopes. At a separate national convention,
Horace Greeley, a fiery newspaper publisher and critic of the scandals, was nominated for the
1872 presidential campaign. The Radical wing renominated war hero Grant, and the stage was
set for a bitter campaign.
Recognizing that Greeley and his supporters would be a strong challenge for Grant's reelection, the Democrats also nominated Greeley. With both groups behind him, Greeley
campaigned well, but the residual support for Grant and his Civil War record enabled him to beat
the largely unpopular Greeley.
Scandals continue in the second term
Another issue in the list of scandals during Grant's time was that of the "salary grab".
Partway through 1873, Congress approved a raise for all three branches of government,
including a 50% raise retroactive two years before. Having literally changed their pay overnight,
congress was forced to repeal their own raise, but was not allowed to repeal the pay of the
president or Supreme Court constitutionally.
Another highlighted episode of corruption during 1874 was found when the Secretary of
the Treasury, William Richardson, resigned from office because it had been discovered that he
had allowed a friend, John Sanborn, to take money that had rightfully belonged to the
government. Sanborn's job was to collect unpaid internal revenue taxes, and he had kept the
commissions.
An investigation by Richardson's successor, Benjamin Bristow, turned up even more
problems for the Grant administration in 1875. The Whiskey Ring involved a system of payoffs
between St. Louis government officials and whiskey producers. In return for reduced taxes on
their whiskey, distillers paid those officials designated to collect the money. This scandal
stopped at the president's door, because his private secretary also received payment. When
informed of the scandal and its 238 participants, Grant soberly said, "Let no guilty man escape."
In 1876, Grant lost another cabinet member to scandal when the Secretary of War
resigned. William Belknap, as head of the War Department, was responsible not only for
national defense, but also for dealings with the Indians. In this capacity, he approved and
assigned contracts for businesses selling supplies to relocated Indians. Belknap was found to
have sold these rights to the highest bidder, skimming off $25,000, and then the Indians
sometimes never even got their supplies, which were instead sold to whites.
Silver politics
Grant's administration was greatly affected by the hard and soft money issue. During this
time period, the government believed that the rate paid for silver, used for specie coinage, was
worth 1/16 of gold's value. Because of this view, and its undervaluation, private companies that
used silver for jewelry and other goods were willing to pay more. With less and less silver being
available on the open market, silver money became harder and harder to produce. With less
silver money available for public use, the value of the dollar edged upwards, squeezing farmers
and others in debt. When the outcry reached Congress, the Coinage Act of 1873 specified that
silver would no longer be minted for coinage, and that gold would be the only metal minted now.
(This was the beginning of the gold standard, having previously been on the gold and silver
standard.) Greenbacks were slowly recalled, and led to the Resumption Act of 1875. This act
specified that the rate of greenback recalls would be increased, and that gold would be paid for
whatever would be left in 1879. The farmers being made happy, life moved on for the Grant
administration.
The bounty of the Comstock Lode changed the farmers' outlook. The nation's largest
deposit of silver was discovered in Nevada in 1859, but its ability to produce large amounts of
silver was not apparent until the mid-70s. With a huge amount now available, the price of silver
dropped quickly, and in an effort to maintain some profit, mine owners offered to sell their silver
at the old rate of 1/16 of gold. Grant refused, fearing more fluctuations ahead for the value of the
dollar.
The Alabama settlement
The Grant administration's lone success in the international arena came from a final
settlement with Britain. During the Civil War, depot American demands not to aid the
Confederate government, British shipyards built a few ships for the nucleus of a Southern navy.
The most famous of these ships, designed to destroy Union naval and merchant ships, was the
C.S.S Alabama. This ship destroyed over 60 American vessels both here and abroad, causing
millions of dollars in damage and losses. In 1871, Grant's well-regarded Secretary of State,
Hamilton Fish, took the American demands to an international court in Geneva. Holding Britain
responsible for breaking its neutrality, the U.S. sued, and Britain agreed to pay $15 million in
restitution, ending a long dispute between the two nations.
Rutherford B. Hayes
(1876-1880)
Election of 1876
When the time for the presidential campaign came in 1876, political squabbles between
the Republican wings caused problems for their convention. By this time, disputes had become
more polarized, and the names of the groups changed. The Radicals became the Stalwart faction,
while the Liberals became known as the Half-Breeds, based on their willingness to desert the
party and aid the democrats in the 1872 election. The Stalwarts favored renominating Grant for
a third term, but the Half-Breeds supported Rutherford B. Hayes. Hayes was the governor of
Ohio, and his reputation for honesty was to be his saving grace. The Democrats picked Samuel
J. Tilden, best known for prosecuting the Tweed Ring while governor of New York, to be their
candidate. Using the corruption of the Grant administration as a sobering rallying cry, the HalfBreeds succeeded in their efforts to nominate Hayes.
The Democrats campaigned using the Republican record of corruption, graft and abuses,
while the Republicans continued to wave the bloody shirt. Tilden himself was not really
interested in running, and spent more of his time at home at home than on the road, due to
illness. Neither party campaigned with many new ideas, or even differences between them, to
straddle the fence politically and not lose votes because of extremism. When the voting was
done, however, the ill Tilden had received 4.3 million votes to Hayes' 4.0 million. Electorally,
Tilden had 184 votes, and Hayes 165. Therein lay the problem.
For Tilden to have been named the winner, according to the constitutional formula, he
needed one more vote for the majority. The only problem here was that 20 votes were disputed,
and because Congress has to decide the winner constitutionally in a given situation, the issue was
politically explosive. To safeguard against party votes, a commission was established to decide
the issue. Fifteen people were selected as shown here:
Senate
House
Supreme Court
3 Republicans
2 Republicans
3 judges nominated by Republicans
2 Democrats
3 Democrats
2 judges nominated by Democrats
Out of 15 people, the Republicans had an 8-7 majority.
The 20 votes were from four states: Louisiana, Florida, South Carolina, and Oregon.
Oregon was the easiest case, with one vote in contention because an elector was a federal
employee (which was illegal). The other three states had a problem because their Republicandominated carpetbag governments had two sets of election returns each. One set was accurate,
one set had changes to aid the Republican cause. For instance, the falsified Louisiana set had
over 9,000 votes missing or destroyed. The committee looked at these returns, and when the
time came for their ruling, as can be expected, the vote went along party lines, 8-7, and the
republicans were declared the winner.
To quell Democratic outbursts, during the time that the committee was studying the issue,
Hayes and the Republicans met with their Democratic counterparts. In the Compromise of 1877,
the Republicans made four concessions:
1) all federal troops would leave the South, thus ending Reconstruction;
2) a Southern cabinet member would be appointed;
3) federal funds would be used to make internal improvements in the South (an idea
that historically had been opposed by the South)
4) some local control of the patronage system would be given to the Democrats.
Domestic politics
Hayes faced a Democratic congress, and his relations with them were stormy. An
investigation into the 1876 election was merely an attempt to embarrass the president. His ire
aroused, Hayes vetoed many appropriations bills and the tit-for-tat exchanges allowed little to be
done.
On the good side, Hayes reduced the corruption of government a little bit. During his
administration, federal officeholders were no longer allowed to be forced into making
contributions to their political party. he also reduced some of the patronage system, eliminating
expendable federal employees. Civil service reformer Carl Schurz was his Secretary of the
Interior.
the president's use of federal troops to break up a railroad strike earned him a reputation
as being anti-labor, and this label was intensified when he vetoed the Chinese Exclusion Act,
which would have stopped the admission of Chinese into this country. Their continued arrival
threatened U.S. jobs and lowered wages, according to opponents, but Hayes thought the act
would break our treaty with China.
