Notes on the FARs for Gliders and Glider Pilots
John Cochrane, 11/25/06
Warning: these are plain-English interpretations and do not substitute for the actual
wording! You should also read the actual text of the current version of the FARs. Current
FARs are available on line at www.faa.gov. This also reflects my judgment about what’s
important and what isn’t, but of course everything is legally important. This is a study
guide, not a reference!
Part 43 Maintenance, preventive maintenance, rebuilding or alteration
43.1 Part 43 (a) applies to US airworthiness certificates but (b) not to experimental
43.3 Persons authorized
(a)-(c). Pilots, i.e. without mechanic or repairman certificate, can’t do most things.
(d) You can work under the supervision of a mechanic or repairman if they are readily
available for consultation and observe the work. This does not apply to inspections.
(g) Pilots may perform preventive maintenance on an aircraft owned or operated by that
pilot ...See appendix A for definition of “preventive maintenance”
43.5 Paperwork. After “maintenance, preventive maintenance , rebuilding or alteration”
you need (a) an entry in maintenance record (aircraft logbook) (b) repair or alteration
form (c) revised operating limitations or flight data if appropriate. Among other things,
this means weight and balance.
43.9 Maintenance records. Write (1) a description of the work (2) date, name, signature
and certificate number. This applies to pilots making preventative maintenance too. If
you change ELT batteries, fix a gelcoat spot, change a tire, etc., you should write it in
your aircraft logbook.
Appendix A
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c) Preventive maintenance defined – the stuff you as a pilot can legally do. See part for
exact wording
(1) tires (2) elastic shock cords on landing gear (3) adding oil or air to shock struts (4)
servicing wheel bearings (5) safety wiring or cotter keys (6) lubrication not requiring
disassembly (7) simple fabric patches (8) adding hydraulic fluid (9) refinishing
decorative coating of fuselage, wings, tail group surfaces (but not balanced) fairings,
cowlings, landing gear, cockpit interior when removal or disassembly of a primary
structure or system is not required [ Important. Here is where we discuss what gel-coat
work you can legally do] (10) applying preservative or protective material….(11)
repairing upholstery..(12) small simple repairs to fairings, nonstructural cover plates,
cowlings and small patches and reinforcements not changing the contour so as to
interfere with proper airflow. (13) replacing side windows. (14) replace safety belts (15)
replacing seats or seat parts with approved… (16) trouble shooting and repairing broken
circuits in light wiring (17) Bulbs, reflectors, lenses (18) wheels and skids (19) cowling
..(20) spark plugs (21) non-hydraulic hoses (22) fuel lines (23) cleaning fuel and oil
filters strainers (22) batteries ((26) nonstructural fasteners (31) replacing tray-mounted
instruments
Part 61 Certification
A. general
61.3 a,d) To act as pilot in command or flight instructor you must carry or have readily
accessible in the aircraft your pilot certificate and a photo id.
61.15 Drugs, Alcohol
a) Any drug or motor vehicle alcohol violation is grounds for suspension or revocation,
or denial of application for 1 year.
e) You must report any alcohol or drug motor vehicle action to the FAA in 60 days.
61.19 Duration
b) Student pilot certificates last 24 calendar months. (That means until the end of the
month in which you got your license.)
c) Other pilot certificates last forever. Licenses based on foreign licenses last while the
foreign license is “effective.” (This does not mean you need a special medical or a
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foreign BFR. Some countries issue licenses that don’t last forever. Licenses based on
foreign licenses are a complex issue, and I don’t pretend to cover that well in these
notes.)
d) Flight instructor certificates last 24 calendar months. (You need to renew, as described
under flight instructors below.)
61.23 Medical
b 3,4) You don’t need a medical to fly gliders or give glider flight instruction. (There is
also no signature or self-certification. 61.53 below covers it all.)
61.31 What rating do you need?
(c ) You need category and class rating (i.e. glider category, there are no classes) to be
pilot in command with a passenger or for compensation or hire.
(d ) You can be pilot in command solo (1) if you have the rating (duh) or if you (3) “have
received training required that is appropriate to the aircraft…and have received the
required endorsements…” This means that means power pilots with a rating do not need
a student pilot certificate, just a logbook endorsement to fly solo.
(j) To fly as PIC of a glider you need a logbook endorsement for your tow method, ether
(i) ground-tow (ii) aerotow or (iii) self-launch endorsement. You will have to
“accomplished ground and flight training on procedures and operations” and receive the
logbook endorsement. (2) Grandfather clause for launch endorsement from August 4
1997.
(k) Exception. (i) When you’re taking a flight test, you’re PIC carrying a passenger,
though you don’t yet have a rating.
Big Picture: The FAA issues you a pilot certificate – student, private, commercial. On
this certificate are ratings for different kinds of aircraft – glider, single engine land,
multiengine, etc. Thus, a beginner is getting his (say) private certificate with a glider
rating. A power pilot is getting (say) a glider category rating added to his existing
certificate.
61.39 Prerequisites for practical tests
a) (1) Pass the knowledge test with 24 calendar months, if one is required.
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(2) Present the knowledge report when applying. Don’t lose it.
(3) Have the training and experience specified later
(6) The applicant must have signed endorsements that he (i) “`has received and logged
training time within 60 days preceding the date of application in preparation for the
practical test” (ii) “is prepared for the required practical test” (iii) “has demonstrated
satisfactory knowledge of the subject areas in which the applicant was deficient on the
airman knowledge test”
(Wording is important – the endorsement should say this. Also note that the samples in
the endorsement AC are missing the “deficient” language – you and your instructor have
to make sure to remember it.)
(7) Have a completed and signed application form
You also need an endorsement on the form 87-10-1 application! (Your instructor does
this by internet now.)
c) You don’t need the (6) endorsement if you 1) have an equivalent foreign license…
d,e) Once started, you have 60 days to finish the test or you start over.
