Classical Civilisation - useful words/spellings
Word
ILIAD
Note
Word
Note
anthropomorphism
anthropomorphic
aristeia
aristos
ate
catalogue
divine intervention
duel
epic
(epic poem)
Fate
foreshadowing
1
formulaic
fulfil
fulfilled
genre
heroic code
in medias res
pathos
pathetic
patronymic
practice
to practise
prophecy
to prophesy
2
simile
stock epithet
supplication
to supplicate
a suppliant
to appease
tragic hero
xenia
3
4
1
The translation of M. Hammond
“Oh shame! Great sorrow is coming on the land of Achaia. There would surely
be joy for Priam and his children, and all the other Trojans would feel great
gladness at heart, if they learnt of all this quarrelling between you two, who are
the best of the Danaans in counsel and the best in fighting. No, you must listen to
me, since both of you are younger men than I. In my time I have kept company
with greater men even than you, and they never failed to respect me…
… Not one of the mortals now upon earth could do battle with those men. And
yet they listened to my advice and followed my words. So you too should listen
to me, since it is best to listen. You, great man though you are, do not take the
girl from him, but let her be, as the sons of the Achaians gave her to him in the
beginning as his prize. And you, son of Peleus, do not seek open quarrel with the
king, since there is no equality with the honour granted to a sceptred king, whom
Zeus has glorified. You may be a man of strength, with a goddess for your
mother, but he is the more powerful, because his rule is wider.”
(Book 1 pp. 56 – 57; new edition pp. 9 – 10)
a) Name the girl Agamemnon had threatened to take from Achilles
(Achilleus).
(1 mark)
b)
Why had threatened to do this?
(1 mark)
c)
What had Achilles (Achilleus) started to reply to his threat and what had
happened to prevent him from doing it?
(2 marks)
d)
On the evidence of this passage, to what extent does status in Homeric
society depend upon physical strength?
(6 marks)
e)
How far does Achilles (Achilleus) follow the heroic code in the books of the
Iliad you have read?
You might include discussion of

what the heroic code was

how justified Achilles (Achilleus) was in withdrawing from the
fighting

what he asked his mother to do

his reasons for rejecting the embassy

his motives for returning to the fighting

his treatment of Hector (Hektor) and his behaviour towards Priam.
(15 marks)
5
2
The translation of M. Hammond
Now the elders of the people were sitting by the Skaian gates with Priam:
Panthoös and Thymoites and Lampos and Klytios and Hiketaon, branch of Ares;
and Oukalegon and Antenor, wise men both. Old age had put an end to their
warfare, but they were excellent men of words: and they sat there on the tower,
the leading men of the Trojans, like cicadas, which settle on a tree in the woods
and pour out their lily-soft song. When they saw Helen coming towards the
tower, they spoke softly to each other with winged words: ‘No shame that the
Trojans and the well-greaved Achaians should suffer agonies for long years over
a woman like this – she is fearfully like the immortal goddesses to look at. But
even so, for all her beauty, let her go back in the ships, and not be left here a
curse to us and our children.’
That is what they said, but Priam called out to Helen: ‘Come here, dear child, and
sit in front of me, so you can see your former husband and your relatives and
friends. It is not you I blame …’
(Book 3 pp. 44 – 45)
a)
Name the goddess who had summoned Helen to the walls.
(1mark)
b)
Which two warriors were about to fight?
(2 marks)
c)
What had the Greeks and Trojans agreed would be the main outcome of
this duel?
(1 mark)
d) How does Homer in this passage make the picture of the elders and Priam
vivid?
Support your answer with details from the passage.
(6 marks)
e) To what extent do you think Homer expects his audience to sympathise
with Helen?
Explain your views and support them with details from the books of the
Iliad which you have read.
You might include discussion of