The Fortunes of the Gilded Age
The success associated with the Gilded Age can be shown by noting that in 1861
America had produced only three multimillionaires- John Jacob Astor, Cornelius Vanderbilt, and
Alex Stewart (who founded Wanamakers stores.) In 1900, the number was up to 4,000.
(Gregory 185)
The Astors
John Jacob Astor was born in Germany, and at his death in 1848 was worth an estimated
$20-30 million, equivalent to nearly $2 billion in modern terms. His arrival in the United States
at the age of 21 found him trading gunpowder, guns, blankets, tobacco and cheap alcohol to the
Indians in return for furs and skins from upper New York state and Canada. With a markup
average of 1000%, and increasing following a British withdrawal in 1796, his profits rose when
these pelts no longer had to be shipped to the UK before they could be used in Europe, which
had previously caused some furs to be shipped over, and then back to the United States in order
to be used. His spring and fall auctions were such a draw that buyers would travel from all over
North America and Europe to bid for his wares. On a good day, 500,000 muskrat skins could be
sold. (Gregory 22)
With his profits, Astor began trade with China, importing teas, silks, spices and
chinaware to be sold elsewhere. The businessman's success was so great he operated two fleets,
one for Pacific trading and one for the Atlantic. At the height of this boom, his ships carried
90% of the world's fur markets. In 1800, at 37, his fortune was a respectable $250,000 ($25
million today.) (Gregory 23)
Shipping and furs not withstanding, Astor began to invest in real estate, notably in
Manhattan Island. In 1834, the year he started, only the southern tip was developed, while the
rest was farmland. He bought out the farms, and waited for the city to expand into his holdings,
which he built crowded housing on, and extorted huge amounts of rent from his tenants, and
selling land when the price suited him. His offspring continued this practice into the 1900s, and
used the profits to build palatial homes occupying nearly whole city blocks to reflect their
familial success.
Cornelius Vanderbilt
Vanderbilt was born in 1794. His learning was limited, and at the height of his success
he still wrote phonetically, although he possessed a photographic memory. (Gregory 39)
Interested in the sea at an early age, he received a loan from his father of $100 at the age of 16 in
order to buy a small boat in order to ferry passengers across a nearby lake. By the end of the
year, he had repaid the loan, and bought two more with the proceeds. Known for punctuality, he
would ferry anyone able to pay his fare, in any weather or time. He even defied the British
blockade ships during the War of 1812. During his early adult years, he was a passenger on
Robert Fulton's Clermont, and became interested in the steamship business, signing on as a sailor
for Thomas Gibbons, the shipping captain who had taken Fulton's company to the Supreme
Court over a New York state-granted monopoly and won. Vanderbilt at this time also believed
that monopolies were wrong, which would change later. (Gregory 40)
At the age of 35, Vanderbilt established a company of his own, with shipping along a
north-south route., destroying his competitors. not content with the New York portion of the
Hudson, he extended his reach to Philadelphia, Staten Island, Manhattan, and then out to sea.
(Gregory 41) This earned him the nickname "Commodore."
When the Gold Rush of '49 began, Vanderbilt established steamship lines on either side
of Nicaragua, and ferries across Lake Nicaragua, providing the fastest, and thus most desirable
route west to California. This route cut 400 miles off the trip, and several days of travel from the
Panama route. When sold in 1852, this gold mine of his own brought his wealth to $11 million,
evidenced by the finest yacht in America, the North Star. Not content with water travel, the
Commodore turned his attentions to railroads. His first venture began with the Harlem Railroad,
beginning in 1857 as a director. Originally buying stock for $10 a share, his payoffs to political
boss William Tweed and other financial moves in the wake of carefully placed rumors drove the
price to $179 before the end of the year, all for a small city streetcar service. (Gregory 42) On
the other side of the Hudson River, the Hudson River Railroad became his next target in 1863,
where once again, rumors of his interest caused investors to sell at a loss, while he bought up the
panicked shares. The New York Central Railroad was next, owned by Canadian shipping
magnate Edward Cunard and John Jacob Astor, Jr.
Vanderbilt forced the railroad to put him on its board of directors by his ownership of a
key bridge needed by the line. He eventually forced a merger of all three railroads, reorganized
them, and sold the group for $90 million, or $50,000 per mile of track between Buffalo and New
York City. (Gregory 44)
The Commodore's extraordinary life continued in 1869, when he entered his second
marriage, to a woman 50 years younger than himself. It was her influence that began the
Vanderbilt donations, such as $50,000 to his church, $500,000 to Central University in Nashville
(known renamed Vanderbilt Univ.). He also spent $7500 on seance mediums. At his death in
1877, he was worth $100 million, equivalent to $10 billion today. (Gregory 46)
The "Big Four"
The Big Four- Charles Crocker, Mark Hopkins, Collis P. Huntingdon, and Leland
Stanford- organized and built the first great transcontinental railroad. In forming pacific
Associates, their combined clout enabled them to build the first railroad that spanned across the
western United States, from Nebraska to California. While they provided the backing and clout
for the venture, they brought on Theodore Judah as their chief engineer, who was a strong
believer in the transcontinental railroad project. He charted a course for the line, through the
Rockies and Sierra Nevada mountains, which had thus far prohibited most plans made by others.
