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two-dimensional models of each combination of the three components and
conclude with an integrated, three-dimensional model. In the process, we will
present testable propositions that explicate the relationships between the different
components of the model.
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25 октября 2001 г. 1 8 : 1 6
SM 021 25-10
International Business Strategies
Internationalization of operations has led organizations to assume different types of
strategies. Some organizations focus primarily on domestic operations and export
products or services while other firms establish subsidiaries or business units of
varying autonomy in host countries that concentrate on the specific needs of those
particular markets. Many international business researchers (e.g., Bartlett and
Ghoshal, 1987; Prahalad and Doz, 1987) have specified characteristics of global
industries and the associated managerial approaches to address the structurestrategy-environment fit. Prahalad and Doz (1987) designed the IntegrationResponsiveness framework. They proposed that businesses are subject to varying
degrees of economic, competitive, and technological pressures which drive those
organizations toward different internationalization strategies. Specifically, they
suggest that global strategies correspond with high pressures for global integration
and low pressures for local responsiveness; local responsiveness corresponds with
low pressures for global integration and high pressures for local responsiveness;
multifocal approaches are associated with simultaneous pressures for global
integration and local responsiveness (see Figure 1).
InfoTrac Web: Expanded Academic ASAP.
Source: Global Competitiveness, Annual 2000 v8 il p397.
Title: International Business Strategies, Decision-making Theories, and
Leadership Styles: An Integrated Framework. Author: Ben L.
Kedia, Richard Nordtvedt and Liliana M. Perez
Subjects: International business enterprises - Management
Management - Planning Decision-making - Models
Leadership - Models Strategic planning - Models
Electronic Collection: A78789566 RN:
A78789566
Full Text COPYRIGHT 2000 American Society for Competitiveness
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INTRODUCTION
Bartlett and Ghoshal (1987) extended the typology of international business
strategies by classifying international operations into four categories:
International management researchers have examined the relationships between many
components of strategy including mode of entry (e.g., Anderson and Gatignon, 1986;
Hill, Huang and Kim. 1990; Kim and Huang, 1992; Kogut and Singh, 1988),
international collaboration (e.g., Bresserand Harl, 1986; Buckley and Casson, 1988;
Contractor and Kundu, 1988; Osborn and Baughn, 1990; Parkhe, 1993), and global
integration vs. local responsiveness (e.g., Athanassiou and Nigh, 1999; Prahalad and
Doz, 1987; Roth and Morrison, 1990; Taggart, 1998), among other things. Other
management scholars have written about decision-making from multiple perspectives
including bounded rationality (Simon, 1955) and speed (Eisenhardt, 1989; Nordtvedt,
2000). Another subject of interest to management scientists has been that of leadership
and its influence on organizational performance (e.g.. Petrullo & Bass, 1961; Stodgill,
1974; Bums, 1978; and Bass, 1985). Although these three dimensions of the
management discipline (i.e., international strategies, decision-making and strategic
leadership) are individually important to organizational success, they have not yet been
collectively researched or conceptually reviewed to understand how the nature of their
interaction affects the internationalization of the multinational corporation.
1) Global firms utilize standardized products, processes, and marketing
approaches that seek to exploit efficiency.
2) Multinational firms adapt their products or services to individual
characteristics of specific countries or regions by building local
responsiveness.
3) International firms develop products or services in their home country and
subsequently introduce them to the international market by exploiting learning
capabilities.
Transnational firms attempt to simultaneously optimize efficiency, local
responsiveness, and learning throughout their worldwide operations.
Elements of a slightly more detailed typology of international strategies include how
markets are served, standardization of processes, products, and services,
commonality of management philosophies throughout the organization, asset
utilization methods, and members of the relevant comparative peer group. For the
purpose of this study, we will only concentrate on global, multidomestic or
multinational, and transnational strategies.