her sense of shame and isolation
her attempts to resist Aphrodite
her feelings about Paris (Alexandros), Menelaus (Menelaos), and her
brothers Castor (Kastor) and Polydeuces (Polydeukes)
her relationship with Hector (Hektor) and Priam.
(15 marks)
6
3
The translation of M. Hammond
Hektor, loved of Zeus, entered the house, and in his hand he held a spear eleven
cubits in length – the spear’s bronze point gleamed before him, and a gold band
ringed it round. He found Alexandros in the bedroom, fussing over his exquisite
armour, the shield and the corselet, and handling his curved bow. And Argive
Helen was sitting there among her servant-woman and supervising her maids’
magnificent handcraft.
When Hektor saw him, he attacked him with shaming words: “Strange man! This
resentment you have conceived in your heart does you no honour. Our people
are dying, fighting right by the city and its steep wall – and it is because of you
that the clamour of battle is blazing round this city. You would quarrel with any
other man you saw hanging back from the hateful fighting. Up then, or the city
will soon be burning with fire to destroy it.”
Then godlike Alexandros said to him: “Hektor, your charge is not unfair, and
there is justice in it, so I will tell you the truth, and you mark what I say and listen
to me. It is not so much anger or resentment at the Trojans that has kept me
sitting in my room, but I wanted to give way to my distress. But just now my
wife talked me round with gentle persuasion and urged me back to war: and I
think that would be best myself – victory switches from man to man. So come
now, wait for me while I put on the armour of war: or you go on, and I shall
follow – I think I shall catch you.”
(Book 6 p. 137; new edition pp. 99)
a)
Why had Hector (Hektor) left the battlefield to come to Troy?
(4 marks)
b)
In this passage, how vividly does Homer emphasise the differences
between Hector (Hektor) and Paris (Alexandros)?
(6 marks)
c)
To what extent does Homer expect his audience to sympathise with Hector
(Hektor) in the books of the Iliad which you have read? You might include
discussion of