In 1861, the Big Four had $200,000 to invest, and by claiming a different total of $8.5 million,
got Congress to pass the Pacific Railway Act of 1862, as well as grant the charter for the
necessary public lands. The total received by the men's Central Pacific Railroad was 9 million
acres worth $24 million, all designed to link with the westward-expanding Union Pacific. Towns
eager for growth and success paid to be included on the railway route, a testament to the power
the railroads had. Work began on January 8, 1863, with 3,000 Irish and 10,000 Chinese laborers,
working for the rate of $2 a day for the Irish, and $1 a day for the Chinese.(Gregory 46) The two
railroads eventually joined at Promontory Point, Utah, heralding a strongly expected movement
from the East, helped by land speculating agents such as Henry Villard, who roamed Europe
selling the landless dreams of American success. (Gregory 51)
John D. Rockefeller
John D. Rockefeller, later referred to as "Reck-a-fellow", became famous (or infamous)
as the head of the enormously powerful Standard Oil Trust. Rockefeller, a very detailed, private
and boldly shrewd businessman, started out in Cleveland, Ohio making commissions selling
goods to others. By the end of his first year, 1859, his success earned him $500,000. (Gregory
57) He attracted attention from other businessmen interested in investing in a gooey black
substance from Pennsylvania just beginning to be experimented with- oil. Rockefeller urged
them to invest, and set up his own refinery to process the oil, used at the time only as a lubricant
and for indoor lighting (kerosene). In 1864, Henry Flagler was brought into the organization to
coordinate the transportation and distribution of the growing business. the partners incorporated
their business, Standard Oil, in 1870, planning to bring some standardization and consistent
quality to the kerosene/oil industry, hence the name. It started by bringing in the three best
refineries in Cleveland, and John D. became an oil man like no other of his day with the next
move. By guaranteeing a consistently larger shipment on their railroads, Standard Oil received
"rebates", or 50-cent discounts, to ship by rail, and kickbacks, which were payments made by the
railroads for the oil produced by Standard's rivals. In the end, Standard Oil's production costs
had a 25% advantage from these methods. All other refineries trying to compete were either
absorbed or undercut (sometimes even for a temporary loss), expanding Standard's power and
reach. (Gregory 58)
Pittsburgh, New York, and Philadelphia producers were all forced in by Standard and
Rockefeller because of their shared railroad use, and by 1878, Rockefeller controlled 95% of the
pipelines and refineries in the United States. Gasoline and benzene joined lubrication oil by
growing in demand with the rise in automobile use. Retailers and producers who fell out of line
with Standard were cut off, and the public was unwittingly forced to go to another one of
Rockefeller's loyal outlets. (Gregory 59) In 1881, the 40 companies collectively joined into
another Rockefeller creation, the trust, created when all of a company's shares, along with a
majority of its competitors', are divided among 9 trustees, who set the trust's policies. Shares in
the trust are then allocated by investment, which made Rockefeller amazingly rich, with his
191,700 shares. (Yergin 45)
In 1896, Rockefeller was able to retire to his estate in Pocantico, New York, with its own
golf course, which he played nearly every day. At his retirement, he was worth an estimated
$200 million, which grew to $1 billion by 1910, also aided by investments in real estate and
mines. He died in 1937. (Gregory 60)
J.P. Morgan
Morgan rose to fame as the Gilded Age's "Banker's Banker." Educated in Europe, he
followed in his father's profession. By 1898, Morgan had the majority voting rights to every
railway line on the South Atlantic seaboard, dominating the Erie and Reading Railroads,
Northern Pacific, and had controlling interest in the B&O and Central lines. He even financed
much of Cornelius Vanderbilt's transactions. In all , he controlled 49,000 miles of track in the
United States, with the rest dominated by his chief rival Jay Gould. (Gregory 97)
Andrew Carnegie
Associated with the concert hall that bears his name, Andrew Carnegie was one of the
most notable examples of the positive side of the wealth amassed in the Gilded Age. As the use
of steel grew, through skyscrapers, railroads, and shipping, Carnegie accumulated a great deal of
money through his own ingenuity. Carnegie emigrated from Scotland in September, 1848. He
found employment as a telegraph boy, which made him privy to private communications as well
as public ones. Hearing of an opportunity to buy American Express stock, he mortgaged his
mother's home on margin, or on partial payment per share. It paid off handsomely, and with his
profits, Carnegie bought shares in a railroad car-manufacturing company, as well as dabbling in
oil investment. (Gregory 63)
Because the U.S. steel manufacturing was so weak at this time, Carnegie noted that the
American tariff was set at $28/ton. Carnegie bought into a coal mine, iron mine, railway and
steel plant, enabling him to cut the middle man out of the steel process, and therefore lowering
the production cost, all while taking advantage of the helpful tariff. By selling his high-quality
product more cheaply than his rivals, Carnegie made a fortune. His first plant was even named
after his largest potential customer, a railroad businessman, in order to encourage sale (it
worked.) After four years, his factories produced 10,000 tons of steel a month, earning $1.6
million a year. He also, like Rockefeller, received railroad rebates. (Gregory 64)
Carnegie later tired of the business, and sold his interest to J.P. Morgan for $500 million,
enabling Carnegie to retire. In his retirement, Carnegie donated millions to libraries and public
projects. totaling $350 million by his death. (Gregory 66)
James Garfield
(1880-1881)
Election of 1880
With Hayes deciding not to run again, the first president to do so since Polk, the
Republicans once again had to find a candidate to agree on. The Stalwarts once again offered
Grant, and the Half-Breeds rallied behind their faction leader, James G. Blaine. On the 36th
ballot taken, compromise candidate James Garfield, a Half-Breed House representative from
Ohio, had the majority, and to appease the Stalwarts, Chester Arthur, Conkling's chief lieutenant
from the New York party machine, was selected as the vice-presidential nominee.
Political affairs and assassination
After his election, Garfield announced Blaine would be his secretary of state, and would
carry a lot of influence within the government. Senator Conkling, thus snubbed, developed a
quarrel with the president, especially when Garfield began to build up a Garfield-Blaine machine
in New York City.
With the continual struggle for power among the Republicans, it reached deadly
proportions less than four months after Garfield took office. Charles Guiteau, who had been
turned down by Garfield in his quest to attain a federal job, struck a blow against the Half-Breeds
by assassinating the president in a Washington railway station. Guiteau was reportedly shouted,
"I am a Stalwart, and now Arthur is president!" His hopes for a pardon from an Arthur thankful
for help in attaining the presidency were never met, and Guiteau was executed after his trial.
Chester Arthur
(1881-1884)
Political affairs
Widely regarded as a gentleman, the widower vice-president assumed the presidency
following Garfield's death. Arthur surprised most of his Stalwart supporters by being a
champion of civil service reform, and began steps to clean up government. Blaine was removed
from office, and efforts to reduce the patronage system were conducted.
In 1882, following a revision of the U.S. treaty with China, the Chinese Exclusion Act
was passed. This bill suspended further immigration by Chinese laborers, bowing to pressure
from Western groups and others affected by cheaper immigrant labor. Arthur vetoed it, but it
was passed over his veto by congress.
The Pendleton Act was the highlight of the political reform movement. Named after its
sponsor, Sen. George Pendleton, the act required the use of examinations of potential candidates
for federal office. In this regard, all applicants had an equal chance, and patronage was
restricted. In the beginning, 12% of all posts were affected by this change, but future presidents
would expand its enforcement. It also established a civil service commission to administer and
enforce these rules. One motivating factor for the bill's passage were hopes that Republicanappointed officeholders would be able to continue work if the congressional elections in 1884
went towards the Democrats.
Arthur also had the misfortune to be president while the United States government
accumulated a budget surplus from the efficient and steady tariffs and myriad of taxes collected
by government. With more money coming in than being spent, congress took advantage of the
situation by increasing the amount of pork-barrel legislation. One such bill allowing $18 million
to be spent for unneeded harbor and river improvements was vetoed by the president, unwilling
to use public money even while plenty was available, on such an obvious misuse of money.
Measures such as these earned Arthur respect from the nation. Many bills were passed
establishing military bases, roads, canals, and bridges.
The military, long neglected since the Civil War, also was improved. Arthur authorized
construction of bases, as mentioned before, but also expanded the navy to replace its aging
ironclads of 1860s vintage. Several new steel warships, the first in the U.S. Navy inventory,
were added; Chile already had used their own in combat, motivating the buildup.
In keeping with the expansion and success of American industry during the Gilded Age,
U.S. diplomats were scouring the world for new markets, and were generally welcomed, as
evidenced by what the shah of Persia told the U.S. minister to Teheran: "The field is opened to
American capital and industry, which have but to come and reap its fruits." (Palmer 10)
Grover Cleveland
(1884-1888)
Election of 1884
Despite having been shown the repercussions of party strife, the Republicans in 1884 did
little to address the situation. Arthur was hopeful for a second term, but the Stalwart faction
turned instead to James Blaine as the Republican nominee. The Democrats offered Grover
Cleveland, the governor of New York, known for his honesty and being a self-made man. The
reformist Half-Breed wing, finding the machine-oriented Blaine so detestable as a candidate,
became a splinter group known as the Mugwumps, and offered to support any decent candidate
the Democrats would nominate.
