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BIOMETRICS – FINGER PRINT TECHNOLOGY
V S Lakshmi Engineering College for Women,
MATLAPALEM.
KAKINADA.
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BIOMETRICS
CONTENTS
● Abstract
● History of biometrics
● Beginning of finger print technology
●
The Necessity
●
Finger print identification
Functions
Applications
Limitations
Conclusion
References
●
●
●
●
●
ABSTRACT
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This Paper is regarding biometrics which is an interesting topic now in regard to
computer and network security, however the ideas of biometrics have been around for
many years. Today we have the technology to realize the aims, and to refine the accuracy
of biometric identification, and therefore the possibility of making it a viable field.
This paper presents the overall views of fingerprint technology which plays a vital
role in today’s technical world for security as well as for identification in several cases.
Advantages of these biometric technologies also give a greater impact on the of today’s
World market. Biometrics increases security which provides a convenient and low-cost
additional tier of security. It eliminates problems caused by lost ID’s or forgotten
passwords by using physiological attributes. Any biometric access control system will
consists of a biometric control reader or scanner. This unit will capture the raw data in the
form of fingerprint or information from voice recognizer, etc. This data is then analyzed
and compared to the person’s characteristics against the previously enrolled record. If the
two records match, the person is authenticated. And if the time is within the authorized
period for entry, the device will signal and release the electric door lock.
The most common aspect of biometrics being used for access control is
fingerprints. Though in more secure areas like defence areas and airports, government
areas, etc.The best solution for a small business is to opt for a fingerprint access control
system.
Finger print technology is one of the most developed biometrics with more
history, research and design than any other form. Traditional use of finger prints was first
used in 14th century, in China. In the later half of the 19th century, Richard Edward Henry
of Scotland yard developed a method of categorizing and identifying marks in
fingerprints. An advanced version of this method was brought by Francis Galton in 1892.
Biometric fingerprint method became the method of choice for police around the
world till date. Another classification of systems was created almost concurrently in 1891
by Juan Vucetich which is still use in most of the Spanish countries. International
Organizations such as InterPol now use both the methods. It is still choice for most of the
law agencies .Highly effective and relatively simple, the use of fingerprints as a viable
biometric seems to be here for the long run.
The crossover accuracy of digital biometrics fingerprint technology has been
calculated to be 1:500 for a single finger. Use of multiple fingers increases the accuracy
exponentially. Because of the large amount of data that can be drawn from the
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fingerprints, as systems become more accurate and powerful, this accuracy should
increase even more. Given the amount of information contained in a fingerprint, it is
highly unlikely (estimated at 1 in 64 billion) that any two fingerprints would be identical
and therefore impossible to tell apart. Using fingerprint technology is the fairly small
storage space required for the biometric template, reducing the size of the database
memory required. Also, it is one of the most developed biometrics, with more history,
research, and design than any other form. The traditional use of fingerprints on criminals
has given it a public stigma that is slowly being overcome, but often overshadows its
usefulness. For those concerned with how easy it is to fool a fingerprint reader,
companies have been quickly progressing in creating "human-sensing" devices that can
differentiate between living human fingers and even some of the best replicas. And since
the information in the database is encoded with a mathematical algorithm, recreation of a
biometrics fingerprint is extremely difficult on even a limited scale with most modern
systems.
History of Biometrics
The term “biometrics” is derived from the Greek words bio (life) and metric (to
measure).
Biometrics is becoming an interesting topic now in regards to computer and
network security, however the ideas of biometrics have been around for many years.
Possibly the first known example of biometrics in practice was a form of finger printing
being used in China in the 14th century, as reported by explorer Joao de Barros. He wrote
that the Chinese merchants were stamping children's palm prints and footprints on paper
with ink to distinguish the young children from one another. This is one of the earliest
known cases of biometrics in use and is still being used today.
In the 1890s, an anthropologist named Alphonse Bertillion sought to fix the
problem of identifying convicted criminals and turned biometrics into a distinct field of
study. He developed 'Bertillonage', a method of bodily measurement which got named
after him.