61.45 Practical tests: required aircraft and equipment.
a) (1) The plane needs to be US registered. (ii) It should have a standard airworthiness
certificate but b) other certificates (i.e. experimental) are ok at the examiner’s discretion.
61.47 Status of the examiner.
b) The examiner is not PIC except by arrangement.
c) Thus, you (the PIC) are allowed to carry passengers (the examiner) even though you
would not ordinarily be allowed to do so.
61.49 Retesting after failure
a) (1,2) You can only reapply after receiving training and an endorsement from the
instructor who gave the additional training. There is no time or experience limitation
(that’s on the written.)
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b) If you fail the CFIG test on stalls, spins, etc. you not only (1) need the endorsement,
but (2) you have to bring a spin-capable glider and (3) demonstrate spins on the retest.
(Explanation: the examiner is allowed to pass you the first time on oral quizzing, but on
the second time, he/she is required to make you do it.)
61.51 Pilot logbooks
a) (1)(2) You have to log experience needed for ratings, flight reviews, and currency
(recent experience) requirements. You don’t legally have to log every flight, though most
people do. Also, the application form for further ratings asks for experience beyond this
legal minimum – dual, solo, cross-country, instruction received, both in the type on the
test and in other types. It’s going to be hard to fill that out without a complete logbook.
b) Entries need to include (1) Date, time, location, type and ID of aircraft, (2) Solo, PIC,
flight and ground training from an instructor.
d) Solo means you’re alone (sole occupant) in the aircraft – it’s not “solo” if you do
everything with someone else in back. (duh)
e) (1) If sharing, private/commercial pilots can (only) log PIC time while sole
manipulator of controls.
(3) Instructors log as PIC their time while instructing, i.e. even though the student is
manipulating the controls.
(4) Student pilots log PIC only when solo.
h) Training time is logged. It (i) must be endorsed by the instructor who (ii) must
describe the training, the length of the training session, signature, certificate number and
expiration date.
i) Presentation of documents
(1) You must present (that doesn’t mean surrender) pilot certificate, medical, logbook or
any other record required by this part .. under a reasonable request by (i) the
Administrator (ii) NTSB (iii) any Federal, State or local law enforcement officer
(2) Student pilots must carry (i) logbook (ii) student pilot certificate on cross country
flights
Note: There is lots of FAA FAQ about what time can be logged. One interesting FAA
FAQ: The legal PIC is a distinct concept from the logged PIC. Thus, if you go with
another pilot, he is current, you are not, you may log PIC time when you are sole
manipulator, even though you cannot be the legal PIC of the flight.
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61.53 Prohibition on operation during medical deficiency
(b) You can’t act as PIC while “knows or has reason to know of any medical condition
that would make the person unable to operate the aircraft in a safe manner.” This takes
the place of any medical certification for glider pilots.
61.56 Flight review
(a) The flight review is 1 hour ground training and 1 hour flight training. The review
“must” include (1) “a review of general operating and flight rules in part 91” (2) “a
review of those maneuvers and procedures that at the discretion of the person giving the
review, are necessary for the pilot to demonstrate the safe exercise of the privileges of the
pilot certificate”
(b) Gliders pilots can have 1 hour or 3 flights in a glider, “each of which includes a flight
to traffic pattern altitude”
(c) The review lets you act as PIC. The duration is 24 calendar months, i.e. if you take it
on the 15th you’re good through the 30th two years later. (1) The review can be in any
aircraft for which you’re rated (i.e power review is good enough for gliders, but only if
you have a power rating.) (2) You need a logbook endorsement that says you have
“satisfactorily completed the review.”
(d) Getting a new rating counts as a review. (This is given by an examiner not an
instructor. An endorsement for a new launch method, a glider checkout, or towpilot
endorsement etc. don’t count.)
(e) A “FAA sponsored proficiency award program” substitutes for flight review.
(f) A fight instructor renewal seminar under 61.197 can substitute for 1 hour ground
instruction.
(g) Student pilots don’t need a review if they have a current student endorsement.
Note: Read AC 61-98A (or current version) on flight reviews! The FAA strongly
recommends going beyond these minimums – for example, if you’ve only flown gliders
for years, maybe it’s not such a good idea to only have a glider flight review and then
jump back in that corporate jet. Violating ACs isn’t quite as bad as violating FARs, but
can still get you in trouble.
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61.57 Recent flight experience pilot in command – “Currency”
(a) (1) To carry passengers you need 3 takeoffs and landings in the preceding 90 days in
which you (i) acted as sole manipulator of the controls (ii) in the same category (class
and type, but there is no class and type for gliders). Power currency does not count for
gliders.
(b) Night. Night here is defined as 1 hour after sunset to 1 hour before sunrise. This needs
a separate currency. (Note: night lights are required from sunset to sunrise, a different
definition of “night.”)
61.60 Change of address Notify the FAA within 30 days.
B. Aircraft Ratings and Pilot Authorizations
61.63 Additional ratings
Point: this is where you look for endorsements for power pilots adding a glider rating, as
opposed to the private/commercial/cfi sections below that describe procedures to get your
first rating.
(2) You need a logbook endorsement from an instructor attesting that “the applicant has
been found competent in the aeronautical knowledge areas appropriate to the pilot
certificate for the aircraft category.. being sought.’’
(3) You need a logbook endorsement “found proficient on the areas of operation that are
appropriate for the aircraft category being sought.”
(5) Pilots with airplane, rotorcraft, powered lift, and airship ratings do not need to take
the glider knowledge test to add a glider rating.