The purpose of this article is to connect important concepts about these three
organizational components and to build an integrated framework to explicate their
interactive value To develop the framework, we will first review each element
individually. In subsequent sections we will then build
[Graphic omitted]Global strategies are employed by firms serving multiple host
country markets with internationally branded goods that are produced in a
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group includes both home country competitors and some local competitors.
single location (Baden-Fuller & Stopford, 1991), typically the home country. This
strategy is distinguished by the conception that the customer's needs are
standardized throughout markets served and that global awareness exists for these
products and services (Roth and Morrison, 1990). The firm adopting a global
strategy implements a high degree of standardization in processes, products, and
marketing approaches (Bartlett and Ghoshal, 1987) and takes advantage of
economies of scale (Roth and Morrison, 1990). Furthermore, this strategy
relinquishes country-specific advantages (Rugman and Veberke, 1992) and
opportunities.
Firms employing a transnational strategy confront the task of simultaneously
optimizing efficiencies, responsiveness, and learning, throughout their international
operations (Bartlett and Ghoshal, 1987). Similar to global firms, transnational firms
encounter global competition. However, they are distinguished from global firms by
a lack of worldwide customers with standardized needs (Roth and Morrison, 1990).
Organizations selecting this strategy develop (1) firm-specific advantages that can be
exploited globally and lead to benefits of scale, scope, or exploitation of national
differences, (2) location bound firm-specific advantages that benefit a company only
in a particular location, and (3) home- and host-country-specific advantages which
are benefits associated with locating certain activities in particular countries
(Rugman and Veberke, 1992). Product specialization and sourcing with localized
marketing are central to the transnational strategy (Jolly, 1989) and allows firms to
simultaneously respond to local market conditions in each country while
simultaneously integrating worldwide activities (Roth and Ricks, 1994).
A global strategy implies that a unitary perspective underlies the firm's activities
across international locations (Roth and Ricks, 1994). Roth, Schweiger and
Morrison (1991) found support for their hypothesis that emphasizing a global
strategy would be positively associated with a shared managerial philosophy. Jolly
(1989) asserts that the nature of a global strategy firm includes foreign involvement
in terms of product sourcing, asset use, and marketing on a global basis.
Specifically, he argues that under a global strategy, competitive advantage is
obtained by worldwide deployment of an individual asset and maximization of
global asset utilization; optimization criteria are based on maximization of
worldwide cash flow from investments in critical assets; and competitive priorities
are global market position and critical asset dominance. According to Jolly (1989) a
global strategy's relevant peer group includes all potential competitors by asset
category.
Jolly (1989) argues that a transnational strategy requires partly "full spectrum" and
partly shared asset commitment with other units, based on comparative cost. In so
doing, he suggests that the objective of asset utilization strategy is to maximize
specific asset utilization in relevant countries using worldwide supply cost
minimization as optimization criteria.
The competitive priority for transnational organizations is market position in
pertinent countries and a relevant peer group includes both traditional domestic and
international competitors (Jolly, 1989).
In multinational or multidomestic strategies, organizations endeavor to serve
countries from a series of national operating centers (Baden-Fuller & Stopford,
1991). International involvement in exports, licensing, and foreign manufacturing in
each country based on local needs are the hallmarks of a multidomestic strategy
(Jolly, 1989). This strategy is also distinguished by high levels of customer service
specific to individual foreign markets and by the existence of variable costs across
locations (Roth and Morrison, 1990). Stated more succinctly, a multinational or
multidomestic corporation operates in multiple environments each with unique
characteristics (Birkinshaw, Hood, & Jonsson, 1998).
Drawing from these multiple conceptualizations, the following definitions of
international strategies will be used for the purposes of this article.
a. Global Strategy. This strategy involves internationalization with standardized
products through globally standardized marketing and production processes that
target standardized customer needs. This strategy is driven by a shared managerial
philosophy.
Organizations adopting this strategy adapt products and services to the individual
characteristics of specific countries or regions by building local responsiveness
(Bartlett and Ghoshal, 1987) or national responsiveness (Rugman and Veberke,
1992) which allows for differentiated strategic approaches across country locations
(Roth and Ricks, 1994). Roth, Schweiger and Morrison (1991) suggest that a
"multidomestic strategy requires considerable strategic variety as each countrybased subunit is predominantly self-contained and pursues its own strategy" (p.