The issues of the campaign were spirited, to say the least. Republicans circulated the fact
that Cleveland had fathered an illegitimate child, which he admitted. Blaine gathered Irish votes
by making anti-British pronouncements, but lost them when the Democrats were labeled the
party of "Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion," by a reverend in the key state of New York. The
major issue was that of the tariff, which had been redone in the Tariff of 1883. The Republicans
favored high, protectionist tariff levels, contrary to what their own appointees recommended.
The Democrats favored a lower one, and even some advocated free trade. To a public watching
their country's budget surplus being spent on useless projects, the Democrats offered a better
choice.
Benjamin Harrison
(1888-1892)
Benjamin Harrison can be characterized as a dignified, conservative, and inept politician.
He largely ignored his cabinet, made up of largely effective officials. The lone exception to this
disuse was his Secretary of State, James G. Blaine.
As the Republican Harrison took office, he was pleased to have a fully Republicancontrolled Congress at his disposal. As a protective measure, the McKinley Tariff was passed,
setting rates at 50% on wool, raising the rates as well on cotton and steel, but not on foodstuffs.
The Sugar Trust, led by the American Sugar Refining Company, benefited from having no
protection, and also by bonuses from the U.S. government.
One of the biggest events of 1889 was found in Oklahoma, the great "land rush," as eager
settlers raced to acquire one of the last open stretches of free land. In order to obtain 160 acres,
settlers had to be 21, and present at the start of the "rush." After four years, the title to the land
would be the citizen's provided the land had been improved, lived upon for five years, and the
fee of $1.25 an acre was paid. Although Oklahoma had been created to serve as Indian Territory,
the frenzied desire for expansion forced the Native Americans to once again endure the loss of
their promised land. In March, to begin the episode, President Harrison announced the opening
of "unassigned lands" would take place in Oklahoma the following month, April 22. The
amount of land available totalled nearly two million acres divided into 12,000 parcels, and the
50,000 settlers were going to compete to reach the best spots when noon arrived. Europeans,
westerners, easterners, wealthy and working-class contestants swarmed to Kansas, to await the
beginning of the race. Some did not wait, including individuals who had squatted on the land for
a number of years ("Boomers"), but anyone attempting to sneak out too soon, or "Sooners", were
escorted back to the rest of the swarm of would-be Oklahomans. When the anointed hour came,
the rush began, and thousands rushed out to claim their futures, including one hardy woman, who
stuffed herself into a mattress, and was kicked from her son's moving buckboard wagon to claim
her own spot as he sped away. By the end of the day, almost all of the offered land had been
taken, and the frontier was for all in tents and purposes closed. (Day, 192-206)
Grover Cleveland
(1892-1896)
Cleveland returned to the White House in 1892, the only ex-president to be returned to
office. Gaining support mainly from the bankers and businessmen, Cleveland's vice-president
was chosen to deliver Midwestern votes that would have been given solely to Populist-supported
Republicans. During his second term, the West and South grew worse from an economic
depression, while the East survived, thanks to current government financial policies.
The Populists ran their own candidates for president and vice-president respectively.
Their presidential candidate, James Weaver, was a general for the Union army during the Civil
War, and as an effort to link all parts of the nation, the vice-presidential nominee was a
Confederate general. Largely a protest group, the Populists were somewhat successful in
bringing attention to their cause. Made up of Southern and Western farm and labor interests, the
Populists weren't able to win any electoral votes.
As the Democrats supported a lower tariff, Republicans lost support thanks to their
support of the present higher tariff, and also because of their reckless spending of the budget
surplus at the beginning of an economic depression. As a result, the Democrats took both houses
of Congress, as well as the presidency, for the first time in 36 years. Republicans blamed their
lack of traditional Midwestern support on the Populist movement.
Domestic affairs
A financial panic broke out soon after Cleveland's inauguration. It came about for the
following reasons:
a) Huge increases in government spending;
b) Stock and bond holders in Europe sold off their holdings to stave off their own countries'
depressions;
c) The business community was nervous about the Treasury reserve of gold falling below
$100 million in value.
Overall, railroads, banks, industry, and agriculture were affected. Agricultural and industrial
prices fell, and unemployment hit 20%.
Cleveland blamed the crisis on the silverites, and pushed the repeal of the Silver Purchase
Act. Bonds were then sold for gold to restore faith in the dollar. As an example of the
discontent, Coxey's Army, led by farmer Jacob Coxey, marched on Washington to protest the
joblessness. Coxey and his 500 followers made it to the Capitol grounds, where he hoped to
present Congress with a bill calling for currency inflation and public works programs that would
create jobs, but he was arrested for walking on the Capitol lawn, and the movement went away.
Cleveland's response to the situation was to back the Wilson-Gorman bill, which initially
reduced tariff rates, but increased income taxes, but the eventual bill contained 634 amendments
added to it, that increased the average tariff to 40%.
In addition to these problems, Cleveland had to deal with a BOUNDARY DISPUTE
PROBLEM WITH VENEZUELA, so in order to create jobs and meet the challenges of
Venezuela and a rising Japanese navy, the president authorized the navy to build three huge
battleships and twelve torpedo boats that wouldn't be available until 1900, following the war
against Spain. After these were authorized in 1895, he further approved three more battleships in
1896. (Coletta 174)
William McKinley
(1896-1901)
Election of 1896
With Cleveland and the Democratic party having difficulties on policy, William
McKinley became the first president of the 1900s. Most Democrats had convened at their
nominating convention supporting widespread coinage of silver, but the incumbent Cleveland
refused to comply, giving the nomination instead to William Jennings Bryan. Bryan called for
unlimited coinage of silver at a rate of 16 parts silver to 1 part gold. He also called for
government intervention in labor strikes, and more federal power for the Interstate Commerce
Commission against the railroads, which had earned public distrust for their rebate and kickback
policies, as well as for extortion caused by railroads that charged rental fees for grain storage
next to the track while deliberately holding up train schedules.
Ohio Republican party political boss Marcus Hanna rose to Bryan's challenge. Allied
with the local Cleveland, Ohio coal and iron interests, Hanna put forth William McKinley, who
had served 7 terms in the House of Representatives, and one as governor. The Republican
platform called for adherence to a gold standard to back the dollar, pensions, a stronger navy,
and federal arbitration to be used with strikes. The feared backlash from Populist-oriented
farmers did not arrive, because of a stronger than usual harvest, removing the last obstacles to the
election.
Bryan traveled to
Problems with Cuba lead to war with Spain
The United States grew concerned that another country other than Spain would take
control of Cuba as the European country's power dwindled, which would damage American
investments in her neighbor, an estimated $100 million annually (Gordon 529). Cuba was hit
hard by a depression caused by strong United States tariffs in 1893, and since the wealthy
American investors who had set up plantations in Cuba opposed Cuban independence (out of
fear they could lose their investments), some groups of agitated Cubans began to burn Americanowned properties in Cuba. Of further concern to Americans was the rule of "Butcher Weyler,"
the Spanish governor appointed to Cuba. He had ordered the construction of concentration
camps for government opponents, which was interpreted loosely enough to include women and
children. 200,000 people were estimated to have been killed.
To protect American interests in Cuba, the Navy dispatched the battleship Maine to
Havana harbor. The Maine arrived, and anchored without incident. The United States
government had other reasons to send a warship to the region, and had to begun to prepare
quietly for war. Several reasons were responsible:
a) Republicans hoped to increase McKinley's public popularity, hoping to have the country rally
around the chief executive;
b) Ambitious leaders such as Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt, who sought
to see the U.S. recognized as a world power (Roosevelt resigned this office when hostilities were
about to occur in order to be involved in the fighting);
c) The "Yellow journalism" of William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer's newspapers.
