Country Gender Assessment 2012
Philippines
FINAL DRAFT
March 7, 2016
World Bank Manila Office
and the
Philippine Commission on Women (PCW)
together with the
Official Development Assistance – Gender and Development Network
(ODA-GAD NETWORK)
Asian Development Bank (ADB)
Embassy of Spain - Agency for International Cooperation for Development (AECID)
Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID)
Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA)
Delegation of the European Union to the Philippines
Deutsche GesellschaftfuerInternationaleZusammenarbeit (GIZ)
United States Agency for International Development (USAID)
International Labour Organization (ILO)
Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS)
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)
United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment (UN Women) Philippines
Project Office
World Health Organization (WHO)
National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA)
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Table of Contents
Executive Summary: Recent Progress and Pending Challenges ................................................................... 5
Country Gender Assessment Framework ................................................................................................... 15
A Roadmap to the Report ........................................................................................................................... 18
Introduction: why does gender matter for development in the Philippines? ............................................ 19
Socio Economic Overview of the Philippines .............................................................................................. 21
CHAPTER 1 .................................................................................................................................................. 38
Endowments: Gender Equality and Human Development ......................................................................... 38
CHAPTER 2 .................................................................................................................................................. 55
Economic Empowerment: Promoting Equal Opportunities ....................................................................... 55
CHAPTER 3 .................................................................................................................................................. 73
Agency: Increasing Women’s Voice and Participation in Development ..................................................... 73
CHAPTER 4 .................................................................................................................................................. 84
Directions for Policy .................................................................................................................................... 84
I. Endowments ............................................................................................................................................ 85
II. Economic Opportunities ......................................................................................................................... 88
III. Agency .................................................................................................................................................... 90
PART 2 ......................................................................................................................................................... 92
Thematic Assessments ................................................................................................................................ 92
I. Teen Age Pregnancy............................................................................................................................... 92
II. Gender in Disaster Risk Reduction ......................................................................................................... 92
III. Women and Girls with Disabilities ......................................................................................................... 92
Data Sources ............................................................................................................................................... 93
Works Cited ................................................................................................................................................. 94
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Abbreviations
ADB
AECID
ANC
ARMM
AusAID
BDR
BLES
BSP
CALABARZON
CEDAW
CGA
CHR
CIDA
CSO
DOH
DOLE
EO
EU
FHS
FP
GAD
GBV
GDI
GDP
GEM
GEWE
GIZ
HDI
HRM
HUDCC
ILO
ISS
JCGA
KRA
LFS
LGBT
MCW
MDG
MMDA
MMR
NDHS
NEDA
NGO
NHA
Asian Development Bank
Embassy of Spain - Agency for International Cooperation for
Development
Antenatal Care
Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao
Australian Agency for International Development
Benefit delivery ratio
Bureau of Labor and Employment Statistics
Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (Central Bank of the Philippines)
Cavite-Laguna-Batangas-Rizal-Quezon Economic Zone
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against
Women
Country Gender Assessment
Commission on Human Rights
Canadian International Development Agency
Civil Society Organizations
Department of Health
Department of Labor and Employment
Executive Order
Delegation of the European Union to the Philippines
Family Health Survey
Family Planning
Overseas Development Agency
Gender Based Violence
Gender-related Development Index
Gross Domestic Product
Gender Empowerment Measure
Gender Equality and Women Empowerment
Deutsche GesellschaftfuerInternationaleZusammenarbeit
Human Development Index
Human Resources Management
Housing and Urban Development Coordinating Committee
International Labour Organization / International Labour Office
Informal Sector Survey
Joint Country Gender Assessment
Key Result Area
Labor Force Survey
Lesbians, gays, bisexuals and transsexuals persons
Magna Carta of Women (Republic Act 9710)
Millennium Development Goals
Metro Manila Development Authority
Maternal Mortality Rate
National Demographic and Health Survey
National Economic and Development Authority
Non Government Organizations
National Housing Authority
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NHIP
NSCB
NSO
NUDHF
ODA
ODA - GAD
OFW
PCW
PESO
PHIC
PLEP
PLHIV
PNAC
PNHA
PPGD 1995 - 2025
RA
UDHA
UN Women
UNAIDS
UNDP
UNESCO
UNFPA
UNICEF
USAID
VAWC
WAGI
WB
WBMO
WDR
WHO
National Health Insurance Program
National Statistical Coordinating Board
National Statistical Office
National Urban Development and Housing Framework
Overseas Development Agency
Overseas Development Agencies - Gender and Development Network
Overseas Filipino Workers
Philippine Commission on Women
Public Employment Service Office
Philippine Health Insurance Corporation
Philippine Labor and Employment Plan
People living with HIV
Philippine National AIDS Council
Philippine National Health Accounts
Philippine Plan for Gender Responsive Development 1995 - 2005
Republic Act
Urban Development and Housing Act
United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment
Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS
United Nations Development Programme
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
United Nations Population Fund
United Nations Children’s Fund
United States Agency for International Development
Violence Against Women and Children
Women and Gender Institute
World Bank
World Bank Manila Office
World Development Report
World Health Organization
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Executive Summary: Recent Progress and Pending Challenges
The Global Gender Gap Report 2012 benchmarks national gender gaps of 135 countries on economic,
political, education- and health-based criteria. The index continues to track the strong correlation
between a country’s gender gap and its national competitiveness. Because women account for one-half
of a country’s potential talent base, a nation’s competitiveness in the long term depends significantly on
whether and how it educates and utilizes its women. For 2012, findings show that Iceland tops the
overall rankings in The Global Gender Gap Index for the fourth consecutive year. Finland ranks in second
position, overtaking Norway (third). Sweden remains in fourth position. Northern European countries
dominate the top 10 with Ireland in the fifth position, Denmark (seventh) and Switzerland (10th). New
Zealand (sixth), Philippines (eighth) and Nicaragua (ninth) complete the top 10 (Global Gender Gap).
The Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI) is an innovative measure of underlying discrimination
against women for over 100 countries. For 2012, the Philippines ranked in number 12 out of 86
countries, 5 points lower than in 2009 when the country was ranked 7 out of 102 countries. The SIGI
measure gender inequalities in outcomes such as education and employment and captures and
quantifies discriminatory social institutions. Countries in the top rank indicate good performance in
eliminating underlying discrimination against women - these include among others, early marriage,
discriminatory inheritance practices, violence against women, son bias, restrictions on access to public
space and restricted access to productive resources1.
The 2011 Human Development Index (HDI) score for the country is 0.644, placing it in 112th place (out
of 187 countries). The Gender Inequality Index score is 0.427. The Philippines' Global Gender Gap Index
rating for 2011 is 0.7685, placing it 8th place (out of a total of 135 countries). The Global Gender Gap
Report, introduced by the World Economic Forum in 2006, provides a framework for capturing the
magnitude and scope of gender-based disparities around the world. The index benchmarks national
gender gaps on economic, political, education- and health-based criteria2.
The encouraging performance of the Philippines in global gender rankings recognizes the country’s
effort to address gender inequalities which often results from discrimination in terms of endowments
and economic opportunities. The failure to address these basic inequalities impacts on the agency of
women and men to participate in national development. Gender equality matter for inclusive growth;
the global gender rankings will show that the Philippines recognize the challenges and actively pursue to
address them.
Endowments: Gender Equality and Human Development
The Philippines is on track in pursuing the MDGs on poverty, gender equality, child health, disease
control and sanitation. However, the MDG reports show low probability of achieving the targets for
universal primary education, improving maternal mortality, and increasing access to reproductive health
care (NEDA, 2007).
Population growth give rapid rise to informal households and settlements straining basic shelter and
urban services resulting to fiscal constraints, where women and children are affected the most. Already,
urban population stands at 66.40 percent as of 2010 and half on these are women and girls and is
expected to grow even more by 67 percent by year 2030 (ADB, 2011).
1
2
http://www.oecd.org/dev/poverty/theoecdsocialinstitutionsandgenderindex.htm
http://www.weforum.org/issues/global-gender-gap
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The 2012 IPC concluded that the Mindanao Island is experiencing acute food security situation depicting
high levels of acute food insecurity problems in Region IX (Zamboanga Peninsula), in ARMM
(Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao), as well as in the highly natural disaster prone belt along the
east coast of Mindanao and in Lanao del Norte. Standard gender analysis would show that women and
children are disproportionately affected by food insecurity since they are the most vulnerable to
poverty, underemployment, increasing food prices and displacements due to extreme weather
conditions and prolonged armed conflict. Hunger is further aggravated by overburdening of women and
children in geographically isolated areas such as the island provinces or the mountainous interior of
provinces where physical access to markets and food is difficult due to poor or no roads at all (IPC,
2012).
Child mortality is decreasing, a laudable progress for the country. Under-five mortality rate decreased
substantially from 80 in 1990 to 30 in 2011; infant mortality rate from 57 in 1990 to 22 in 2011; and the
proportion of 1 year-old children immunized against measles increased from 77.9 in 1990 to 90.6 in
2009 (NSCB).