375). Thus, they argue that multiple managerial philosophies should accompany a
multidomestic strategy.
b. Multinational Strategy. This strategy involves internationalization with locally
adapted products through marketing and production processes specific to the host
markets that target country-specific customer needs. This strategy is driven by
multiple managerial philosophies (i.e., philosophies specific to the host countries).
c. Transnational Strategy. This strategy involves a hybrid between the global and
multidomestic strategies. Thus, it involves internationalization through
simultaneously responding to host market conditions while integrating worldwide
activities. This strategy is driven by a combination between a shared managerial
philosophy and a country-specific managerial philosophy.
The asset utilization strategy for multidomestic firms is to maximize home-country
asset utilization first, followed by "full spectrum" asset commitment in each country,
as required (Jolly, 1989). Asset optimization criteria is based on the net present
value of investments in home country and in each host country separately; the
competitive priority is home country followed by local market position (Jolly, 1989).
Decision-making Theories
Traditional decision making perspectives maintain that uncertainty leads
executives to a search for additional relevant information with which to
Jolly (1989) also suggests that a multidomestic strategy firm's relevant peer
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organizational size would moderate decision speed and for the firm-specific
strategic significance of the decisions considered in their research. They reported
partial support for Eisenhardt's (1989) propositions. Most notably, they observed a
significant positive relationship between decision speed and the number of
alternatives considered.
increase certainty (Eisenhardt, 1989; George, 1980; Milliken, 1987; Simon, 1987).
It is accomplished by scanning the environment for salient data, aggregating
disparate internal and external data, and synthesizing relevant information with
which to make cogent decisions resulting in desired performance. This suggests
two critical components of the traditional perspective: (1) Managers will delay
decisions in order to acquire additional information to reduce uncertainty. (2)
Seeking incremental information delays decision-making and, therefore, action
and performance results (Nordtvedt, 2000).
This research suggests that traditional theory regarding the relationship between the
number of alternatives and the volume of information considered in decision
making and the length of time required to make decisions (i.e., slower decisionmaking) may not always have a positive, linear relationship (Nordtvedt, 2000). In
fact, Eisenhardt (1989) and Judge and Miller (1991) found a positive relationship
between the amount of information processed and decision speed; the more
information processed simultaneously, the faster the decision process.
Eisenhardt (1989) challenged several of these traditionally accepted principles of
decision making. Specifically, her research demonstrated that relatively more successful
companies in a high-velocity environment could analyze more relevant data, consider
multiple alternatives simultaneously, and make faster decisions than their less
successful competitors practicing slower decision-making processes in the same
market. However, these results would clearly not have been predicted by existing
convention. For example, the "comprehensive" perspective posited that, due to human
cognitive limitations (Simon, 1955), faster decisions could be made by limiting
alternatives considered and by constraining analysis (Fredrickson & Mitchell, 1984;
Mintzberg, 1973; Nutt, 1976). It was also generally accepted that centralized decisionmaking would speed the decision making process (Vroom & Yetton, 1973; Staw,
Sandelands, & Dutton, 1981) because conflict, debate, and consensus are more timeconsuming than an autocratic process.
Leadership Styles
Leadership has been the object of study for many years in strategy, psychology, and
sociology. It has been variously characterized as personality, the art of inducing
compliance, the exercise of influence, a power relation, an instrument of goal
achievement (Stodgill, 1974), behavior change (Petrullo & Bass, 1961), the need to
overcome resistance to change (Bass, 1960), the 'influential increment over and
above mechanical compliance with routine directives' (Katz & Kahn, 1978: p.528),
and integrating (Lawrence & Lorsch, 1967), just to cite a few examples. There are
also many theories associated with the nature of leadership. Two of the most
pervasive in recent literature and practice are situational leadership and
transformational/transactional leadership. The former was suggested by social
scientists in the late 1940s (Adair, 1984) and popularized in the 1980s by Mersey
(1985).