Both sensationalized their news in an attempt to outsell the other, even to the point of
printing falsehoods. Frederic Remington, the noted Western painter, was hired by Hearst to
illustrate conditions in Cuba, which included a false depiction of an
American woman being searched by a gang of Spanish officials (searches, when done,
were done by members of the same sex.)
d)The letter from the Spanish ambassador to the United States, Enrique Dupuy de Lome, to a
Cuban friend, was stolen in the mail and supplied to the U.S. newspapers. This de Lome letter
insulted President McKinley's leadership, and to show his apologies, de Lome resigned, but the
damage was done.
War is declared
The final straw came about when the Maine exploded without warning on Feb.15, 1898.
260 American sailors were killed, and the immediate blame and suspicion fell upon the Spanish.
[Years later, an American naval inquiry determined the cause of the explosion was a dangerous
buildup of coal fumes in one of the ship's coal bunkers that had been set off by a spark from a
seaman's clumsy mistake.] The United States demanded the Spanish turn over Cuba at once, and
did not wait to hear the agreement from Madrid (which arrived just following the start of the
Spanish-American War). McKinley followed public calls for war, and although not desiring a
conflict, requested Congress give a declaration of war on April 19, 1898.
Militarily, the United States was not ready. The army, comprised of about 30,000 men,
was to immediately grow by 200,000 volunteers, and was not prepared or equipped to do so
(Rice 101). Material-wise, the army had enough rifles for the regular army, but the volunteers
were forced to use single-loading Springfields and black powder because of shortages. In
addition, there was not enough khaki material to outfit the troops, so some were sent to Cuba in
winter-issue heavy blue uniforms. (Morison, Vol. 3, 121) Sanitation was also ill-equipped, so
that out of the 5462 deaths from the campaign, only 385 died in battle. (Rice 103) The navy had
been updated from veteran Civil War craft to more modern ironclads and steel-hulled ships over
time, such as shown by Cleveland, and therefore was in much better shape. However, citizens of
Atlantic coastal towns desperately incorrectly feared an attack, so much so that the Atlantic Fleet
was divided, with one group, the "Flying Squadron," deployed to Delaware Bay to satisfy the
demands of the powerful Northern congressmen, and a southern squadron based at Key West to
protect the southern United States and take on Cuba. (Coletta 181) In addition, when Lt.Col.
Theodore Roosevelt and his "Rough Riders" group of former polo players and cowboys-turned
cavalry soldiers loaded their transports and sailed to invade Cuba, they forgot the crucial element
that gave them their name- their horses.
Conduct of the war
The Spanish-American War took place in two phases, both occurring at the same time.
One of these was in Cuba, the other in Spain's other significant outpost, the Philippines. The
Philippines were easier, given their distance from Spain, and Commodore George Dewey,
having been alerted months before by Assistant Secretary Roosevelt, attacked the Spanish fleet
in Manila on May 1, 1898. The "battle" that ensued was a complete victory for the United States
Navy, as the entire Spanish fleet in residence without the loss of one U.S. sailor. Dewey then
erected a blockade of the islands, and waited for the U.S. Marine Corps to arrive, having been
mistakenly left behind in the United States, so that control of the land could be achieved. By the
time they did arrive, Guam had also been taken.
The taking of Cuba would take a stronger effort. U.S. ships took a defensive stand and
blockaded Santiago harbor, expecting to find the Spanish fleet, yet the Spanish did not venture
out until the governor of Cuba demanded they do so . U.S. ships under temporary command of
Commodore Winfield Scott Schley defeated them. U.S. ground forces totaling 17,000 invaded
on June 22, taking Santiago in conjunction with the blockade. The Rough Riders' moment of
glory came near San Juan Hill, where although they got much of the glory, the real casualties
were suffered by the black regiments of the 9th and 10th cavalry known as "Buffalo Soldiers."
(Berkin 390) The extreme bravery of these soldiers resulted in the awarding of twelve Medals of
Honor for outstanding bravery in combat, the nation's highest military award. (Powell 61)
The Peace
Spain, having been destroyed as a colonial power by the United States, was eager to end
the war, and sued for peace. Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines were given up without a
protest. The Spanish government did not want to hand over Cuba, and were forced to do so by
the United States. The Treaty of Paris 1898 officially ended the Spanish-American War. Spain
was given $20 million for the Philippines, and Cuba was granted independence from Spain,
although under U.S. rule. The United States now found itself the owner of overseas territory,
becoming an imperial power that alarmed some at home.
Two treaties oversaw United States rule over Cuba. The first of these was the Teller
Amendment, which had been inserted into the congressional war declaration requiring that the
United States would not be allowed to retain and rule over Cuba following the war. The second
of these was the Platt Amendment, which laid down the following conditions in the Cuban
Constitution granted by the United States in return for its troop withdrawal:
a) no treaties would be made by Cuba that threatened their independence;
b) the United States was allowed to intervene in Cuban territory in order to preserve this
independence and protect life, liberty and property in the nation;
c) The United States was granted military bases on Cuban soil, including Guantanamo Bay, a
major U.S. naval base still used today.
International affairs
McKinley annexed the Philippines in 1898 for several reasons. One such reason was
economic in nature, as the U.S. pursued more markets and materials. The U.S. also saw potential
in using the Philippines for its geographical significance as a window to Europe and also as a
strategic base. finally, many Americans saw the need to "educate..uplift and civilize them."
(Gordon 548)
Domestic affairs
McKinley supported the Gold Standard Act of 1900, which required all United States
paper money to be backed by gold.
Progressivism
Goals of the progressive movement
The progressives hoped to wipe out the graft, greed, and machine-type politics that had
begun to typify American government in the late 1800s. Businesses' control of legislators was
also vilified. Overall, the resulting type of government was intended to bring power to the
people, and end widespread poverty by elimination of legislation that harmed farmers, workers,
and consumers. One such tactic was to expand business regulation by the government. With
these ambitious goals, support for the movement came from the middle-class urban workers and
farmers.
Typical of reformist progressive politicians was Bob LaFollette of Wisconsin. LaFollette
brought out the Wisconsin Idea, against political bosses, corruption, and abuses of laws carried
out by businesses, especially railroads.
Anti-Trust legislation dooms Standard
With the great success of the Standard Oil giant, many other industries rushed to follow
the lead set by Rockefeller and reap larger benefits. For example, from 1882-1898, there existed
82 trusts, with a worth of $1.2 billion. However, from 1898-1904, the number swelled
dramatically to 234, worth $6 billion. This growth alarmed the progressivists, who demanded
the use of the Sherman Antitrust Act. As the largest, most powerful, and best known, Standard
was the first target. Undone by its own admissions to Tarbell and others, the huge trust was
ordered dissolved in July 1911. (Yergin 100)
With the breakup ordered by the federal courts, Standard's divisions were spun off into
separate companies, with distinct operating areas, all selling the same product, with the same
name, and the same price for some time. The original power of the colossus can be seen by what
the various divisions were turned into. The largest branch, Standard Oil of New Jersey, became
Exxon. The next largest, with 9% of the stock, Standard of New York, became Mobil.