Maternal mortality though slightly improving is still alarming. The MDG Philippines report for indicator
5.1 (MMR) will show low probability of achieving the 30.3-51.8 target by 2015. As of 2010, the
Philippines managed to lower MMR only by the 95-163 range (NSCB).
Teenage pregnancy is on the rise, total number of teenage pregnancies rose 70% from 114,205 in 1999
to 195,662 in 20093 and is now the highest in the Southeast Asia. Experts correlate teenage pregnancy
to very low knowledge of girls and boys in reproductive health and sexuality including the inaccessibility
of reproductive health services to adolescents. It is also being linked to girls dropping out of school early.
Current discussions on teen age pregnancy and teen maternal deaths show possible correlation to the
increase in maternal mortality, including the increase in STI and HIV cases among young women.
Teenage pregnancy is also now being linked with GBV.
High prevalence rate of HIV transmission is noted among men having sex with men (MSMs) (PNAC,
2012). The ILO explains that based on the number of HIV positive cases per 100,000 of the working age
population between 0.1 and 0.3 in the decade leading up to 2006, this rate grew substantially from 0.4
in 2007 to 1.1 in 2009 and 2.3 in 2010 (ILO, 2012 P.8). Between 1995 and 2010, HIV prevalence among
working age women remained fairly low at 0.1 – 0.3 cases per 100,000, while for men this range was
broader at 0.1 – 4.4. Among the youth, the rate from 1995-2008 was at 0.1 – 0.6, and in 2009 – 2010
these climbed to 1.2 and 2.6 respectively which were higher than those of adults at 1.1 and 2.2 for the
same years. Data would also show that number of HIV cases among OFWs was reported at 24 in 1995
and have increased to 174 in 2010, which was 72% higher compared to the same period in 2011 (n=159)
and the highest number of cases ever reported by the national HIV/AIDS registry (PNAC, 2012).
For women and girls, education leads to increased decision-making power in the household, in their
communities and in national development. The gender gap in education in the Philippines tends to be
the reverse of what is found in many other countries. Enrolment rates for girls and all other education
indicators surpass those of boys. In pre-primary education, gross enrolment from 2007-2010 is higher
3
Philippine News Agency. “Teenage Pregnancies in the Philippines Rise 70-percent over 10 years-UNFPA”.
http://www.interaksyon.com/article/30434/teenage-pregnancies-in-philippines-rise-70-percent-over-10-years--unfpa Accessed October 3, 2012.
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for females, at 49 percent, compared to 48 percent for males. Similarly, enrolment in secondary school
is also higher for females, at 66 percent, compared to 55 percent for males for the same period
(PLAN;WAGI, 2012). In tertiary education records from 2005 to 2010 cumulative show more female
graduates at 54.67% (1,515,126) as against 45.32% male graduates (1,255,839). However, a pattern of
gender stereotyping in the chosen area of study persists. Women continue to choose fields that
perpetuate their socially ascribed roles. They dominate the education, medical, and allied fields, and
business administration and very few women take engineering and technology courses.
Recent study would show that housekeeping is one major reason for girls dropping out of school and the
NDHS 2008 reveals that women with high school and college education are most likely to delay
childbearing than women with only elementary education (PLAN;WAGI, 2012). This correlation may also
be one critical factor for increasing teen age pregnancy. Children dropping out of school profess the lack
of measures to keep children in school and prevent child labor (PLAN;WAGI, 2012).
Consistent underperformance in educational outcomes for boys results in high juvenile delinquency and
perpetuation of inequalities and wrong notions of masculinities that can lead to violence in the future
and could potentially affect women and girl children. There are still more boys dropping out of school
because of lack of interest as well as the need to work (PLAN;WAGI, 2012).
Increasing coverage of social protection for poor women is noted and this can be attributed to the CCT
and PhilHealth expansions and to some extent the contribution of the private sector in making social
protection schemes affordable through pre-paid (health and accident) insurance cards. Still, as of 2011,
the BDR is only 8 percent (GOP-NEDA 2011). BDR refers to the cumulative likelihood that any Filipino is
eligible to claim and access health services and be fully reimbursed by PHIC.
Economic Empowerment: Promoting Equal Opportunities
Current data to measure progress of women’s economic empowerment is very much dependent on the
LFS. Women’s labor force participation rates in the Philippines are low relative to women’s labor force
participation rates in other Southeast Asian countries4.