>From her observations Eisenhardt (1989) developed a set of theories. For example, she
stated that when decision-makers immerse themselves in real-time information, they
acquire "a deep personal knowledge of the enterprise that allows them to access and
interpret information rapidly when major decisions arise. The executives making fast
decisions also use tactics to accelerate analysis of information and alternatives during
the decision process. For example, they examine several alternatives simultaneously.
The comparison process speeds their analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of the
options" (p. 570).
Bums (1978) first described the transforming leader and Bass (1985) later
popularized it as transformational leadership in conjunction with transactional
leadership. In his 1985 publication of these concepts, he developed seven factors of
leadership that he called charisma, inspirational, intellectual stimulation,
individualized consideration, contingent reward, management-by-exception, and
laissez-faire. Upon subsequent research, he combined charisma and inspirational
leadership, not because they were the same construct, but because they were
empirically indistinguishable (Avolio, Bass, & Jung, 1999). Accordingly, Bass'
current research supports the use of 6 factors, defined as follows (Avolio, et al.,
1999):
Eisenhardt (1989) identified five antecedents to "strategic decision speed": (1) realtime information, (2) multiple simultaneous alternatives, (3) a two-tier advice
process, (4) consensus with qualification, and (5) decision integration. She
observed that each correlated positively with decision speed when variously
mediated by accelerated cognitive processing, smooth group processing, and
confidence (p. 571). Antecedents 1 and 2 clearly involve using more information,
not less. Antecedents 3, 4, and 5. require more executive coordination, which,
according to generally accepted theory, should increase decision-making duration,
not reduce it. Individually and collectively, these observations and antecedents
seem to conflict with traditional decision theory, or to at least represent a
significant reinterpretation.
1. Charisma/Inspirational: provides energizing sense of purpose for followers; role
model for ethical behavior; identification with leader's vision.
2. Intellectual Stimulation: encourages questioning the status quo.
Subsequent to Eisenhardt's (1989) inductively derived propositions, Judge and
Miller (1991) attempted to validate her work with an empirical study of interindustry firms representing multiple points on the environmental velocity
continuum, where Eisenhardt (1989) had only one. Since bureaucracy and
formality are thought to delay decisions in large organizations (Ford & Slocum,
1977), Judge and Miller (1991) controlled for the possibility that
3. Individualized Consideration: take into account the needs of followers; helps
them perform to their full capabilities.
4. Contingent Reward: defines and communicates expectations and outcome
performance rewards.
5. Active Management-by Exception: Observes work and takes corrective action
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when appropriate to maintain performance.
indeed, both perspectives are correct and it is possible to make fast decisions
under either theory. In addition, we also propose that results will vary
depending on strategies and leadership perspectives adopted by international
organizations.
6. Passive-Avoidant Leadership: Reacts only to serious problems; often avoids
decision-making (includes laissez-faire characteristics).
In their 1999 research with 3786 subjects, Avolio et al demonstrated that these 6
factors loaded to 3 higher order factors as follows:
As previously described, a global strategy involves serving multiple national
markets with internationally branded goods produced in a single location (BadenFuller & Stopford, 1991) which requires a great degree of centralized coordination
from the home-country top management team to insure standardization of products,
processes, services, and marketing. Such coordination should reasonably require
relatively greater volumes of information from business units and subsidiaries for
centralized management to make integrated decisions than would be the case for
decentralized management. This logic combines the notion of the global strategy
with Eisenhardt's (1989) theory regarding greater amounts of information and
decision integration to yield faster decision-making.
Transformational Leadership: Charisma/Inspirational and Intellectual
Stimulation
Transactional Leadership: Individualized Consideration and Contingent Reward
Corrective Avoidant: Active Management-by Exception and
Passive-Avoidant/laissez-faire Leadership
Conversely, a multinational strategy would require less centralized coordination
from the home-country top management team and less centralized information for
decision making because this strategy requires differentiated strategic approaches
across country locations (Roth and Ricks, 1994). From this perspective, less real
time information and decision integration (i.e., traditional theory) fits a
multidomestic strategy. Because of its characteristics, the transnational strategy will
follow patterns of both theories of top management team decision making.