61.69 Towing. (Prize for obscure language!)
(a) To tow a glider you need
(1) A private pilot (or better) certificate with a powered aircraft category,
Initial requirements
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(2) 100 hours PIC in category, class (and type if required, but it isn’t for any towplane
I’ve heard of) of the proposed towplane.
(3) “has a logbook endorsement from an authorized instructor who certifies that the
person has received ground and flight training in gliders .. and is proficient in – (i) the
techniques and procedures essential to the safe towing of gliders..including airspeed
limitations; (ii) Emergency signals (iii) Signals Used; and (iv) maximum angles of bank.”
Note: training in gliders. Towpilots have to see the other end of the rope. This has to
come from a glider instructor.
(4) “has logged 3 flights as sole manipulator of the controls of an aircraft towing a
glider…or simulating towing flight procedures while accompanied by (described below )
(5) “has logbook endorsement by (described below)” about the 3 flights.
Currency requirements
(6) Within the preceding 12 months has (i) done the three tows while accompanied OR
(ii) made 3 glider flights towed by aircraft (3 winch or self launch doesn’t count)
Accompanying pilot-logbook endorser
(c) Must meet the requirements himself and have 10 tows as PIC,
(d) if only a private pilot, must have 100 hours in airplanes, or 200 hours total, and either
3 airtows as glider pilot or 3 accompanied tows as towpilot. (To me, this seems
completely redundant, as I don’t see how you can “meet the requirements” without
having the (d) experience.)
Notes: the accompanying pilot / logbook endorser does not need to be an instructor.
Towpilots who are not instructors can sign each other off and accompany each other for
currency. You only need an instructor – and that’s a glider instructor – for the part (3)
glider training.
61.75 Private pilot certificate issued on the basis of a foreign pilot license.
Don’t need to do any other testing.
c) They get the ratings on their current license, and are allowed to add ratings.
(Again, this is not the place to discuss all the minutiae of foreign pilot licenses. In the
simple case that a pilot has a foreign glider rating, he can get a US private rating by going
to the FSDO. If other ratings or more complex issues are involved, read the regs and the
FAQs. In many cases, FSDO operators have given wrong and inconsistent guidance, so
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it’s worth doing a lot of research and showing up with regs, FAQs and other guidance in
hand.)
C Student pilots
61.83 Eligibility
(b) 14 years old , English
c) Since you don’t need a medical, you can apply directly to the FSDO.
61.87 Solo requirements
b) Must pass a written test including 1) (i) applicable parts of parts 61, 91, ii) airspace
rules and procedures for the airport iii) Flight characteristics and operational limitations
for the make and model to be flown. 2) The instructor must (i) administer the test and (ii)
review incorrect answers. (Not in regs but in AC: and say so in a logbook endorsement.)
c) Flight training. The student must 1) receive and log flight instruction on all the
numbered items in part i) (maneuvers and procedures in a glider) (Instructors: make sure
you’ve logged them all. Students: you’re not going solo until all this is done). 2)
Demonstrate satisfactory proficiency … in the make and model of aircraft or similar
make and model of aircraft to be flown. (“Similar:” this is how you can solo a 1-26 by
flying a 2-33.)
n) To fly solo, the student needs 1) instructor endorsement on his student pilot certificate
for each make and model, 2) a “90 day endorsement” This is an instructor endorsement in
the student’s logbook for each make and model. The instructor must have “given the
training within the 90 days preceding the flight.” Note endorsements must come from
instructors who do the training – you can’t ask anyone to sign the 90 days.
p) Instructors making endorsements, among other obvious things, must i) have given the
training “in make and model or a similar make and model” …iv) Ensured that the guy
who signed the pilot certificate was authorized to do so.
Here and in the FAQs, the FAA is clearly sick of instructors signing off students who
they have not personally instructed.
61.89 General Limitations
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a) 6) Student pilots need 3 miles visibility, (even in class G below 1,200’)
61.93: Solo cross country flight (Much edited that only really applies to power planes)
a) 1) Cross country is anything more than 25 nautical miles from home, or when you plan
to land at another airport.
c) The pilot needs an endorsement for each cross-country flight. (1) Student pilot
certificate endorsement for cross country flight in general, from the “instructor who
conducted the training..”, and for each make and model (2) A separate cross-country
logbook endorsement for each make/model and (ii) an endorsement for each flight from
“instructor who reviewed planning.” This one must (A) specify the make and model (B)
state that “the student’s preflight planning is correct and that the student is prepared to
make the flight safely under the known conditions” and (C) state any limitations.
d) Instructors must 1) determine that planning is correct 2) review weather is VFR 3)
Determined that the student is proficient 4) make sure the student has all the right
endorsements
(j) lists maneuvers and procedures for cross-country flight training in a glider.
61.95 Operations in class B airspace
There is a procedure for student pilot solo in class B, but not at specific class Bs
including ORD.
Notes
Student endorsements last forever. You can get a new pilot certificate when the old one
expires (24 months), and your old certificate and logbook endorsements are valid. Still,
endorsements are required to be updated “from time to time.” (AC)
AC61-65 specifically states that the cross-country planning endorsement does not need to
be made by the instructor who normally provides training to the student. You’re just
checking the planning, not overall flying ability. However, as I read it you still have
somehow to “determine that the student is proficient.”
E Private Pilots
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61.103 Eligibility
(b) 16 years old, speak read and write English
61.105 Aeronautical knowledge
(a) Must receive and log ground training or “complete a home study course” (Log ground
training, or bug your instructor to do so!)
(b) Lists knowldge areas. (It’s important to list these in logbook as you give/receive
instruction.)