California's division spawned Chevron. The Ohio branch led to Sohio, then the U.S. division of
BP. Indiana's Standard Oil became Amoco, while the Continental and Atlantic divisions gave
birth to Conoco and Sun. Rockefeller was not ruined by this breakup, rather, he profited from it,
and by retaining his shares in each, grew far more enormously wealthy. (Yergin 110)
Woodrow Wilson
(1912-1920)
When confronted with a decision as to who the United States would support in World
War I, it was noted that Britain, France and the Allies placed large orders for food, fuel,
machinery and war supplies without much flowing to the United States for trade. This made this
country a huge profit.
Six reasons can be given to explain the United States' decision in favor of the Allies:
a) Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare. This defied into the right of free trade, and 200
Americans had died before war was declared. Americans, as neutrals, should have enjoyed the
right to sail without harm, but obviously did not. This was demonstrated by the sinking of the
passenger liner Lusitania, which was sunk with over 1000 lives, 200 of which were American.
Germany had advance knowledge that the British ship was carrying munitions, and warned
passengers to avoid sailing on the ship prior to its departure. Despite that, the ship sailed, was
sunk without warning, and no effort made to rescue survivors. Germany then broke the
subsequent Sussex pledge, in which Germany had promised to attempt to rescue survivors of Uboat attacks. Unrestricted submarine warfare was resumed when Germany believed they had
enough U-boats to control British waters and patrol the Atlantic.
b) Pro-Allied propaganda. British supporters played on America's British heritage, and French
sympathizers reminded the country that France had stood by the U.S. when America needed help
during the American Revolution.
c) Anti-German hostility was aroused by the Zimmerman note, a letter from the German
minister to Mexico that had been intercepted by the BThe Earliest Americans
The Mongollan people lived in pit houses found in New Mexico around 500 A.D.
The Anasazi Indians moved into the Southwest near present-day Arizona, Colorado, and
New Mexico about 1050 A.D. These ancestors of the Pueblo Indians made use of mud and
straw to construct adobe structures, which, when hardened and baked by the sun, would last for
centuries. The Anasazi flourished until nearly 1550, when the years of inter-tribal warfare and
threat from Spanish settlement finally forced their end. These Southwestern Indians, primarily
peaceful, even built cliff dwellings onto the sides of steep peaks in the mountain valleys that
were easily defended by simply pulling up the ladders that granted entrance to the pueblos.
Pueblos were also built on flatlands in the Southwest by the Pueblos. One of these, found
in the Sangre de Cristo mountains, controlled the trade routes from the Pueblo farmers and the
nomadic plains Indian groups. The civilized society of Pueblos at the Pecos Pueblo was not
unique, but it was the dominant grouping of their tribe. Inter-tribal warfare with both Plains
Indians (including Sioux, Ute, Navajo, although mostly Apache) occurred occasionally, but by
and large, the Pueblos were peaceful, and interested in trade, benefiting the Spanish who would
arrive later. The Plains tribes would trade slaves (mostly war captives), buffalo hides, flint, and
shells in return for pottery, crops, turquoise and textiles. Pueblos raised corn, beans and squash,
using immigration to further swell their yields. The conquistador Coronado, when he visited the
Pecos Pueblo, estimate their storerooms to hold three years' supply in 1541. With a stable source
of food, the Pueblo communities grew, including some that housed thousands of people.
Early Colonization of the Americas
Although the Vikings made landfall on the North American coast, the first major attempt
at significant exploration and colonization of the New World took place by the Spanish.
Following Columbus' voyage to the Bahamas, several explorers, called conquistadors, made their
way to find their fortunes. Because the Spanish crown took 20% of all accumulated booty, there
was plenty of economic incentive to explore (Rice 8). Hernando Cortes conquered the Aztecs in
Mexico, acquiring their golden treasures accumulated by their king, Montezuma. Cortes killed
Montezuma as a demonstration of his power and also to eliminate the king as a potential rival for
the loyalties of the Aztec people. Francisco Coronado explored much of the American
Southwest on a quest for gold, including New Mexico, Arizona, and up into Kansas. Ponce de
Leon explored much of Florida in his 1513 quest to find the mythical fountain of youth; he
obviously did not.
Spain was attracted to the colonialization of the New World for two reasons. First and
foremost, the economic factor mentioned above-- gold. As Spain frequently found itself
competing on the world stage with other nations, money was needed to finance expeditions, as
well as the all-too-often war. Queen Isabella of Columbus fame financed his venture largely to
raise her own personal financial situation by the expected profits such a voyage would bring, for
example. Spain took advantage of the Treaty of Tordesillas line that divided the New World
holdings with Portugal, and explored the lands of the Americas in search of mines. Several were
found, and mints were established to coin the Spanish Empire's monies. Sites were established
in Potosi, Bolivia, Mexico City, and others.
Spanish Colonization of the Americas
Spain primarily colonized the Americas in three waves.
I. Initial probings
Attempts were made by some explorers, notably Balboa in 1513. His crossing and
exploration of the isthmus of Panama was the first large attempt at gauging the size and scope of
the growing empire.
II. Latin America
Hernando Cortes explored the area of Mexico, subjugating the Incas to the Spanish
throne and enslaving them in an effort to acquire their mineral wealth. Coronado explored the
American So the start. Wilson had left to negotiate the peace at Versailles, but neglected to
include one Republican in the team that would set European-American relations for the longterm future. Upset by this, they sought ways to pressure the president to pay them some
recognition and attention. The League represented a way to do that, because if voted upon by the
League, armed force could someday become possible with American troops involved, putting
someone other than the United States Congress in the role of deciding if war was to be declared.
This directly reduced Congress' constitutional power. Also, the League could interfere with U.S.
internal politics through rules on tariffs and immigration. In addition to these points, it was also
noted that Britain would gain a large amount of influence because each one of its dominions
received an equal vote as a nation. Finally, the League was a serious departure from an
isolationist policy sought following such a huge world conflict.
The Treaty of Versailles
Each nation came to the bargaining table with a different agenda. Britain sought to
expand its own colonial empire, in addition to retaining its naval and industrial superiority.
France, however, having been invaded and suffering from its effects, wanted guarantees against
further German encroachment by demanding military limitations, territorial losses to be used as a
buffer zone, and war reparations for their losses. Italy wanted more territory within Europe and
overseas. The United States, under Wilson, wanted the tenets of the 14 Points to be enacted.
As its military ruler and symbol of what had caused the war itself, the Kaiser was ordered
to abdicate and German authority was placed into a civilian government under President
Hindenberg. Weaker than the Kaiser, this same civilian government would never be able to
motivate and lead the nation until Hitler's rise towards the end of the decade. Because a civilian
government was out in charge, Germany itself was never put into military occupation, against the
advice of General Pershing, but in keeping with Marshal Foch's desires. There was originally
supposed to be a 60 day armistice, but it wasn't until 8 months after the guns fell silent that a
treaty was concluded. A blockade on Germany was enforced until that time, forcing terrible
havoc upon a Germany beset by postwar problems, now including starvation. No Germans or
Austrians were allowed to set terms of the peace, yet, as the Germans starved, debates over the
League of Nations kept stalling the treaty. Bitterness and mistrust stemming from these factors
later provided Adolf Hitler with ample ammunition when he rose to power blaming problems
upon the victors of World War I.