Current data will show that there is little gender disparity in education in the Philippines and education
level is generally positively associated with LFPR. However, women still lag behind men in employment
— despite a rise in the percentage of professionally licensed women in 2010 at 63.7% over men’s 36.3%,
men’s employment in 2012 is still significantly higher at 78.4% over women’s 50.4% (BLES, 20082010). While this trend is puzzling (Celis, Magsombol and Sobritchea 2012), it clearly underscores the
fact that our educated women remain seriously under-tapped in this growing economy and ILO
attributes the downward trend in the LFPR largely to the declining trend in participation among the
youth (48.0 percent to 45.4 percent) (ILO 2012). The LFPR of those in the prime age bracket varied
within a narrow band of 76.4 to 79.9 percent (ILO 2012). Labor force participation rates by age show the
LFPR being higher in the middle age groups and peaking for both men and women in the age category
45-54 years. The lower LFPR of women in age groups 15-19 years and 20-24 years of age are likely to
reflect, respectively, enrolment in education and difficulties women experience in raising children and
working in the paid labor market (Celis, Magsombol and Sobritchea 2012).
4
See Women's Labor Force Participation Rates, %. All countries 15 years +, KILM online database,
www.ilo.org/kilmnet, Table 1a.
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Gender equality in terms of pay and employment conditions in the Philippines is low, relative to some
South East Asian countries, and economic growth and development over the past decade has brought
about minimal, if any, improvement in gender equality in the labour market (Celis, Magsombol and
Sobritchea 2012). In the years 2001-2004, women reported a higher average than men as regards real
daily basic pay (ILO, 2012). However, from 2005 to 2008, men’s pay surpassed women, and in 2009,
women’s pay was marginally higher and continued to slightly increase in 2010 (ILO, 2012). Overall, the
average daily basic pay of women in real terms is generally lower than that of their male counterparts,
except in occupation group that includes plant, machine operators and assemblers. Women in this
group demonstrate the lowest employment share (less than 10%) and the narrowest gender wage gap
compared to other occupational groups. This means that although women account for only a small
proportion of workers in this occupational group, their basic pay was relatively higher than that of their
male counterparts (ILO, 2012). The wage gap between men and women particularly in lower paying
jobs, indicative of “sticky floor for women” (Celis, Magsombol and Sobritchea 2012, GLMS, sub section
vi, page 25).
Private households has a very high proportion of low-paid employees at 63.7 percent in 2001, rising to
75.5 percent in 2009 then decreasing to 73.8 percent in 2010 (ILO, 2012). Although, the BLES DOLE data
as cited in the GLMS show that the 2006 – 2010 percentage growth rate for men employed in the
private households was at 25.1 compared and 18.41 for women.
Still, the employment share of
women in private households is substantially higher compared to men.
Survey data also show that a significant number of women are in overseas employment (OFWs). A great
number of OFWs are women workers. About three in ten female OFWs were in age group 25 to 29
years, and one in every four in age group 30 to 34 years. Among the male OFWs, the largest proportion
was in age group 45 years and over. Most of the male OFWs were employed either as plant and machine
operator and assembler (23.8%) or as trade and related worker (23.5%), while more than half (55.5%) of
female OFWs were laborers and unskilled workers. The return and integration of women and men
workers specially those in vulnerable situations is a concern that needs to be addressed not only in the
context of economic opportunities upon their return but for women in particular, the social cost and
gender-based concerns are equally important, especially repatriated women from countries facing
political instability and those who were trafficked and abuse by their employers.
Many women, especially in lower income economies, work in the informal economy or in vulnerable
employment, where activity is often untaxed and usually not counted by the authorities. The 2008 NDHS
validates that despite laws and policies governing wages, some employed women are still not being
paid, do not have formal written contract of employment are not covered by social insurance, are not
provided with paid leave, no paid sick leave, no paid maternity leave, and are not covered by any form
of protection from dismissal.
Access to land is still an elusive goal for women. The CGA of 2008 would show that certificate of land
ownership awards were granted to less than 16,000 women compared to more than 33,000 grants
awarded to men (CGA 2008).
Agency: Women’s Voice and Participation and Choices in Development
Decisions on managing women’s earnings, the 2008 NDHS shows that more than half (54%) of women
report that they and their husband jointly make decisions about the wife’s earnings, while 42% say that
they make decisions about those earnings themselves.
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On the other hand, the picture in terms of accounts in a formal financial institution show slightly higher
percentage of females aged 15 and above with bank accounts compared to men. The numbers may be
attributable to the government’s conditional cash transfer programme since majority of accounts are
registered under the name of the mother5.
Violence against women and their children is still a concern for the Philippines. While many are
reporting cases of VAWC, a good number of incidences, especially those that are perpetrated at home
still remain unreported. Media reporting and advocacy may have raised awareness on the issue.