61.107 Flight proficiency
(a) Must receive and log ground and flight training
(b) List of areas of operation
61.109 Experience
To get a private pilot certificate with glider rating you need
(f) (Glider-only) (1) 10 hours of flight time in a glider including (i) 20 flights, and 3
instructional flights in preparation for the test in last 60 days.(ii) 2 hours solo including
10 flights,
or (Pilots with some power time, which does not include a rating) (2) 40 hours total (i.e.
includes power) flight time, 3 hours in a glider, including (i) 10 solo flights and (ii) 3
instruction flights in the last 60 days.
Note: all flight time is “on the areas of operation listed” You’re supposed to be learning
and practicing the areas of operation, so log as such.
61.113 Privileges and limitations
a) No PIC “for compensation or hire”
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b) Ok to be PIC “in connection with business or employment’’ if (1) the flight is only
incidental to the business and (2) no passengers or property for hire.
c) You may not pay less than pro rata share of expenses when there are passengers,
meaning fuel, oil, landing fees, rental fees. For example, this rules out private pilots
flying the CGC charity event, and if you go up with a student pilot you must split the
costs.
If in doubt, there is a huge amount of FAA FAQ on this issue, mostly about power pilots
trying to skirt the rules.
F Commercial Pilots
61.123 Eligibility (a) 18, English
61.127 Proficiency
b) 6) Lists areas of operation, instructors need to be sure to cover these.
61.129 Experience
(f) Glider
(1) (Glider-only) 25 hours “as pilot in a glider” including 100 flights “in a glider as pilot
in command”. These must include at least (1) 3 hours or 10 flights of training, including
3 training flights in 60 days before the test (ii) and 2 hours including 10 flights solo in a
glider
Or
(2) (Power pilots) 200 hours “of flight time as pilot” in heavier than air and “20 flights as
pilot in command” in a glider, including (i) 3 hours or 10 flights of training, including 3
flights in 60 days and (ii) 5 solo flights in a glider.
61.133 Privileges and limitations
a) May be PIC carrying persons or property for compensation or hire.
Note: There is a lot in the FARs limiting cross-country flight, i.e. when you’re an air taxi
pilot or airline pilot not just a commercial pilot. None of this applies to gliders as they are
typically used.
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H. Instructors
61.183 Eligibility
a) 18 years, English
c) Commercial glider rating
d) Log book endorsement on fundamentals of instructing in 61.185.
e) Knowledge test in fundamentals of instructing unless (1) already holds any flight or
ground instructor certificate or (2) holds a teacher’s certificate authorizing you to teach at
7th grade or higher or (3) is employed as a teacher at an accredited college or university
f) Aeronautical knowledge test. Note power instructors do have to pass this, but the addon rating has fewer questions.
g) Log book endorsement on areas of operation. See 61.187
h) Pass the practical test
i) (1) Logbook endorsement on stall, spins and spin recovery, from training in a glider
certificated for spins. (Note actual spins are not in the private and commercial tests, that’s
why this is here.)
Notes. There are no time limits on any of this. You don’t need an endorsement to take the
fundamentals of instruction or knowledge test, unless you flunked it.
j) You need at least 15 hours PIC in gliders
61.185 Aeronautical knowledge
a) Must receive and log ground training on 1) fundamentals of instructing 2) aeronautical
knowledge
b) Teachers are exempt from FOI in part a 1 (but not from needing an endorsement in
61.183!)
Note: The teacher/professor exemption from the FOI test does not exempt you from
needing an endorsement, nor from the FOI oral part of the practical test. You also will
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need personally to go to the FSDO with a letter from your employer, and have them see
the letter and your ID, and then tell the examiner it’s ok. (This is in the examiner’s
handbook.) All in all, they’ve made it easier just to go take the darn test (ask me how I
know!)
61.187 Flight proficiency
a) Repeats the requirement that you log ground and flight instruction and receive a
logbook endorsement saying you’re proficient
b) 6) Lists areas of operation. Lists are important for instructors
61.189 Records
a) You must sign your student’s logbook.
b) You must keep your own logbook including 1) name and date of all endorsements for
solo and (2) name and date of endorsement for tests, and date and result of test
c) Keep the records for 3 years
61.193 Privileges
Duh.
61.195 Limitations and qualifications
a) You can’t do more than 8 hours flight training out of 24.
d) Repeats limitations on solo endorsements in student section. You have to give the
instruction in order to sign the certificate.
h) To train first-time (initial) flight instructors (1) ground training must be given by an
instructor who (i) has held his rating for 24 months and has given 40 hours of ground
training… (2) The instructor who gives flight training must have (i) held for 24 months
(v) 80 hours of flight training.
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Note this applies to all training required for CFI – you can’t (for example) have a regular
instructor do the spin training and endorsement.
61.197 Renewal
If it has not expired you may renew by …
a) (1) (ii) If you add a new flight instructor rating (e.g. power) your old one is also
renewed
(2) Presenting to a FAA flight standard inspector a record that within the previous 24
calendar months (i) you endorsed 5 students for practical test, with 80% passing on first
attempt in 24 months (iii) a graduation certificate showing that within the 3 previous
calendar months you completed an approved refresher course with ground or flight
training or a combination.
b) The renewed certificate can be valid for (1) 24 months from when it was renewed, or
(2) the month of the original expiration if renewal is accomplished within 3 calendar
months of expiration
Note: you can’t use the same student more than once, i.e. train 5 students, renew, train 3
more, renew again. (FAA FAQ). However, the 5 students do not have to be within the
time of the current certificate, just 24 calendar months.
61.199 Expired
a) You may exchange for a new certificate by passing a practical test.
FAA FAQ: you don’t have to retake the knowledge test or get training and endorsements,
even though the “prerequsites for practical tests” makes no specific exemption.
Part 91 general operating and flight rules
Subpart A General
91.3 Responsibility and authority of PIC
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a) The PIC is directly responsible for and is the final authority as to the operation of the
aircraft
b) You can deviate from any rule in an emergency.
c) If you do, you shall, on request, send a written report.