Therefore, we propose the following (see Figure 2).
It is important to recognize that both transformational and transactional leadership are
"constructive" forms of leadership and that they arc both typically used by leaders in
differing degrees. Although discriminant validity was demonstrated by recent
empirical research and the authors maintain the factors are "conceptually unique",
transformational and transactional leadership factors occur together and are, therefore,
correlated (Avolio, et al.. 1999).
The active management-by-exception and the passive-avoidant factors were also
correlated, however, they were negatively related to the other 4 lower-order factors
and the resulting higher-order factors (transformational and transactional leadership).
The significance of these findings will become very apparent in the discussion that
follows in the next section where we develop the integrated framework.
[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
AN INTEGRATED FRAMEWORK: INTERNATIONAL STRATEGIES, DECISION-MAKING
THEORIES,
AND LEADERSHIP STYLES
As previously stated, the purpose of this paper is to build a framework that relates
international business strategies, decision-making theories, and leadership styles. In
order to achieve this objective, we will develop the framework in two stages. First,
we will integrate each of the three, paired combinations of the three components of the
framework. Then, we will integrate these three components into a single framework.
In this process, we will present 9 propositions regarding international strategies,
decision making in international organizations, and associated leadership styles.
Proposition 1: A global strategy will be positively correlated with a top
management team decision-making process that follows Eisenhardt's (1989)
decision-making theory of real time information and decision integration.
[Graphic omitted]Proposition 2: A multidomestic strategy will be positively
correlated with a top management team decision making process that follows the
traditional theory of decision-making of less real time centralized information and
decision integration.
Proposition 3: A transnational strategy will be positively correlated with a top
management team decision making process that works through balanced volumes
of information and balanced integration of decisions.
International Business Strategies and Leadership Styles
International Business Strategies and Decision-Making Theories
As stated previously, more effective global strategies correlate with a shared
managerial philosophy (Roth, Schweiger and Morrison, 1991). Such dominant
managerial logic must be transmitted across borders into other cultures and foreign
managers. In global organizations, top management must transmit this common
philosophy through a leadership type that transcends directive transactions. This
leadership style would require the charisma and inspirational motivation of
transformational leaders. The implementation of a global strategy would, therefore,
be more successful with top management transformational leadership transmitting a
dominant shared philosophy across
[Graphic omitted]Nordtvedt (2000) posited that the relationship between the amount
of information processed and the speed of decision making varies depending on a
decision-maker's ability to recognize and act on "sufficient information" (the
minimum amount of information required in order to make a decision). He further
stated that both Eisenhardt's view and the traditional perspective may be correct,
given different circumstances relating to sufficient information. Consistent with this
viewpoint, we theorize here that,
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positively correlated with a decision-making process that follows Eisenhardt's (1989)
decision-making theory.
country boundaries.
Conversely, a multidomestic strategy should be related to multiple dominant logics
or philosophies (Roth, Schweiger, and Morrison, 1991). Therefore, a multidomestic
strategy would need top management leadership that involves less personal
attributes because each subsidiary would have its own (country-specific)
philosophy. Communication and information sharing is more likely to occur in a
batch mode than an interactive mode and leadership, therefore, will be more closely
associated with a transactional style.
Proposition 8: A top management team transactional leadership style will be
positively correlated with a decision making process that follows the traditional
theory of decision-making.
AN INTEGRATED FRAMEWORK: FIT BETWEEN INTERNATIONAL STRATEGY,
DECISION-MAKING,
AND LEADERSHIP STYLES
Finally, although it was not directly tested by Roth, Schweiger, and Morrison
(1991), since a transnational is a hybrid of the global and multidomestic strategies, it
follows that this type of strategy would require a more balanced combination of top
management leadership styles in order to be more successful. This argument leads
to our next set of propositions (see Figure 3).