However, the persecution of perpetrators is a major challenge which is linked with the capacities of the
justice sector and social support structures for women and girls complainants to pursue their cases
despite the odds, to reach a verdict. Recent trends also point to violence perpetuated on the World
Wide Web. Many women and girls are sexualized in the internet and this form of violence is harder to
persecute.
Another area of concern is violence against young girls in the school. The 2009 State of the Filipino
Children Report by the Council on the Welfare of Children states that out of 10,000 child abuse cases
reported by the DSWD in the years between 1998 and 2004, 500-800 cases are committed by teachers,
janitors, bus drivers, and school personnel. Children also experience violence committed by their fellow
students, such as bullying, or as participants of gang-related fighting. Types of violence experienced by
children include verbal, physical, and sexual abuse (PLAN;WAGI, 2012 p.21). LGBT children and youth in
school also experience hatred and GBV.
GBV perpetuated on the LGBTs is becoming a growing concern. Research conducted by the Philippine
LGBT Hate Crime Watch shows that of the 141 documented cases of hate crimes from 1996 to August
2011, ninety-five cases involved gay men, twenty-six involved transgenders, sixteen involved lesbians,
and four involved bisexuals. From an average of ten LGBT people murdered between 1996 and 2008, the
number has risen to twelve in 2009, 26 in 2010, and 27 from January to May 2011 (UPR Report).
The UPR CSO Report (2011) also cited an ISIS research exposing systematic rape of lesbians by men to
“correct” and to remind lesbians that they are “still women”.
VAWC is also an issue pointed out by Moro women and IP women. Early and forced marriages are still
practiced by major Moro, IP and Muslim communities6. Some of the marriages involve abduction of
women and girls (UN WOMEN 2011).
There is progress in halting human trafficking.7 The Philippines is now at Tier 2 Status in the Global
Trafficking in Persons Report and no longer in the Tier 2 Watch List Status. The Philippine government
had undertaken notable efforts to prevent the trafficking of overseas workers and to protect Filipino
victims exploited abroad, increasing many of its financial and human resource allocations to combat
trafficking. The overall number of prosecutions and convictions however, remained disproportionately
low for the size of the problem.
5
This attribution will have to be further validated.
Maguindanaoan, Tausug and Teduray communities were mentioned in the UN Women Mindanao Consultation –
Scoping Mission in Davao City, September 2011. Unpublished Notes by Eleanor Conda
7
US State Department IACAT Report. June 2013.
6
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The US State Department’s retention of the Philippines in Tier 2 status in its latest trafficking in persons
report is a feat for the Department of Justice (DOJ).
The machinery and structure for women representation and participation is in place at the national and
local levels. The Philippine Government has made significant efforts in making its governance
institutions accessible to women. The number of women mayors has consistently increased since 1995.
There is marked increase in the number of elected women, particularly in the House of Representatives
and the women’s party list continues to hold seat in congress.
Staunch women support and gender equality advocates have been elected in the Senate, prior to the
2013 national elections; there are three (3) women senators openly advocating for the passage of
gender equality and women empowerment laws. Despite the number of women in the senate (3 out of
24), the women’s voice resonate deep in the quality of GEWE bills passed and have influenced and are
able to gain support from majority of the male senators.
As of December 2010, the government personnel inventory conducted by CSC will show that there are
1,409,660 government personnel. An increase of 96,122 based on 2008 figures (1,313,538). Female
employees accounted for 58.7 percent (numbering 827,157) while the number of male employees
totaled 582,503 or 41.3 percent of the total government workforce. By 2014, the CSC envisions to attain
50 percent male/female parity in 3rd level positions which currently stands at 8 women for every 10
males 8 appointed.
Urban poor and rural poor women and girls, including poor IP, Muslim and Moro women and girls are
still very much underrepresented in national development structures and local development councils.
IP, Muslim and Moro Women representation are observed to be in silo structures- meaning they are
visible only in structures that are intrinsic to the sector (e.g. NCIP, NCMA). They are underrepresented in
other structures such as those on social development, economics, justice, peace and security. It should
be noted however that the NAPC have instituted strengthening women’s participation by region and
across sectors.
The Philippines made some gains when the Supreme Court overturned a decision of the COMELEC when
it denied LADLAD from running for a seat in Congress in the May 2010 National Elections. LGBT Filipinos
are now closer to being represented and participating in government through the Ladlad Party List. LGBT
organization made recent breakthroughs of being officially recognized by academic institutions and have
succeeded in winning major student council positions.