91.7 Civil aircraft airworthiness
b) PIC is responsible for determining whether the aircraft is in condition for safe flight.
91.15 Dropping objects
You can’t do it if it “creates a hazard to persons or property.” You can do it, however.
91.17 Alcohol and drugs
a) Don’t fly
(1) within 8 hours of drinking any alcohol
(2) while under the influence of alcohol
(3) while using any drug that “affects the.faculties in any way contrary to safety”
(4) with more than 0.04% alcohol
b) No drunk passengers (except in an emergency or if under medical supervision)
c) (1) You have to submit to an alcohol test from a law enforcement officer. (2) or from
the FAA, within 4 hours.
91.19 Carriage of illegal drugs
a) Don’t do it
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B. Flight rules -- General
91.103 Preflight action
You shall become familiar with all available information concerning the flight, including
at least
a) If .. not in the vicinity of an airport: weather reports, forecasts, fuel requirements,
alternatives.
b) For any flight, runway lengths at the airports you intend to use and .. (2) reliable
information .. about takeoff and landing distances, gross weights, wind and temperature.
I.e. make sure you can take off safely!.
91.105 Flight crewmembers at stations
a) 2) You must keep your safety belt fastened. (Not necessarily shoulder harness.)
b) During takeoff and landing keep you must keep your shoulder harness fastened.
91.107 Safety belts
a) (1) You must brief passengers on safety belt use, just like the airlines do.
(2) You have to tell passengers to fasten seatbelts, just like the airlines do
(3) Passengers must wear belts during takeoff, landing and movement on surface
91.111 Operating near other aircraft
(a) You can’t fly so close to another aircraft as to create a collision hazard
(b) No formation flight except by arrangement with each PIC in the formation
(c) No formation flight with passengers for hire
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91.113 Right of way rules
(c ) Aircraft in distress has the right of way over everyone
(d) Aircraft of the same category converging but not head on: The aircraft on the right has
right of way. Otherwise the order is
(1) balloon (2) glider , (3) airship (4) power. Towing or refueling operations have right
of way over all other powered aircraft.
(e) If approaching head on: both aircraft give way to the right. No priority for gliders –
this applies to both aircraft.
(f) If you’re overtaking someone else, he has right of way, and you clear to the right.
(g) Aircraft landing or on final have the right of way, including over surface traffic. The
lower aircraft has right of way. But you can’t use this rule to cut in.
91.117 Speed limits
Below 10,000’: 250 knots.
Within 4 miles of a class C or D airport, under class B, or in a VFR corridor, 200 knots.
Note in class B is still 250 knots even though under class B it’s 200.
91.119 Minimum altitudes
a) If power fails, enough to make an emergency landing without hazard to persons or
property on the surface. (Hazard to you is ok!)
b) Over a congested area or assembly: 1000 feet over the highest obstacle in 2000’ radius
c) In uncongested areas: 500’ AGL. Over sparsely populated areas or water, then 500 feet
from any person, vessel or structure.
(i.e. close-in ridge flying is ok, but don’t buzz the spectators)
91.123 Compliance with ATC clearances and instructions
a) b) Do what they tell you unless it’s an emergency.
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c) If you have to deviate tell ATC as soon as possible.
d) If you have ask for priority because of an emergency (for example, you have to land
first because you’re a glider), ATC might ask for a detailed report, and you have to do it
within 48 hours.
91.121 Altimeter settings
a) 1) Use current reported settings from a station within 100 nautical miles iii) if you
don’t have a radio, use the elevation of the departure airport.
Gliders should be using MSL altitudes!
91.125 Light signals
Steady green: cleared for takeoff / cleared to land
Flashing green: cleared to taxi / return for landing (to be followed by steady green)
Steady red: stop / gives way to other aircraft and continue circling
Flashing red: taxi clear of runway / airport unsafe do not land
Flashing white: return to staring point / NA
Red and green: Use extreme caution
91.126, 127 Operating on or near airports in class G, E
(a) Make all turns to the left unless otherwise marked
(d) If there is a control tower, flight “ To, from, through, or on” needs two way radio
communications; within 4 NM and under 2,500’ AGL
If radio fails in flight you can land if you have VFR minimums and get clearance by light
signals. (Has anyone seen a control tower that’s G or E, not D?)
91.129 Operations in class D (Airport control towers)
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(c) (1) Before entering or taking off, you must establish two way radio communications
and maintain them. “Establish” means you call and they answer with their call sign, not a
clearance.
(ii) If you’re departing from a satellite airport in the class D, establish radio
communication as soon as practicable (i.e. radios don’t work on the ground)
If the radio fails in flight, you can land if you have VFR minimums and you get clearance
by light signals.
Note: this does not say you can enter D with the radio not working. However AIM 4-2-13
says to circle overhead, see the flow of traffic and then join, looking for light signals, i.e.
to go ahead and enter D without two way radio contact.
91.130 Class C
(b) Satellite airports have FAA arrival and departure patterns. Follow them.
(c) (1) Arriving or through flight: you must establish two way radio communications –
call them and they answer with your call sign.
(2) (i) Departing: talk to the control tower, then they’ll tell you when to switch
frequencies.
(ii) Departing from a satellite airport without control tower: establish communication as
soon as practicable. (The radio doesn’t work on the ground, so call in the air.)
(d) Unless authorized by ATC, you need a transponder (91.215)
(e) The ATC can authorize deviations on a continuing basis or for an individual flight.
I.e. you may ask to enter without a transponder. However, 91.215 says you have to ask at
least an hour ahead of time.
91.131 Class B
(b) Pilots (1) (i) you need a private pilot rating or more (iv) or student pilot with a lot of
endorsements (2) but some airports allow just private pilots, like ORD
(c ) You need a radio
(d) You need a transponder
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91.133 Restricted Areas
a) To fly in a restricted area you need permission of the using or controlling agency.