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The problem with identifying repeated offenders was that the criminals often gave
different aliases each time they were arrested. Bertillion realized that even if names
changed, even if a person cut his hair or put on weight, certain elements of the body
remained fixed, such as the size of the skull or the length of their fingers. His system was
used by police authorities throughout the world, until it quickly faded when it was
discovered that some people shared the same measurements and based on the
measurements alone, two people could get treated as one.
After
this,
the
police used
finger
printing,
which
was
developed by
Richard
Edward
Henry
of
Scotland
Yard, instead.
. Essentially reverting to the same methods used by the Chinese for years. However the
idea of biometrics as a field of study with useful identification applications, was there and
interest in it has grown
This Paper discusses the Finger print technology to realize the aims, and to
refine the accuracy of biometric identification, and therefore the possibility of making it a
viable field.
Beginning of Fingerprint Technology
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The beginning of fingerprints goes back to as early as the ancient times.
According to historical findings, fingerprints were used on clay tablets for business
transactions in ancient Babylon. In China, thumb prints were found on clay seals. But it
was in the 19th century that the results of scientific studies were published and fingerprint
technology
began
to
be
considered
more
seriously.
Using the1800’s scientific studies as a foundation, fingerprint technology was
already in use by the beginning of the 20th century. In 1924, FBI(Federal Bureau of
Investigation) is already known to have maintained more than 250 million civil files of
fingerprints for the purpose of criminal investigation and the identification of unknown
The Necessity
With increasingly urgent need for reliable security, biometrics is being spotlighted
as the authentication method for the next generation. Among numerous biometric
technologies, fingerprint authentication has been in use for the longest time and bears
more advantages than other biometric technologies do.
Fingerprint authentication is possibly the most sophisticated method of all
biometric technologies and has been thoroughly verified through various applications.
Fingerprint authentication has particularly proved its high efficiency and further
enhanced the technology in criminal investigation for more than a century.
Even features such as a person’s gait, face, or signature may change with passage
of time and may be fabricated or imitated. However, a fingerprint is completely unique to
an individual and stayed unchanged for lifetime. This exclusivity demonstrates that
fingerprint authentication is far more accurate and efficient than any other methods of
authentication.
Also, a fingerprint may be taken and digitalized by relatively compact and cheap
devices and takes only a small capacity to store a large database of information. With
these strengths, fingerprint authentication has long been a major part of the security
market and continues to be more competitive than others in today’s world.
Fingerprint identification process
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Fingerprint identification process consists of two essential procedures: enrollment
and authentication. Taking the following steps completes each procedure:
As shown in the diagram above, fingerprint identification system compares the
input fingerprint image and previously registered data to determine the genuineness of a
fingerprint. All the steps described above affect the efficiency of the entire system, but
the computational load of the following steps can be reduced to a great extent by
acquiring a good-quality fingerprint image in the first step.
Step 1. Image Acquisition
Real-time image acquisition method is roughly classified into optical and non-optical. Optical
method relies on the total reflection phenomenon on the surface of glass or reinforced plastic
where the fingertip is in contact. The sensor normally consists of an optical lens and a CCD
module or CMOS image sensor. In contrast, semiconductor sensors, as a typical example of
non-optical sensors, exploit electrical characteristics of a fingertip such as capacitance.
Ultrasonic wave, heat, and pressure are also utilized to obtain images with the non-optical
fingerprint sensors. Non-optical sensors are said to be relatively more suitable for massive
production and size reduction such as in the integration with mobile devices. Detailed
comparison is found in Table 1.
Optical
Non-optical
Measuring
Method
light
pressure, heat, capacitance, ultrasonic
wave
Strength
highly-stable performance
low cost with mass production compact
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physical/electrical durability
high-quality image
size integrated with low-power application
Weakness
relatively high cost
limit to size-reduction
relatively easy to fool with a
finger trace or fake finger
physical/electrical weakness
performance sensitive to the outer
environment(temperature, dryness of a
finger)
Application
entrance, time, and
attendance control
banking service
PC security
PC security
e-commerce authentication
mobile devices & smart cards
Step 2. Feature Extraction
There are two main ways to compare an input fingerprint image and registered fingerprint
data. One is to compare an image with another image directly. The other is to compare the socalled 'features' extracted from each fingerprint image. The latter is called featurebased/minutia-based matching. Every finger has a unique pattern formed by a flow of
embossed lines called “ridges” and hollow regions between them called “valleys.” As seen in
the Picture 2 below, ridges are represented as dark lines, while valleys are bright.