his motives for fighting
his relationship with his family
his attitude to his victims such as Patroclus (Patroklos)
his confrontation with Achilles (Achilleus)
what others, including immortals, say about him
his strength and weaknesses as a leader.
(15 marks)
7
CIV 2002 QU b)
4
The translation of M. Hammond
So speaking he placed his son in his dear wife’s arms. She took him to her
scented breast, smiling with tears in her eyes. He husband saw the tears and was
moved to pity. He stroked her with his hand, and spoke to her, saying: ‘Poor
wife, please do not let your heart be too distressed. No man will send me down
to Hades before my fated time – and fate, I tell you, is something no man is ever
freed from, whether brave man or coward, from the first moment of his birth.
No, go back to the house and see to your own work, the loom and the distaff, and
tell your maids to set about their tasks. War will be the men’s concern, all the
men whose homeland is Ilios, and mine above all.’
(Book 6, page 103)
i)
At what point in the story does this encounter between Hector (Hektor)
and Andromache take place?
(4 marks)
ii)
How does Homer portray the relationship between Hector (Hektor) and
Andromache in the books of the Iliad you have read?
(6 marks)
iii)
How clear a distinction is there in the Iliad between men’s and women’s
functions? Give the reasons for your views and support them with details
from the books of the Iliad which you have read.
(15 marks)
8
5
The translation of M. Hammond
Because nothing equals the worth of my life – not even all the riches they say
were held by the well-founded city of Ilios, in earlier times, in peace, before the
sons of the Achaians came, nor all that the Archer’s stone threshold guards
inside, in Phoibos Apollo’s temple in rocky Pytho. Men can raid cattle and sturdy
sheep, and men can win tripods and bay horses by the head – but there is no
raiding or winning a man’s life back again, when once it has passed the guard of
his teeth. My mother, the silver-footed goddess Thetis, says that I have two fates
that could carry me to the end of death. If I stay here and fight on round the
Trojans’ city, then gone is my homecoming, but my glory will never die: and if I
come back to my dear native land, then gone is my great glory, but my life will
stretch long and the end of death will not overtake me quickly.
(Book 9 new edition p.142-143)
a) Why is Achilleus concerned, at this stage of the Iliad, about the value of his
life? (9 marks)
b)
What is the more familiar name of the place called here ‘rocky Pytho’?
(2 marks)
c)
Does the prophecy of Thetis really give Achilleus a choice?
(7 marks)
d)
How, why and when does he make the choice?
(7 marks)
9
6
The translation of M. Hammond
So he spoke, and Patroklos began to arm himself in gleaming bronze. First he
placed greaves on his legs, a fine pair, fitted with silver ankle-pieces. Next he put
round his chest the crafted star-bright corselet of the fast runner Achilleus, of
Aiakos’ stock. Over his shoulders he slung a bronze sword, the hilt nailed with
silver, and then a great massive shield. On his mighty head he placed a wellmade helmet with a plume of horse-hair, and the crest nodded fearfully from its
top. And he took up a pair of strong spears, well fitted to the grip of his hands.
Only the spear of the excellent Achilleus he did not take, the huge, heavy, massive
spear which no action Achaian could wield, but Achilleus alone had the skill to
handle it, the spears of Pelian ash from the height of Pelion, which Cheiron had
given to his dear father to be the death of fighting men.
(Book 16 new edition p. 256)
a) Who had advised Patroclus (Patroklos) to put on Achilles’ (Achilleus’)
armour?
(1 mark)
b)
What did this person hope to achieve by giving this advice?
(2 marks)
c)
Give one reason which Achilles’ (Achilleus’) had just given for agreeing to
lend Patroclus (Patroklos) his armour.
(1 mark)
d)
Why did you think Homer describes his arming scene in such detail?
Support your answer with details from the passage.
(6 marks)
e)
In her lament over Patroclus’ (Patroklos’) body, Briseis describes him as
“gentle” (Rieu and Hammond), or “kind” (Lattimore). How far do you agree
with this assessment of his personality? Explain your views and support
them with details from the books of the Iliad which you have read.
You might include discussion of