The Treaty of Versailles was finally completed in July 1919. Germany admitted its guilt
in starting the war, and gave up all of its colonies and Alsace-Lorriane (this loss of territory with
ethnic Germans was another issue Hitler used successfully in his rise to power). Germany was
required to a complete military and naval disarmament, and required to pay international
indemnities of $15 billion. Its economic situation was briefly put under Allied control to insure
that these payments would be received. Poland was also given its independence, and for the first
time in a thousand years, an independent Poland was sovereign again. Besides Poland,
Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia were created arbitrarily by the diplomats for ethnic groups of
Southern and Central Europe.
Warren Harding
(1920-1923)
Election of 1920
The election of 1920 was essentially a political contest over the issue of the Treaty of
Versailles. Democrats ran supporting the League, republicans against. Warren Harding, the
Republican candidate, received 16 million votes to Democrat James Cox' 9 million. Harding had
been selected by his party largely because of his lack of enemies, and did not campaign
aggressively. He became noted for his calls for a return to "normalcy." (Gordon 469)
Domestic affairs
Harding placed a great deal of trust and confidence in his lifelong friends and associates,
and accepted the placement of party hacks using the spoils system. One Harding friend,
Veterans Bureau chairman Charles Forbes, received millions of dollars in bribes to award
contracts dealing with veterans' care. Attorney General Harry Daugherty, Harding's political
patron, received kickbacks from liquor dealers avoiding prohibition statutes. Daugherty also
refused to prosecute other administration officials who had broken the law. For this, Daugherty
was never found guilty of wrongdoing in two separate trials.
The worst scandal occurred because of Harding's Secretary of the Interior, Albert Fall.
Fall had arranged for the Secretary of War to transfer lands holding millions of gallons of oil to
his department, oil that was supposed to be used in the event of a national crisis demanding Navy
action and deployment (which would therefore burn the oil.) The Secretary of War knew
nothing about the reasons Fall did so. Fall secretly gave U.S. oil companies contracts to extract
the oil, for which he received over $400,000. (Rice, Vol.2, 188) These oil reserves at Elk Hills,
California and Teapot Dome, Wyoming, embarrassed the president when discovered, and the
Teapot Dome scandal came to symbolize the corruption of the Harding administration.
Harding himself was not at fault, but believed in a laissez-faire system of government.
Businesses were favored over workers, and legislation was passed to reflect this feeling.
Harding was not careful in his appointments and did not oversee much of the work of the
executive branch. Harding himself did not really want to be president, and had only run for the
sake of his party. Harding instead preferred to play poker with his friends known as the Ohio
gang, late at night in the White House. All of these men had known each other for years, and
interestingly, they frequently enjoyed alcoholic beverages that had been confiscated by the FBI
and delivered to the White House via armored car.
International affairs
The Washington Naval Conference of 1921 was the first attempt at halting an arms race.
Representatives of the United States, Britain, Japan, France, and Italy met to discuss a naval
disarmament. The countries had engaged in an expensive shipbuilding program, causing some
countries to be worried they would be attacked if others were allowed to build up their navies.
Japan saw itself as an equal to the others, and had begun moves to expand its influence in the
Pacific, which caused alarm from countries weaker than them or with colonies. In the end, an
agreement was reached that would force each country to reduce its navy to fit the following
formula.
For every five tons of capital ship (battleship, cruiser, or aircraft carrier) used by the
United States or Britain, Japan would receive three, France and Italy one and 2/3.
The reasoning for the higher U.S.-U.K. amounts came from a need to be involved on
two oceans, owing to their possessions worldwide.
Into this treaty was inserted language that supported the Open Door policy in China, as a
caution to Japan. Also, under Article XIX of the treaty, U.S., British, and Japanese possessions
in the Pacific were forbidden from being further militarized if they were not already against
attack. These limitations were used by Congress to pass large defense cutbacks, causing the
navy to become weaker, and more vulnerable to changes in the security climate of the world.
This would continue into the 1930s. (Coletta 270)
Harding's administration's scandals really came to light in 1923, and contributed to his ill
health. After suffering from a severe illness, Harding died in office, to be replaced by vicepresident Calvin Coolidge.
Calvin Coolidge
(1923-1928)
Background
Coolidge had first gained notoriety for using the National Guard to stop a police strike in
Boston during his term as governor of Massachusetts. Upon entering office, he sought to restore
public faith in the government by ordering prosecution for anyone associated with scandals in the
previous administration, by also ordering the cooperation of all government employees.
Election of 1924
When it came time for the election of 1924, Republicans eagerly nominated Coolidge, in
support for the popular support he had received from a country pleased with prosperity and his
efforts to reform. The Democrats weren't as successful, facing severe problems that divided the
party at their nominating convention. A measure introduced to be included in the Democratic
platform critical of the Ku Klux Klan was overridden by a small majority, and it took over 100
ballots to agree on the nomination of lawyer John Davis. Disgruntled party members left and
fielded a Progressive Party candidate, Bob LaFollette. LaFollette campaigned well, but finished
third. Davis still had enough party support to total nine million votes, but Coolidge's success
brought him 15 million, and a new term.
Domestic affairs
President Coolidge continued the belief that government should remain laissez-faire, and
that business was the most important factor in American society. As such, he did little to curb
stock market over speculation, which would contribute to the Great Depression. Overall, he
supported less taxation, less government spending, and vetoed bills that would have required
more federal money.
International affairs
The Kellogg-Briand Pact was negotiated and signed by 60 nations in 1928. This
idealistic treaty outlawed war as a means of solving disputes, although no punishments were
spelled out for violating signatories.
Herbert Hoover
(1928-1932)
Franklin D. Roosevelt
(1932-1945)
Election of 1932
Roosevelt was aided in the 1932 election by the strong fund raising attempts of Joseph P.
Kennedy, father of the future president. The Democrat called for the three R's- relief, recovery,
and reform. Herbert Hoover, as the incumbent that had presided over the beginning of the
Depression, faced a disillusioned electorate, and the Republicans could not nominate a new
candidate without appearing to have lost confidence in Hoover's recovery attempts. The
Democratic platform planned to end Prohibition, extend unemployment relief, lower tariffs, slash
government expenditures, and aid the agricultural sector. In the keynote acceptance speech at
the Democratic convention, Roosevelt advocated a "New Deal" for Americans, to aid them in
returning to prosperity.
The three R's in action
Economist John Maynard Keynes' philosophy about "spending the way back to
prosperity" by the government found a supporter in the Roosevelt administration.
World War II
{1 million black soldiers fought for the United States during all of World War II. (Powell
61)}
{Lend-lease applied to U.S. allies in the Middle East, notably Saudi Arabia and Iran,
largely due to declining British abilities to continue its policies and power-projection. Pipelines,
airfields, roads, railroads, ports, storage areas and communication centers were all built to aid the
Allied war effort. (Palmer 24)}
During World War II, Britain's suppliers and investment in the Middle East declined
greatly, which in turn caused U.S. concerns about its allies Saudi Arabia and Bahrain's security
to rise. Lend-lease was applied
Casualties in the first 30 days of D-Day totalled 42,000. (Allen and Polmar 58)
The man in charge of Allied activity in the Pacific theater of operations was Douglas
MacArthur. The son of an army officer, young MacArthur had graduated from West Point in
1903 and commanded a brigade in World War I. Named Army Chief of Staff in 1930, he retired
in 1937, only to be called back into service in 1941 prior to Pearl Harbor. MacArthur returned to
the Philippines in October 1944, and was awarded his fifth star in December.