Step 3. Matching
The matching step is classified into 1:1 and 1:N matching according to its purpose and/or
the number of reference templates. 1:1 matching is also called personal identification or
verification. It is a procedure in which a user claims his/her identity by means of an ID
and proves it with a fingerprint. The comparison occurs only once between the input
fingerprint image and the selected one from the database following the claim by the user.
On the contrary, 1:N matching denotes a procedure where the system determines the
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user's identity by comparing the input fingerprint with the information in the database
without asking for the user's claim. A good example of this is AFIS (Automated
Fingerprint Identification System) frequently used in criminal investigation.
The output result of the matching step is whether or not the input fingerprint is identical
to the one being compared in the database. Then how could the accuracy of the matching
procedure be represented in number? The simplest measures are FRR (False Reject Rate)
and FAR (False Accept Rate). The former is the rate of genuine user's rejection and the
latter is the rate of impostor's acceptance.
Background
The analysis of fingerprints for matching purposes generally requires the
comparison of several features of the print pattern. These include patterns, which are
aggregate characteristics of ridges, and minutia points, which are unique features found
within the patterns. It is also necessary to know the structure and properties of human
skin in order to successfully employ some of the imaging technologies.
Patterns
The three basic patterns of fingerprint ridges are the arch, loop, and whorl. An
arch is a pattern where the ridges enter from one side of the finger, rise in the center
forming an arc, and then exit the other side of the finger. The loop is a pattern where the
ridges enter from one side of a finger, form a curve, and tend to exit from the same side
they enter. In the whorl pattern, ridges form circularly around a central point on the
finger. Scientists have found that family members often share the same general
fingerprint patterns, leading to the belief that these patterns are inherited.
The arch pattern.
The whorl pattern.
The loop pattern.
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Minutia features
The major Minutia features of fingerprint ridges are: ridge ending, bifurcation,
and short ridge (or dot). The ridge ending is the point at which a ridge terminates.
Bifurcations are points at which a single ridge splits into two ridges. Short ridges (or
dots) are ridges which are significantly shorter than the average ridge length on the
fingerprint. Minutiae and patterns are very important in the analysis of fingerprints since
no two fingers have been shown to be identical.
Ridge ending.
Bifurcation.
Short Ridge (Dot).
Functions
A biometric system can provide the following two functions
●
Verification
Authenticates its users in conjunction with a smart card, username or ID number.
The biometric template captured is compared with that stored against the
registered user either on a smart card or database for verification.
● Identification
Authenticates its users from the biometric characteristic alone without the use of
smart cards, usernames or ID numbers. The biometric template is compared to all
records within the database and a closest match score is returned. The closest
match within the allowed threshold is deemed the individual and authenticated.
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Applications
Markets for fingerprint technology include entrance control and door-lock
applications, fingerprint identification mouses, fingerprint mobile phones, and many
others. The fingerprint markets are classified as follows:
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As the advanced technology enables even more compact fingerprint sensor
size, the range of application is extended to the mobile market. Considering the
growing phase of the present mobile market, its potential is the greatest of all
application markets.
A list of significant modern dates documenting the use of fingerprints for positive
identification are as follows:
●
●
●
●
●
●
1684: Nehemiah Grew (1641-1712, English physician, botanist, and microscopist)
published the first paper on the ridge structure of skin of the fingers and palms.[18]
In 1685, Govard Bidloo (1649-1713, Dutch physician)[19] and Marcello Malpighi
(1628-1694, Italian physician)[20] published books on anatomy which also
illustrated the ridge structure of the fingers.