what Briseis says about him in the rest of her lament
what he does to help Achilles (Achilleus)
Patroclus’ (Patroklos’) behaviour on his visit to Nestor
his reaction to the wounding of the Greek leaders and his meeting
with Eurypylus (Eurypylos)
what Achilles (Achilleus) says about him before Patroclus (Patroklos)
goes into battle and after his death
Patroclus’ (Patroklos’) behaviour in battle.
(15 marks)
10
6
The translation of M. Hammond
As long as the sun straddled the centre of the sky, the weapons thrown by both
sides reached their mark, and men kept falling. But when the sun moved over to
the time when oxen are unyoked, then beyond all destiny the Achaians were the
stronger. They dragged the hero Kebriones out of the weapons’ range and away
from the Trojan’s clamour, and took the armour from this shoulder. And
Patroklos charged at the Trojans with murder in his heart. Three times then he
charged like the swift war-god himself, shouting fearfully, and three times he
killed nine men. But when for the fourth time he flung himself on like a god,
then, Patroklos, the ending of your life was revealed. Phoibos met you in the
battle’s fury, terrible god. Patroklos did not see him moving through the rout.
Apollo came against him hidden in thick mist, and stood behind him, and stuck
his back and broad shoulders with the flat of his hand, so that his eyes spun
round. Then Phoibus Apollo knocked the helmet from his head, and the great
masking helmet rolled clattering under the horse’s feet, and the hair of its crest
was sullied with blood and dust. Before now it was not permitted for this horsecrested helmet to be sullied in the dust, but it guarded the head and fine brow of
a godlike man, Achilleus and now Zeus allowed Hektor to wear it on his head, as
his death was close upon him. And all the length of his long-shadowed spear,
huge, heavy, massive, and tipped with bronze, was shattered in his hands: and
from his shoulders fringed shield dropped with its strap to the ground. And lord
Apollo, son of Zeus broke the corselet off him. Bewilderment took his mind, and
the strength collapsed from this bright body, and he stood here dazed.
(Homer, Iliad 16.777 – 805, trans. M. Hammond)
(Penguin)
a)
What is the situation as this passage begins?
(5 marks)
b)
To what extent are Apollo’s actions in this passage consistent with his
character as revealed in the Iliad as a whole?
(10 marks)
c)
How does this passage display Homer’s skills as a story-teller?
(10 marks)
11
7
The translation of M. Hammond
Then, when Briseis, lovely as golden Aphrodite, saw Patroklos lying there, torn
by the sharp bronze, she threw herself over him and shrieked loud, and her
hands tore at her breasts and soft neck and beautiful face. And the woman
beautiful as the goddesses cried out in lament for him: ‘Patroklos, more than any
the pleasure of my poor heart, you were alive when I went away from the hut
and left you, and now I come back, leader of your people, and find you dead. So it
is always in my life, pain following pain. My father and honoured mother gave
me to a husband, and I saw him torn by the sharp bronze in front of our city, and
my three brothers, born by the same mother, my beloved brothers all met the
day of destruction. But when swift Achilleus killed my husband and sacked the
city of godlike Mynes, you would not let me even weep, but you said you would
make me godlike Achilleus’ wedded wife, and take me back in your ships to
Phthia, and celebrate my marriage-feast among the Myrmidons. And so I weep
endlessly for your death. You were always gentle.’
(Homer, Iliad 19.282 – 300, (M. Hammond)
(Penguin)
a)
What is the situation here?
(5 marks)
b)
Do you agree with Briseis’ assessment of Patroklos’ character?
(10 marks)
c)
How far is this picture of Briseis typical of the way in which the Iliad
portrays mortal women?
(10 marks)
12
9
The translation of M. Hammond
So he spoke, and then he put glorious Hektor to shameful treatment. He cut
through behind the tendons of both feet to ankle, and pulled straps of ox-hide
through them which he tied fast to his chariot, so the head would be left to drag.
Then he mounted the chariot and lifted the famous armour into it, and whipped
the horses on, and they flew eagerly on their way. As Hektor was dragged
behind, a cloud of dust arose from him, his dark hair streamed out round him,
and all that once handsome head was sunk in the dust: but now Zeus had given
him to his enemies to defile him in his own native land.
So Hektor's head was all sullied in the dust. And now his mother tore her hair,
and flung the shining mantle away from her head, and raised a great wail when
she saw her son. And his dear father groaned pitiably, and around them all
through the city the people were overcome with wailing and groans of
lamentation. It was just like it would be if all beetling Ilios were fired and
smouldering from top to bottom.
(Book 22 p. 361)
a)
Give three ways in which Athene played a part in Hector’s (Hektor’s) death.
(3 marks)
b) What had Hector (Hektor) told Achilleus (Achilleus) immediately before he
died? (1 mark)
c)
What techniques does Homer use to arouse pity for Hector (Hektor) and
the other Trojans in this passage? Support your answer with details from
the passage.
(6 marks)
d)
How important a theme is the ‘wrath’ or ‘anger’ of Achilleus (Achilleus) in
the Iliad?
Explain your views and support them with details from the books of the
Iliad which you have read.
You might include discussion of