(Listed on sectional map)
91.135 Class A (above 18,000’)
Class A is IFR only
(a) You need a clearance prior to entering
(b) You must have a radio and maintain two way radio contact with ATC
(c ) You need a transponder
(d) ATC can allow you to deviate from all this, but requests for deviation must be
submitted in writing at least 4 days ahead of time. ATC may authorize deviation on a
continuing basis or for an individual flight. (Note: don’t call and ask to go abvove 18,000
VFR with no transponder. Even if they say yes, it’s illegal. Wave windows, etc. are
worked out on the basis of this rule.)
B. Flight Rules -- Visual Flight Rules
91.155 Basic VFR minimums (See Table in FARs)
(a)
Class A: NA
Class B: 3 statute miles and clear of clouds.
Class C, D, E below 10,000’ 3 SM visibility, 500’ below, 1,000’ above and 2,000’
horizontally.
Class E. Above 10,000’: 5 SM visibility, 1,000’ below, 1,000’ above, 1 mile horizontally.
Class G below 1,200’ 1 SM, clear of clouds. (day) , 3 SM 500/1000/2000 at night
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Class G above 1,200, below 10k: 1 mile day, 3 miles night, 500’ below, 1,000 above,
2,000’ horizontally.
Class G above 1,200, above 1,000’ the usual 5 SM visibility 1,000’ below, 1,000’
above 1mile horizontally.
Summary:
The basic requirement is 3 SM 500 below, 1000 above, 2000 horizontal. The point is that
there may be IFR traffic around and you need to see them come out of clouds, plus they
may not be looking. This applies < 10,000’
Above 10,000’ this increases to 5SM, 1000 below, 1000 above and 1mi horizontal.
There is no 250 knot speed limit, and less VFR traffic.
G allows less, since there is no ATC controlled IFR traffic (there may be IFR traffic
however). Thus, during the day you’re allowed 1 SM between 1,200 and 10,000.
G below 1,200 AGL allows 1 SM and clear of clouds. In this area, IFR traffic may be
descending below a low cloudbase to land. Since everyone is going slow and looking
hard out the window, these lower requirements apply – but only in daytime.
(c) Airport minimums. There is “controlled airspace to the surface’’ near some airports.
That means class B, C, D, and inside dashed magenta lines of some class E airports.
Here, you need a 1,000 ft. ceiling and ( d) (1) 3 miles ground visibility or (2) 3 miles
flight visibility if there is no ground visibility report.
(Note this does not apply in general. Most glider airports are in class G, i.e. class E starts
at 700 or 1,200’ AGL. To fly at all, you only need to satisfy class G requirements, 1 SM
visibility and clear of clouds. Thus it’s ok to do pattern tows with a 600’ cloudbase at
most glider airports.)
91.157 Special VFR
This applies only between the surface and 10,000’, when controlled airspace goes to the
surface, i.e. (for most practical purposes) above airports with control towers, where you
need the 1,000’ ceiling and 3 SM visibility. It allows you to operate with less than those
minimums.
(b) To do it, you need (1) ATC clearance (2) stay clear of clouds (3) 1 SM visibility (4)
only in day time. (c) To land (as opposed to flying over), ground visibility must be 1
mile.
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Explanation. Ok, you’re flying your glider, the weather goes to pot, and you have to land
at a controlled airport. You call and they say “the airport is closed to VFR flight” because
visibility and/or ceiling is too low. Now you have to ask for a special VFR clearance–
they won’t offer it. Same if you want to tow out of a controlled airport.
91.159 VFR cruising altitudes
Between 3,000 and 18,000, people flying eastbound -- on a magnetic course of 0 through
179 -- fly at odd thousands + 500’. People flying westbound – on a magnetic course of
180 through 359 – fly even thousands plus 500’. (People from California are odd.) This
applies to “level cruising flight” so gliders don’t have to obey it. It is useful to know
where the power traffic is coming from.
91.179 IFR cruising altitude
Between 3,000 and 18,000, eastbound odd thousands, westbound even thousands.
Again, knowing this helps you to know where to look for power traffic.
--- C Equipment, instrument and certificate requirements ---
91.203 Certifications required
(a) (1) Airworthiness (2) Registration
(b) Airworthiness must be displayed
91.207. Emergency Locator Transmitters.
a) ELT’s are required for “US registered civil airplanes.” – not gliders
c) Says “batteries used in the ELT required by section a” (i.e. for airplanes) have to be
replaced or recharged when the ELT has been used (1) for 1 cumulative hour, or (2) when
the expiration date on the ELT says to change it. Also d) they have to be inspected every
12 months.
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Notwithstanding all this, the CFIG instructor written test thinks that all ELTs have to
follow the battery life and inspection regime of part c, so glider instructors have to know
this. (Your annual inspector probably thinks it has to be done too, so buy those new
batteries.)
91.209 Aircraft Lights
(a) You must have them and they must be on to operate (meaning fly or taxi) sunset to
sunrise. This is different from nighttime currency requirements, which refer to 1 hour
after sunset / 1 hour before sunrise.
(2) the CFI test has trick questions about the wording of (2) – you can’t park or move an
aircraft in or near the night flight operations of an airport unless the aircraft is clearly
illuminated, has lights on, or is in an area marked by obstruction lights.
For Gliders: this means you can’t legally fly one minute after sunset, even if there is
enough twilight and runway lights that you think you can see fine.
91.211 Oxygen
(a) (1) Crew must have it if you spend more than 30 minutes above 12,500.