1788: Johann Christoph Andreas Mayer[21] (1747-1801, German anatomist)
recognized that fingerprints are unique to each individual.[22]
1823: Jan Evangelista Purkyně, a professor of anatomy at the University of
Breslau, published his thesis discussing 9 fingerprint patterns, but he did not
mention the use of fingerprints to identify persons.[23]
1853: Georg von Meissner (1829-1905, German anatomist) studied friction
ridges.[24]
1858: Sir William James Herschel (1833-1918, English magistrate) initiated
fingerprinting in India.[25]
1880: Dr Henry Faulds published his first paper on the subject in the scientific
journal Nature in 1880.[26] Returning to the UK in 1886, he offered the concept to
the Metropolitan Police in London but it was dismissed.[27][28]
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●
●
●
●
●
●
1892: Sir Francis Galton published a detailed statistical model of fingerprint
analysis and identification and encouraged its use in forensic science in his book
Finger Prints.[29]
1892: Juan Vucetich, an Argentine police officer who had been studying Galton
pattern types for a year, made the first criminal fingerprint identification. He
successfully proved Francisca Rojas guilty of murder after showing that the
bloody fingerprint found at the crime scene was hers, and could only be hers.
1897: The world's first Fingerprint Bureau opened in Calcutta (Kolkata), India
after the Council of the Governor General approved a committee report (on 12
June 1897) that fingerprints should be used for classification of criminal records.
Working in the Calcutta Anthropometric Bureau (before it became the Fingerprint
Bureau) were Azizul Haque and Hem Chandra Bose. Haque and Bose were the
Indian fingerprint experts credited with primary development of the fingerprint
classification system eventually named after their supervisor, Sir Edward Richard
Henry.[30][31]
1901: The first United Kingdom Fingerprint Bureau was founded in Scotland
Yard. The Henry Classification System, devised by Sir Edward Richard Henry
with the help of Haque and Bose was accepted in England and Wales.
1902: Dr. Henry P. DeForrest used fingerprinting in the New York Civil Service.
1906: New York City Police Department Deputy Commissioner Joseph A. Faurot
introduced fingerprinting of criminals to the United States.
Defense
Fingerprints collected at a crime scene, or on items of evidence from a crime, can
be used in forensic science to identify suspects, victims and other persons who touched a
surface. Fingerprint identification emerged as an important system within police agencies
in the late 19th century, when it replaced anthropometric measurements as a more reliable
method for identifying persons having a prior record, often under an alias name, in a
criminal record repository
The science of fingerprint identification can assert its standing amongst forensic
sciences for many reasons, including the following
●
Has served all governments worldwide during the past 100 years to provide
accurate identification of criminals. No two fingerprints have ever been found
identical in many billions of human and automated computer comparisons.
Fingerprints are the very basis for criminal history foundation at every police
agency.[3]
● Established the first forensic professional organization, the International
Association for Identification (IAI), in 1915.[33]
● Established the first professional certification program for forensic scientists, the
IAI's Certified Latent Print Examiner program (in 1977), issuing certification to
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●
●
●
●
those meeting stringent criteria and revoking certification for serious errors such
as erroneous identifications.[34]
Remains the most commonly used forensic evidence worldwide—in most
jurisdictions fingerprint examination cases match or outnumber all other forensic
examination casework combined.
Continues to expand as the premier method for identifying persons, with tens of
thousands of persons added to fingerprint repositories daily in America alone—far
outdistancing similar databases in growth.
Is claimed to outperform DNA and all other human identification systems
(fingerprints are said to solve ten times more unknown suspect cases than DNA in
most jurisdictions).
Fingerprint identification was the first forensic discipline (in 1977) to formally
institute a professional certification program for individual experts, including a
procedure for decertifying those making errors. Other forensic disciplines later
followed suit in establishing certification programs whereby certification could be
revoked for error.
Fingerprint identification effects far more positive identifications of persons
worldwide daily than any other human identification procedure. Some of the discontent
over fingerprint evidence may be due to the desire to push the conclusiveness of
fingerprint examinations to the same level of certitude as that of DNA analysis. DNA is
probability-based inasmuch as an individual is genetically half from the mother's
contribution and half from the father's contribution. These genetic contributions are
passed down from generation to generation. While pattern type (arch, loops, and whorls)
may be inherited, the details of the friction ridges are not. For example, it cannot be
concluded that a person inherited a certain bifurcation from their mother and an ending
ridge from their father as the development of these features are completely random.