The battle for Okinawa would see 125,000 U.S. and Japanese soldiers die, and 1400 ships
taking part offshore. Okinawa's utility lay in its position 400 miles south of the Japanese
mainland, and therefore an excellent base to launch attacks from. In an example of the Japanese
dedication to defend their interests, the superbattleship Yamato was ordered to run aground,
providing supporting fire to defend the island. The battle ended with the death of the Japanese
general staff on June 22, 1945. (Gorman 34) The total cost to the US forces was 4907 Navy dead
and 4824 wounded from kamikaze attacks alone. (Allen and Polmar 53) Ground forces had
worse casualty rates of 39,000, compared with total Japanese figures of 119,000. (58)
The great B-29 raids of March 9, 1945 demonstrated the weakness of the beaten Japanese
military. In this massive bombing effort, incendiary bombs killed more people than in either of
the atomic attacks that would follow. 120,000 perished, and over 1 million left homeless by the
flames caused by General Curtis LeMay's bombers.
The effectiveness of the Allies in sinking Japanese shipping should not be
underestimated. In 1942, Allied submarines and surface naval units sunk a Japanese ship once
every three days, increasing this ration in 1943 to one a day. 1944 also increased, to where
American submarines on their own sunk more Japanese shipping than in all of 1941-1943
combined. The resulting loss of supplies forced a drop in food rations among the Japanese
troops, which required 850 grams of rice a day, but by late 1944 was down to 400. (Daws 275)
The Japanese surrendered aboard the U.S. battleship Missouri on September 2, 1945,
anchored in Tokyo Bay.
Harry S. Truman
(1945-1952)
American bombing in August was the death knell. Japan was warned July 26 to
surrender "or face prompt and utter destruction." August 1, 836 B-29s attacked Honshu and
Kyushu, the biggest raid to date. August 6 saw the Enola Gay drop its load from 31, 600 feet,
using a uranium 235 warhead. (Daws 333)
The Atomic Age Ends the War
President Truman had not been cleared to know of the Manhattan Project until the death
of FDR. When the time came for the decision for the actual combat use of the atomic bomb,
Truman looked to his advisors for their advice. The president was informed that to win the war
against Japan, Japan would have to be thoroughly defeated, and that an invasion would certainly
be costly to the invading force. The Japanese had more than two million soldiers in the home
islands, combined with a large amount of untrained citizens trained to attack American GIs. In
addition, the Japanese had prepared virtually every available aircraft for use as a kamikaze
against Allied naval ships, nearly 8000 planes. The southernmost island of Kyushu, only 350
miles from Okinawa, seemed the logical starting point for the invasion, and initial estimates of
U.S. casualties totaled 31,000. But the Air Corps and the Navy supported the plan in spite of this
figure. "Downfall" was the name given for the overall operation to invade Japan, assigned June
14, 1945. The ground assault would be preceded by constant, numbing air attack by the Army
Air Corps code named Operation Olympic, while the following invasion was dubbed Operation
Coronet. Invasion day was scheduled as November 1, 1945, more than six months away, and
this fact meant possible further Japanese reinforcement and bad weather could further postpone
the operation.
Olympic was estimated at the beginning by General Douglas MacArthur to cost the
United States 95,000 killed or wounded. Coronet, which would have invaded the main island of
Honshu (which included Tokyo), was to have occurred in March of 1946. Olympic was
estimated to take 90 days to be successful, and would have required 190,000 ground troops.
(Allen and Polmar 51) These numbers crept steadily upwards as fighting continued and advisors
sought to pad their figures so as not to underestimate the ferocity of combat.
By the time plans were more advanced, Truman wrote that he believed 500,000 lives
would be saved by the use of the bomb, while other official estimates planned for "only" 40,000
killed, 150,000 wounded, and 3,500 missing in action. By July 24, Truman's figure was closer to
what the staff figured, with constant reinforcement forcing the figures to be revised to 560,000
Japanese troops in Kyushu by Aug. 6, whereas in reality close to 900,000 were present. The
wounded estimates were once again revised, to 395,000, indicating terrible losses would be
sustained if the Allies were forced to invade. Besides these numbers, the knowledge that
Americans held in Japanese POW camps were suffering greatly, as well as having been
threatened with beheading if the islands were invaded, caused many leaders to advocate a swift
solution to ending the war.
When finally informed of the availability of an atomic bomb, reactions were strong.
Douglas MacArthur wanted to follow the first bombing with an invasion, Chester Nimitz wanted
to use them as soon as possible when in formed in February, 1945, and joined Carl Spaatz and
Curtis LeMay from the Air Corps in pressing for a bomb to be dropped on Tokyo. The
American general staff designated four cities as potential targets for the new atomic bomb:
Hiroshima, Kokura, Nagasaki, and Nigata. These sites had been largely left alone from previous
bombings, but fate would not spare all of them. Besides the drop aircraft, additional airplanes
carrying military and civilian observers and scientists were launched to observe and examine the
detonation. On August 6, 1945, the Enola Gay lifted off from its Pacific base of Tinian, and
settled in for the long flight to Japan. Prior to the mission, American planners had suspected the
Japanese government would explain away the devastation as a natural disaster, which was
exactly what happened when the chastened Tojo government assessed reports from Hiroshima.
The Bocks Car followed three days later, and despite the desire of the hard-liners to continue, the
emperor himself had to intervene in order for the surrender to be made. On August 28, 1945,
U.S. troops had arrived to occupy the islands, with the official surrender taking place on the U.S.
battleship Missouri in Tokyo Bay on Sept. 2, 1945.
The First Conflict Against Communism- The Korean War
When the North Korean attack was repelled, 400,000 Chinese troops poured across the
Yalu River on the Chinese-Korean border to aid their communist neighbor's survival. American
casualties mounted, and calls for success and of disillusionment aided the Democrats' poor
showing in midterm elections for the Congress in 1950. Approval ratings for the war, which had
been near 75% in July 1950, fell 20 points by January. Truman chafed when his commander
complained to the press he was unable to bring about the desired success because he was not
allowed to undergo an "unlimited pursuit" of the enemy, which was an "enormous handicap."
(Maihafer 31)
General Matthew Ridgeway took command of the Eighth Army in December 1950, and
began to reverse Chinese ground successes.
The Asian commander publicly disagreed with the president by writing to the House
Minority Leader, arguing instead of Truman's orders, to follow a different strategy. Douglas
MacArthur was relieved of command April 11, 1951. Truman's decision to do so was made near
March 24, but was not acted upon immediately as a way to find a smooth way to do so.
{
The South found the Northern abolitionist stance confusing, not in the least because the
"ancestors of abolitionists had helped to keep [slaveowners] well-supplied with slaves," in
reference to the fact that Northern shipping merchants were responsible for the cargoes they
imported and sold. (Stampp 18) Southerners as a whole were unfortunately victims of their
heritage, because they had inherited the system, not invented it, as Kenneth Stampp points out in
his book The Peculiar Institution. As such, they inherited a system of beliefs that found slavery
necessary and proper, as well as the large percentage of their region's wealth that was represented
in the slave population.
Northern arguments, however, pointed out the inaccuracies in the Southern positions.
Many supporters of slavery advocated the system as a beneficial service provided by
slaveowners to heathens who would benefit from the ways of the whites. Yet, the traditional
theme of slaves as heathens held little water when the slaves themselves were converted to
Christianity. (Stampp 18)
The abolition movement was not alone in the United States. Britain ended forever the
slave system within its empire in 1833, and soon after quietly joined American critics of the
system, for fear of losing cotton shipments needed for their textile mills. (Stampp 20)
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