Impact at the households: a snapshot
With a population growth rate of 1.9%, and an average fertility rate of 3.5 where average fertility rate
for the richest quintile is 2; and for the poorest quintile 5.59; poor women without access to
reproductive health care and services will most likely face the toll and risks of pregnancy and child birth.
Women who survive pregnancy and child birth will face the daily grind of child rearing and other related
reproductive work such as cleaning and cooking; having an effect on daughters and older girls in the
household as these roles are commonly ascribed to females. Overburdening and lengthened days of
poor women and girls is common for larger families. This also affects employed women who are still
8
9
CSC 2010 Inventory of Government Personnel – computation is based on the sum of Tables 5,6,7,8 and 10.
WDR 2012. Page 76; Figure 2.4.
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expected to do housework after work. Housekeeping is one major reason for girls dropping out of
school.
Increases in the number of children will require an increase in household incomes which men are
expected to provide having an effect on sons and older boys in the household when income is not
enough, as the role of “bread winner” is commonly ascribed to males. Because of poverty, boys from
poor households will opt to work than study.
For school year 2008-2009, 22 girls out of every 100 girls and 31 boys out of every 100 boys dropped out
of primary education; while 20 girls out of every 100 girls and 30 boys out of every 100 boys dropped
out in the secondary level.
The NDHS 2008 concluded that girls who drop out of school early during the elementary years, are most
likely to get pregnant early, compared to girls who went to high school and college.
Unemployment resulting from low and slow production of jobs will also continue to affect married
women as they are expected to provide for the daily needs of their families. The lack of jobs also affects
women college graduates who tend not to be choosy about work, and will continue to be underutilized.
Unemployed women who are economically dependent on men will be most likely be restrained from
participating in local/community development processes missing out on opportunities for building and
upgrading their capacities. They are also prone to domestic abuse and violence; some may be driven to
prostitution, and trafficked.
The continued violence against women and children occur at home. Consistent underperformance in
educational outcomes for boys results in high juvenile delinquency, perpetuation of inequalities, and the
wrong notions of masculinities that can lead to violence in the future that could potentially affect
women and girl children. Boys pick-up wrong notion of masculinities initially at home that most likely
have been passed on and inherited by men and older boys from previous generations.
Sexual harassment and violence stems from men and boys wrong notion of their entitlements to
women’s and girl’s bodies. This also drives men and boys to trafficking of women and girls and
patronage of prostituted women.10
Inherited notions of masculinities also continue to drive violence against LGBT at home and in the
communities. Lesbians are subjected to corrective rape. Hate crimes perpetuated on the LGBTs often
occur in their own homes. The increasing rate of HIV infection among MSMs in the country continues to
stigmatize the LGBT.
While overseas work is a potential fall back for most women, the social cost migration may take its toll
on women migrant workers as well as on the men and children left behind. Gender relations at home
are strained by long absences and separation of spouses. Despite favorable employment opportunities
abroad, more women still come home, after many years of work abroad, without savings. Their money
spent on frivolous wants. More men than women will possibly come home infected with HIV.
10
From the Partners for Prevention presentation on Men and Masculinities and Gender Based Violence during the
ASEAN Conference on HIV/AIDS and Gender Based Violence. Manila. 2012.
11 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
Increased household spending on health is supported by the data on out of pocket expense for health
noting that despite national health insurance (PhilHealth), users of health services still largely pay
expenses out of pocket. This further burdens poor households especially women and girls who are often
assigned to care for and produce the resources to pay for medical bills through solicitations and by
accessing government and privately funded welfare services and by other means.
In their senior years, Filipino women and men are expected to retire and live with their immediate
families; this situation is borne out of culture and tradition. Elders are held in high esteem by Filipinos
and this is usually demonstrated by caring and providing for their needs. However, this cultural practice
can be a burden for families who are not prepared to take on the responsibilities of looking after their
aging family members and do not have the economic means. Because of tradition, aging women and
men and their families fall into an obligation and entitlement trap; where families feel obligated to care
for their aging family members (no matter how un-prepared they are) and aging men and women
expect such entitlements because of their senior status. This trap can breed inequalities in the
household and make senior members vulnerable to being treated as helpless, unproductive and a
burden.
Policy recommendations
Laws to end all forms of discrimination need to be passed and revise discriminatory provisions in current
laws to make them consistent with CEDAW and RA 9710 (MCW). It will also be beneficial for the country
to accelerate the implementation of RA 9710.