the start of the Iliad
Achilles’ (Achilleus)’ quarrel with Agamemnon and its consequences
his reaction to the death of Patroclus (Patroklos)
his behaviour towards Hector (Hektor) and the Trojans
his meeting with Priam.
(15 marks)
13
10
The translation of M. Hammond
So he spoke and then godlike Achilleus went back to his hut, and sat down
against the opposite wall on the decorated chair which he had left, and spoke to
Priam: ‘Well, your son is released for our now, old man, as you asked, and he lies
there on a bier. With the showing of dawn you will see him for yourself when
you take him. But now let us think of our supper. Even lovely-haired Niobe, you
know, thought of food, and she had twelve children killed in her house, six
daughters, and six sons in the strength of their youth. Apollo killed the sons with
his silver bow, in anger at Niobe, and Artermis the archer-goddess killed the
daughters because Niobe would compare herself with beautiful Leto – she two,
destroyed many. For nine days they lay in their blood,, and there was no-one to
bury them, as the son of Kronos had turned the people into stones: but on the
tenth day the heavenly gods buried them. And Niobe thought of food, when she
was worn out with her weeping. Now she is somewhere among the rocks, in the
lonely mountains, in Sipylos, where they say the goddesses sleep, the nymphs
that dance by the stream of Acheloïos: there, though she is stone, she still broods
on the pain the gods gave her. So come now, we too, godlike old man, should
have our thought for food. Then afterwards you can weep for your dear son,
when you have taken him to Ilios – and you will have many tears for him.’
So speaking swift Achilleus sprang up and slaughtered a shining white sheep.
His comparisons flayed it and prepared the carcass properly, then chopped it
deftly into pieces and threaded them on spits, roasted them carefully, and drew
all the meat off. Autómedon took bread and sit it out on the table in fine baskets,
and Achilleus served the meat. Then they put their hands to the food set
prepared beside them.
(Homer, Iliad 24.596 - 627, (Hammond)
a)
What has just happened?
(4 marks)
b)
In what ways is the situation here like the one at the beginning of the poem
when the priest Chryses arrives at the Greek camp, and in what ways does
it differ?
(8 marks)
c)
How appropriate is the story of Niobe to this situation.?
d)
After imaginative lines on Niobe, do you think the final lines of this passage
(the marked paragraph) rather than disappointing?
(5 marks)
(8 marks)
14
11
The translation of M. Hammond
Huge Priam came in unseen, and moving close to him took Achilleus’ knees in his
arms and kissed his hands, those terrible murderous hands, which had killed
many of his sons. As when a man is held fast by blind folly – he kills a man in his
own country, and then comes to another land, to a rich man’s house, and
amazement takes those who see his entry. So Achilleus was amazed when he
saw godlike Priam, and the others too were amazed, and looked at each other.
And now Priam spoke to him in entreaty. ‘Think of your father, godlike Achilleus,
an old man like I am, at the cruel age of old age. And it may be that he too is
pressed by those who live around his home, and there is no-one to protect him
from harm and destruction. But he at least can hear that you are alive, and feel
joy in his heart, and look forward every day to seeing his dear son return from
Troy.
(Homer, Iliad XXIV, 476 - 492)
a)
What is the situation?
(6 marks)
b)
Discuss the simile in lines 2 to 4. How is Priam like a stranger who has
murdered a man in his own country?
(8 marks)
c)
Who is Achilles’ father? Is his situation comparable to Priam’s?
(2 marks)
d)
How does Achilles respond to this appeal?
(5 marks)
15
12
The translation of M. Hammond
Then white-armed Hera said to him in anger: “Yes, there could be truth even in
what you say, lord of the silver bow – if you gods mean to hold Hektor in equal
honour with Achilleus. Hektor is a mortal, and sucked at a woman’s breast. But
Achilleus is child of a goddess, whom I myself brought up and reared and gave as
wife to a man, Peleus, who of all men was the dearest to the hearts of the
immortals. All of you gods there at the wedding: and you were among them too
with your lyre at the feast – you coward-lover, you were always a traitor!”
The Zeus the cloud-gatherer answered her: “Hera, you must not be wholly angry
with the gods. Certainly the honour shown the two men will not be the same.
But Hektor too was dear to the gods, most of all the mortals who live in Ilios. So
he was to me at least, since he never failed to make pleasing gifts – my altar was
never without a share of the feasting, libation of wine and the smoke of sacrifice,
which is our rightful honour. But as for stealing brave Hektor’s body, we must let
that go – and it cannot be done without Achilleus knowing, as his mother is by
him all the time, day and night alike.”
(Book 24 p. 394 new edition pp. 389 – 90)
a)
What criticism has Apollo just made of the other gods and why?
(2 marks)
b)
What does Zeus do to change the behaviour of Achilles (Achilleus) towards
Hector’s (Hektor’s) body before sending Hermes to Priam?(
(2 marks)
c)
What impression of the gods’ relationship with each other and with
mortals does Homer create in this passage?
(6 marks)
d)
“The gods of the Iliad are a mixture of awesome power and quarrelsome
pettiness.” Basing your answer on the books of the Iliad which you have
read, how far do you agree with this statement? You might include
discussion of