In the preceding sections we have juxtaposed each pair of the three dimensions of
international strategy, decision-making theories, and leadership styles in twodimensional matrices. We now develop an integrated, three-dimensional framework.
Figure 5 depicts a 2 x 2 x 3 model of these three dimensions. The highlighted cubes
within the framework indicate the optimal combination of international business
strategy, decision-making theory, and leadership that transits the cube's diagonal as
presented in the previous two-dimensional discussions. Given the arguments presented
to this point, other sub-cubes would be less effective than those that belong to the
diagonal.
[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
Proposition 4: A global strategy will be positively correlated with a
transformational type of leadership of the top management team of the
international organization.
[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
Proposition 5: A multidomestic strategy will be positively correlated with a
transactional type of leadership of the top management team of the
international organization.
Proposition 9: A fit between the international business strategy of an
organization, its top management decision making process, and its top
management leadership style will lead to a more effective implementation
(i.e., better performance) of the international business strategy selected.
Proposition 6: A transnational strategy will be positively correlated with a
combination of transformational and transactional types of leadership of the
top management team of the international organization.
Figure 5 depicts the following combinations of leadership and decision-making
as most appropriate for the related international strategies:
Global:
Transformational Leadership
Real-time information and integrated decisions
This discussion is not intended to imply that transactional and transformational
styles are opposing ends of a spectrum or that they are often mutually exclusive.
However, in terms of relative implementation of the dimensions, we believe these
leadership styles should be matched to the international strategy selected by the
organization. Eisenhardt's theory to faster decision making argues that two of the
antecedent's necessary for strategic decision speed are a two-tier advice process and
consensus with qualification. Both of these antecedents call for a leadership type
that inculcates others' ideas and thoughts in the decision-making process. Therefore,
this decision-making theory requires a type of top management leadership that
values participation. A transformational leader, performing high on the dimensions
of intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration, would allow a faster
decision making process through Eisenhardt's (1989) theory of decision making. On
the other hand, the traditional view of faster decision making posses a more
autocratic type of leadership. In this case, we argue that this type of faster decision
making process is more closely associated with a transactional leader. This
argument leads to our next set of propositions (see Figure 4).
Transnational: Balanced transformational and transactional leadership
Balanced information and integration of decisions
Multidomestic: Transactional leadership
Batch information and decentralized decisions
[Graphic omitted]The three-dimensional cube can be simplified by depicting only the
diagonal of the large cube (see Figure 6).
[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
CONCLUSION
The models we have presented are gradated to indicate seamless continuums, not
mutual exclusivity as might be interpreted from the three-dimensional cube. Each
dimension is expected to be present in each type of organization. The purpose of our
analysis is to depict the general nature of relative components along the three
dimensions, not absolutely exclusive domains. However, we, as many other researchers,
take a contingent approach and, therefore, believe that in order for an organization to be
more successful there should be a fit
[Graphic omitted][ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
Proposition 7: A top management team transformational leadership style will be
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between its international strategy and the decision-making processes and
leadership styles of its top management team.
Strategic Management Journal, 19(3), 221-241.
Bresser, R. K., & Harl, J. E. (1986. Collective strategy: Vice or virtue?
Academy of Management Review, 11(2), 408-427.
Although this is a conceptual model, it should be noted that the propositions presented
here arc all testable. In what refers to leadership, there are specific scales developed
by researchers that measure transfomiational/transactional leadership (e.g., the
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire developed by Avolio and Bass). Furthermore,
industries have already been classified into different types of strategies in the
international business literature (e.g., Ghoshal and Noriah's work in Horses for
Courses in 1993). Finally, in what refers to decision-making, a scale can be developed
to determine if the decision making process at the top managerial level requires
extensive amounts of information or not and if the decision-making process is
participate or autocratic. In sum, this provides evidence that our propositions are
testable, thus making this research study a basis for future research in this unexplored
arena.
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