Endowments
1. Addressing barriers that impede the attainment of MDG targets. The lack of budget, lack of
capacities and lack of political will to address traditional and stereotypical notions of men’s control
over women’s body and their health appear to be major barriers in achieving the targets for
improving maternal mortality, and increasing access to reproductive health care. On the other hand,
attaining the targets for universal primary education will require reforms in the education sector at
both public and private institutions to maximize the potential of and effectively respond to the
demands of the K-12 programme.
2. Addressing underperformance in educational outcomes for boys. A review of the curriculum and
classroom/school practices in the context of boys’ lack of interest and the factors surrounding the
need to work, should lead to innovative solutions such as expanding the social role of schools and
enriching the learning/teaching rubric to capture and/or regain child interest while providing schoolbased options to protect poorest boys and girls from child labor, exploitation and abuse.
3. Urgent implementation of RA 10354. With rising maternal mortality, teenage pregnancy and HIV
and STI transmission, the RH law as it was designed would empower women to make allimportant choices for themselves and for their families. The Aquino administration should continue
unwavering support and monitoring of the implementation of the reproductive health and
responsible parenthood law as it is a crucial element in the pursuit of inclusive development.
4. Making housing, shelter and secure tenure projects affordable to women. Socialized and low-cost
housing projects will benefit more women as they are usually affordable. The challenge is how to
design loan packages that are accessible to women’s incomes and guarantees for women availing
housing finance.
12 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
5. Expanding social protection. The Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program is a step in the right
direction as it not only addresses practical but strategic gender needs as well. Further work is
needed, however, to consolidate social protection programs and complement these with the CCT.
The bigger challenge is the expansion of the CCT to make it the core program in the convergence of
social protection initiatives to ensure sustainability of beneficiaries’ gains.11 The expansion should
cover vulnerable women and children: IP women, Moro women, Muslim Women, Senior Citizens,
Women and Girls with Disabilities.
6. Increase investments in pro-poor and gender responsive infrastructure. Clearly, poor infrastructure
provision, aside from being a hindrance to investment and business activity, also prevents women
and girls physical access to basic services. Poor households in isolated areas have difficulty in going
to health centers and schools, even when services are offered for free or at highly subsidized rates.
Economic Opportunities
7. Accounting women’s contribution to the economy. Women and girls contribution to economic
development is not yet accounted in current economic analyses/frameworks and the effect of
improved economic development has not been analyzed in terms of its impacts on women and girls,
and changes in the informal structures such on the traditional roles of women and men. This may be
a way to improve the quality of GAD mainstreaming in the country.
8. Addressing women economic disadvantages and discrimination at the workplace. In the context of
inclusive growth, there is a serious need to analyze policies and address barriers that impact on
gender differences in employment patterns, gender-based discrimination in the terms and
conditions of women’s work and, gender differences in participation in labour market governance
which refers to the availability of social space for women to have a voice in policy making on the
management of the labour market12.
9. Reducing vulnerabilities of women OFWs. Current jobs available to women OFWs in the global
market are high in care work, particularly in domestic work where they are often vulnerable to
abuses. The need to review the government’s stand and DOLE’s policy track regarding OFWs
vulnerabilities in employment is a persistent call made by GEWE advocates.
10. Gender responsive tax reforms. Current tax reforms that are currently being undertaken by
government through the BIR do not yet consider women’s reproductive roles and unpaid women’s
work. Philippines may benefit in reducing income taxes on women and increase, by less, income
taxes on men in a way that holds total tax revenue constant.
Agency
11. Intensify measures to prevent child labor and protect the rights of the girl child. In the context of
girls dropping out of school early, there is a great need to intensify efforts to keep girls and boys in
school and prevent girl children from child labor through the urgent implementation of the
Kasambahay Law, and the International Labor Convention 189, on Domestic Work.
11
12
Ibid.
Ibid.
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12. Intensify measures to stop VAWC and GBV. Current efforts on VAWC do not yet impact at the
community and household levels.13 Empowering women and girls is important to prevent VAWC.
Also, current studies14 point to the effectiveness of programmes addressing men and boys and
masculinities which is not yet a standard practice in the Philippines.
13. Intensify measures to stop violence against children in school. From their homes to school, children
are vulnerable to physical and psychological abuse. In the years between 1998 and 2004, DSWD
reports that out of 10,000 cases of child abuse, around 500-800 cases are committed by teachers,
janitors, bus drivers, and school personnel. Children also experience violence committed by
students, such as bullying, or as participants of gang-related fighting. 15 The baseline study on
violence against children in public schools conducted by UNICEF in 2009 acknowledges the need to
probe on the extent of violence against LGBT children and cited as a recommendation to “look into
gender-based discrimination in schools, particularly as it related to actual or perceived sexual
orientation of a child” as an important area of study.16
14. Increase women’s political participation. Barriers point to limited access to resources, particularly
social and political networks. Absence and lack of capital and financial resources precludes women
to run for public office. Structures and systems of political parties are male-oriented and, as such,
are not necessarily responsive to the needs and situations of women. Women, also, have limited
access in decision-making within these structures. The need to impose affirmative action and
temporary measures to ensure more women participation in politics can be carried by imposing
quotas in the fielding party list representatives.