the gods’ involvement in human affairs

the contrast between quarrels among the gods and among humans
and their effects

The portrayal of Zeus as king of the gods

Thetis’ concern for her son and Zeus’ grief for Sarpedon.
(15 marks)
16
ILIAD ESSAYS
The following essay titles are taken from several years of Homeric epic
papers –you can see that some are rather more general than you require
(for example, one asks you to compare Homer with a modern novelist).
In addition, you are asked only to write what the exam board calls a ‘miniessay’ for AS.
Nonetheless, reading through these titles should help you to draw out
some common themes:
13. To what extent do relationships between humans and gods in the Iliad
depend on fear of the gods’ superior power?
14. ‘The anger of Achilles … was not an obvious choice of theme for a largescale epic’ (Hammond). What do you think Homer’s poem gains or loses
by concentrating on just one short episode during the Trojan War?
15. What features of Homer’s stories about the gods do we find surprising
today?
16. Compare Homer’s narrative techniques with those of a modern novelist.
17. What are the essential qualities of an epic poem? To what extent do the
epic(s) which you have read show these qualities?
18. Analyse Homer’s portrait of Diomedes and his involvement in the plot of
the Iliad. What is his interest and importance for Homer?
19. Are the gods of the Iliad too ridiculous to be convincing?
20. Do the Homeric poems present an accurate portrayal of any identifiable
society?
21. The Iliad has often been thought to glorify war. Do you agree with this
view?
22. Describe Homer’s portrait of Nestor and his involvement in the plot of the
Iliad. What is his interest and importance for Homer?
23. “Achilleus is more of a hindrance than a help to the Achaians” Discuss.
24. Discuss the parts played by the female characters in the Iliad. How
important are they to the plot and themes of the epic?
25. Discuss the use of the theme of revenge in either the Iliad or The Odyssey.
26. To what extent is “the will of Zeus” carried out in the Iliad?
17
27. To what extent does Homer use the gods in the Iliad to reflect the interest
and concerns of his human character?
28. ‘Zeus and you other gods, grant that this my son may become, as I have been, pre-
eminent among the Trojans, as strong and brave as I, and may he rule in strength over
Ilios. And let people say, as he returns from the fighting: “This man is better by far than
his father.” May he carry home the bloody spoils of the enemy he has killed, and bring
joy to his mother’s heart.’ Iliad 6.476-481.
How effectively does this passage – Hektor’s prayer for his son Astyanax –
sum up the role of a hero in the society of the Iliad?
29. What do similes add to Homer’s poems?
30. What do we learn from the Iliad about Zeus and how he governs the
world?
31. ‘The wrath [of Achilles] is both heroic and tragic. It is a fault in great
character, but also a fault inherent in the whole heroic scheme of life.’
(BOWRA). What do you think Bowra means by this statement? Do you
agree with him?
32. ‘Women and goddesses cause most of the trouble in both Odyssey and
Iliad..’ Is this true?
33. Is it a disadvantage to Homer that he is unable to present Achilles fighting
until the Iliad is three-quarters of the way through?
Note down common themes:
TO ADD:
18