Further, fingerprints as an analogy of uniqueness has been widely scientifically accepted.
For example, chemists often use the term "fingerprint region" to describe an area of a
chemical that can be used to identify it.
Other uses
Locks and other applications
In the 2000s, electronic fingerprint readers have been introduced for security
applications such as identification of computer users (log-in authentication). However,
early devices have been discovered to be vulnerable to quite simple methods of
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deception, such as fake fingerprints cast in gels. In 2006, fingerprint sensors gained
popularity in the notebook PC market. Built-in sensors in ThinkPads, VAIO laptops, and
others also double as motion detectors for document scrolling, like this scroll wheel.
Another recent use of fingerprints in a day-to-day setting has been the increasing
reliance on biometrics in schools where fingerprints and, to a lesser extent, iris scans are
used to validate electronic registration, cashless catering, and library access. This practice
is particularly widespread in the UK, where more than 3500 schools currently use such
technology, though it is also starting to be adopted in some states in the US.
Fingerprints in other species
Some other animals, including many primates, koalas, and fishers have their own
unique prints.[50] According to one study, even with an electron microscope, it can be
quite difficult to distinguish between the fingerprints of a koala and a human
Fingerprinting in fiction
●
The 1985 Granada TV adoption of The Adventure of the Final Problem, an 1893
Sherlock Holmes short story set in 1891, has a plot hole in Holmes's use of the
Bertillon criminal ID system, in which he uses fingerprints to trap Moriarty's
agents and recover the Mona Lisa. The real Bertillon system did not use
fingerprints. Bertillon added four spaces for fingerprints on his identification
cards by 1900 because of fingerprinting's growing popularity, however the
identification cards were still organized based on anthropometric measurements.
● In The Norwood Builder, an 1903 Sherlock Holmes short story set in 1894, the
discovery of a bloody fingerprint helps Holmes expose the real criminal and free
his client.
Limitations:
●
Although also an advantage, user acceptance is not guaranteed. Fingerprint
scanning crosses the fine line between the impersonal and nonintrusive nature of
passwords and personal identification numbers (PINs), and utilising part of an
individual’s body to identify him/her. As will be discussed, some people view this
as an invasion of privacy13 or worse.
● Injury, whether temporary or permanent, can interfere with the scanning process.
In some cases reenrolment is required. For example, bandaging a finger for a
short period of time can impact an individual if fingerprint scanning is used in a
wide variety of situations. Something as simple as a burn to the identifying finger
could prevent use of an automatic teller machine (ATM).
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●
As some authors have argued, there is nothing to suggest that the same technology
that is used to store fingerprints as statistical algorithms cannot also be used or
modified to recreate accurate depiction of the print itself. This raises serious
concerns related to how such data should be stored, maintained and protected to
prevent fraudulent use.14
Conclusion:
Fingerprint technology which plays a vital role in today’s technical world for
security as well as for identification in several cases. Advantages of these biometric
technologies also give a greater impact on the of today’s World market. Biometrics
increases security which provides a convenient and low-cost additional tier of security. It
eliminates problems caused by lost ID’s or forgotten passwords by using physiological
attributes.
Fingerprint authentication has particularly proved its high efficiency and further
enhanced the technology in criminal investigation for more than a century. , a fingerprint
is completely unique to an individual and stayed unchanged for lifetime. This exclusivity
demonstrates that fingerprint authentication is far more accurate and efficient than any
other
methods
of
authentication.
References of fingerprint technology
Advances in Biometrics: Sensors, Algorithms and Systems
Publisher Springer-Verlag
Author(s) Venu Govindaraju
2. Behavioral Biometrics: A Remote Access Approach
1.
Publisher John Wiley and Sons
Author(s) Kenneth Revett
Biometrics
Publisher McGraw-Hill/Osborne
Author(s) Peter T. Higgins
4. Biometric User Authentication for IT Security: From Fundamentals to
Handwriting (Advances in Information Security)
3.
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Publisher Springer-Verlag
Author(s) Claus Vielhauer
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