(2) Crew must have it any time you’re above 14,000’
(3) Everyone must be provided with oxygen above 15,000’
91.213 Inoperative instruments and equipment.
a) (1) You can only take off with inoperative instruments and equipment installed if you
have an approved Minimum Equipment List. 2) tells you how to get one.
b) Exception: You can take off with inoperative instruments and no Minimum Equipment
List if you’re flying a ..1) i) … glider… for which a master minimum equipment list has
not been developed. Obviously (long language..) 2) you can’t fly if the inoperative
instrument is required by airworthiness. (See aircraft manual) and 3) it needs to be
removed or placarded as “inoperative.”
This is on the the CFIG written and new PTS. Upshot: you should put a big “inoperative”
on anything that isn’t working, so long as it is not listed in the flight manual as needed for
day VFR. (In the CGC Blanik, only airspeed and altimeter are required for day VFR.)
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91.215 Transponders
(b) (1) Are required in A, B, and C airspace
(2) Are required in the 30 NM veils around class B, from the surface to 10,000’
(3) (2) does not apply to gliders so long as they are (i) outside class A, B, C, (ii) below
the ceiling of class B or C or 10,000’, whichever is lower.
(4) Transpoders are required above the ceiling of B, C to 10,000’
(5) Everyone but gliders needs a transponder (i) above 10,000’ except below 2,500 AGL
ii) Provision is made for a 10 nm “veil” around class C but appendix D currently lists no
such airports.
(c) In any controlled airspace the transponder has to be on.
(d) Deviations: (1) no encoder or broken transponder: you can make the request any time
(3) No transponder: you must make the request one hour ahead of time.
Bottom line: Gliders don’t need a transponder below the “wedding cake” of class B and
C. They don’t need one in the 30 nm veil surrounding class B until they get even with the
top of class B or C. Then, they need a transponder even in the 30 nm veil, until they get
to 10,000. Above 10,000’ anything goes. Note: Most power pilots don’t know you’re
allowed to be above 10,000’ without a transponder, so will be looking even less than
usual.
For now, if you have a transponder, you may not intentionally switch it off to save
batteries unless you’re in class G airspace (there is some out West).
It says one hour for deviations, but All class A deviations have to be 24 hours ahead of
time by 91.135.
The written tests don’t know about glider exemptions. Thus, if they ask “are transponders
required above 10,000’, in mode C veils, etc.” answer “yes.”
--- D special flight operations ---
91.303 Aerobatics
You can’t do them
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(a) Over the congested area of city, town, or settlement
(b) Over open air assembly of persons
(c) Inside the lateral boundaries of the surface areas B, C, D, and E airspace designated
for an airport. (i.e. any place that controlled airspace goes to the surface)
(d) Within 4 nautical miles of the center line of a federal airway
(e) Below 1,500’ AGL
(f) You need 3 miles visibility
Aerobatics here is an “intentional maneuver involving an abrupt change in attitude, and
abnormal attitude, or abnormal acceleration, not necessary for normal flight.”
Note: Look hard for where we’re allowed to do aerobatics near CGC. In my reading,
spins are included, even in training for and on flight tests – you’d have to argue that
they’re “normal,” which might get somewhere. Stalls are not usually treated as
aerobatics.
91.307 Parachutes
(a) Emergency must be approved type and (1) 180 days repack …
(c ) You need parachutes to (1) bank 60 degrees (2) nose up or down 30 degrees Note
this is a different and more restrictive concept of aerobatics than above.
(d) Except (1) Flight tests (2) Spins and other maneuvers required for any certificate or
rating when given by (i) a certificated flight instructor… Since spins are not required for
ratings other than flight instructor, make sure to tell the FAA that was your goal!
The FAA FAQ points out that under (d) parachutes are not legally required, but they are
still encouraged. That goes for me too. They won’t do you any good in the clubhouse.
91.309 Towing
(a) (1) The tow pilot needs to be qualified
(2) You need an approved towhitch
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(3) The towline should be 80% - 200% of the maximum certificated weight, or (i) have a
safety at the glider end with 80-200 and (ii) a safety at towplane that is 25% stronger and
also 80-200. Note: many aircraft manuals including the Blanik specify a lower maximum
strength.
(4) Within B, C, D, E designated, you must notify control tower. If no tower, notify FSS
(5) You and the towpilot must “agree upon a general course of action including takeoff
and release signals, airspeed, and emergency procedures for each pilot.” Do this on your
practical test!
91.313. Restricted and limited category aircraft.
No carrying persons or property for compensation or hire. Towing is ok. But 313 a) you
can’t use it for a purpose other than certificated – i.e. can’t use a restricted category crop
duster as a towplane unless the airworthiness certificate says so.
91.315. Limited category aircraft
No carrying persons or property for compensation or hire.
91.319 Experimental (this does apply to gliders!)
(a) No use (1) for other than the purpose for which the certificate was issued (2) carrying
persons or property for compensation or hire
(c) No flight over densely populated areas or in congested airway unless it says ok in
operating limitations
(d) (1) You must advise all passengers it’s experimental (2) day VFR only (3) Tell
control towers you’re experimental
--- E Maintentance, preventive maintenance and alterations
91.403 General
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(a) The owner or operator is primarily responsible for maintaining that aircraft in an
airworthy condition
91.407 Operation after maintenance
(b) No carrying persons (other than crew) if it has been maintained, rebuilt or altered in a
manner than may have appreciably changed flight characteristics or substantially affected
operation in flight until a private pilot flies it, makes an operation check of maintenance
or alteration, and logs the flight in aircraft records
(c) Unless ground tests, inspection or both show conclusively that… hasn’t appreciably
changed flight characteristics or affected flight operation.
Note a private pilot can do the flight test here – no special certificate required.
91.409 Inspection
You need within the last 12 calendar months
(a) (1) An annual inspection by an authorized inspector (see 43.7) or (2) an inspection for
your airworthiness certificate.
(b) For carrying for hire, or to give flight instruction for hire (even in someone else’s
aircraft), the aircraft needs a 100 hour inspection. An annual counts. You can exceed by
10 hours to reach a place where inspection can be done, but you don’t get more hours out
of that
Note on a – a 100 hour is not an annual unless perfomed by a qualified person (inspector,
not a&p) and entered in log as annual.
(c ) Exceptions: (1) Experimental (They have different rules, that also usually require
annual inspection)
91.413 Transponder
(a) Must be checked within 24 calendar months.
(c) The check must be done by a certified repair station.
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91.417 Maintenance records
(a) (1) Keep records of maintenance, preventive maintenance, alteration and 100 hour,
annual and other required or approved inspections.. These have to include (i) Descripton
of the work (ii) date of completion (iii) signature and certificate number of the person
approving the aircraft for return to service
(2) Record (i) time in service of airframe, … (ii) status of life-limited parts of the
airframe..and appliance (towhooks) (iii) time since overhaul of all items required to be
overhauled on a time basis …(v) status of ADs, including method of compliance, AD
number, revision date. If the AD involves recurring action, the time and date at when the
next action is required.
Note: this means you should be able to read the entry of the last annual to tell if there are
any ADs or other items that you need to be aware of and check. In practice though, this is
not often written down. (CGC has unusually good paperwork; you won’t see this standard
in most other operations.)
Airspace Summary:
There are 6 classes of airspace, A, B, C, D, E, G. All but G are called “controlled.” This
doesn’t mean you have to have ATC telling you where to go, it means that someone can
be on instruments following ATC directions here.
A is everything above 18,000’. You need IFR clearance, an instrument rating, a
transponder, and radio. There are a few glider pilots who do all this. There are “wave
windows” at some sites where you can go above 18000’ legally.
B is around big airports like O’Hare. You need a radio, a transponder and a clearance.
C is around medium size airports like Midway. You need a radio, a transponder, and you
have to talk to ATC. In a 20 nm radius of C (even outside the formal area) you are
encouraged to talk to them just to let them know you’re there (AIM)
In practice, pure gliders seldom go in B or C even when legal. They are apt to say things
like “maintain 270 degrees and 3,000’” which is hard to do in a glider, and they’re apt to
be less than understanding about what you want to do. Big heavy fast IFR traffic comes
in and out the sides of B and C airspace, so “good practice” is a bit more conservative
than “legal minimum.”
D is the zone controlled by the tower of an airport with a control tower, typically 4 nm
around and up to 2,500 feet. You can, and gliders do, go here. You must talk to the tower
to pass through or go and land. It’s nice to talk to them if you’re flying over or nearby
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too. They are typically amused to talk to gliders. Some are very unfriendly (Williamsport
PA) but tough luck, you have the right to go here and land if need be.
E is general-purpose airspace, and most of what we fly in. Other traffic can be on IFR
flight plans here. The only legal impact for gliders is visibility and cloud clearance
requirements.
G is “uncontrolled” where other traffic does not get ATC clearances. There still is IFR
flying going on, and some instrument-rated glider pilots do fly IFR in G. There is very
little G east of the Mississippi above 1,200 AGL, but there is some out West. G ends at
14,500’, and this is not shown on charts.
There still are a few TRSA areas, and Rockford is an example. Here you can talk to ATC
and they will tell you about traffic on the radar, though it’s not legally required. It’s a
very good idea to talk to them.
Note: make sure you tell controllers when you leave their area (C, D, TRSA). They don’t
like it if you leave their area quietly and switch back to 123.3, for obvious reasons
Prohibited areas: Stay out.
Restricted areas: You can go in after contacting the controlling authority. (I. e. make sure
they’re not shooting today.) In practice, gliders stay out.
Transponder requirements: read about complex transponder requirements near B and C.
Victor, now Federal airways: (blue lines on sectional charts). Are class E (visibility
requirements), and no aerobatics within 4 miles of the centerline. They go from 1,200
AGL to 18000’. There are a lot near CGC! They also feature a lot of power traffic.
MOAs: military operations. You’re allowed in, but be careful. Also a good idea to talk to
the controlling authority, both to let them know you’re there and to find out if they’re
active today.
Radio: 121.5 is emergency. 122.2 is FSS .122.0 is EFAS = flight watch. 122.9 is
multicom, use for airports with no listed frequency.
NTSB (49 CFR Part 830)
830.2 Definitions (You need to know this for written tests)
- Definition of accident: An occurrence associated with operation of the aircraft, when
anyone is on board with the intention of flying, that results in death or serious injury, or
substantial damage to aircraft.
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- Definition of serious injury: Hospitalization for more than 48 hours, starting within 7
days; fractures except fingers, toes, nose; hemmorages, nerve, muscle and tendon
damage; internal organ, 2 or 3d degree burns on 5% or more of the body
- Definition of substantial damage: adversely effects structural strength, performance or
flight characteristics, .. requires repair or replacement of components. A list of small
things is included, esp. engine failure, damage to landing gear wheels, flaps and wingtips
830.5. The operator (not necessarily pilot – see above) must immediately notify the
NTSB if there is a) An accident or (1) Flight control malfunction or failure (2) Pilot
unable to fly due to injury or illness …(4) In-flight (not ground) fire (5) Midair collision
(6) damage to other property more than $25,000 b) Overdue and believed to be involved
in an accident
830.6 Information to be given.
830.10 Preserve the wreck.
839.15 After notifying immediately, file a report within 10 days after an accident or 7
days if overdue aircraft is still missing. However, if you notified immediately as above
then only file if requested.
Note The written test has lots of picky questions about this – How many days, all the
definitions (for example, do you have to report for a ground fire? No.)
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