13
For further validation.
Partners for Prevention (UNDP, UN WOMEN, WHO)
15
PLAN International, WAGI. The National Situationer of Girl Children in the Philippines 2012. 2012. Page 21.
16
UNICEF, Plan International and Council for the Welfare of Children. Towards a Child-friendly Education
Environment: A baseline study on violence against children in public schools. 2009. Page 64.
14
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Country Gender Assessment Framework
The country gender assessment adopts the analytical framework of the World Development Report
2012 which focused on Gender Equality and Development. The proposed framework (figure below)
builds on three premises. First, the household is not a unitary block with a common set of preferences
and goals. Instead, it is made up of different members with their own preferences, needs, and
objectives, as well as different abilities to influence decision making in the household. Second, markets
and institutions affect the relationship between economic development and gender equality both
directly and indirectly (through their impact on household decisions). Third, markets and institutions are
not static but are shaped and conditioned by society (understood as the sum of individuals and
households). And it is precisely this process that allows markets and institutions, including social norms
and values, to evolve over time in response to policy interventions or exogenous changes brought about
by, say, globalization. Building on these three ideas, the framework captures how households make
decisions, how they interact with markets and institutions to determine gender outcomes, and how
policy can affect these interactions and ultimately gender outcomes (World Bank, 2012 P.101).
Applying the Framework
In localizing the framework, the gender equality and women empowerment policy environment will be
the starting point. Current gender laws, such as RA 9710 Magna Carta of Women will provide the anchor
to move towards assessing the formal structures for gender equality and women’s empowerment in the
country e.g. PCW, CHR, GAD Focal Points and GEWE Institutes including NGOs and CSOs, and the
informal structures particularly cultural or social norms, religious and faith-based beliefs. The
assessment that will cover the policy environment and formal/informal institutions will seek answers to
explain progress or the lack of progress in closing gender gaps in terms of endowments, agency (voice),
and access to economic opportunities.
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Based on this localized framework, the CGA for 2012 will address two major questions:
 How has national gender equality and women empowerment laws and policies affected
progress or the lack of progress in closing gender gaps in terms of endowments, agency (voice),
and access to economic opportunities?
 How are the government agencies and the government gender machinery as well as CSOs, NGOs
and the private sector contributing to progress in closing gender gaps in terms of endowments,
agency (voice), and access to economic opportunities?
 How are informal institutions (norms and traditions) affected by these changes?
The questions as raised above will envision providing information (subjective) and objective data that
will feed into an analysis consistent with the framework of the WDR 2012, the discussion—both here
and in the broader report—focuses on gender equality in three domains: (a) endowments, (b) economic
opportunity, and (c) voice and agency.
Endowments are defined here as human capital and other productive assets that allow individuals to live
healthy and productive lives. To analyze gender equality in endowments, the discussion focuses on
education and health.
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Economic opportunity pertains to an individual’s ability to fully and freely participate in and receive
returns from their work in the economy. The report focuses on a range of economic indicators, including
labor force participation, earnings, and employment segmentation, whether in the labor market or in
own-run enterprises as well as access to productive assets, such as land.
Agency is defined as the ability of women and men to express themselves (exercise voice) in accordance
with their preferences and to take actions on their own behalf (to influence their surroundings). Since
people exercise agency in all aspects of life, the report focuses on multiple dimensions: agency within a
household and in several aspects of the public domain, including civil society, the private sector, and
politics. The report also focuses on safety and security as a dimension of agency, defining violence
against women as the extreme deprivation of agency.
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A Roadmap to the Report
This report examines the state of gender equality in the Philippines, highlighting both recent progress
and pending challenges. It clarifies empirically the relationship between gender equality and
development and outlines an agenda for public action to further promote gender equality in the
Philippines.
This report has been written in part inspired by and an attempt to localize the World Development
Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development. Its envisioned contribution is distinct in several ways:
first, the analysis in the report focuses specifically on those issues and policy challenges that are most
pertinent to the Philippines. For example, relative to other middle income countries, female access to
basic education is no longer a first-order issue in the Philippines. At the same time, the country still faces
critical challenges with respect to gender mainstreaming in education and persistent gender stereotypes
in school curricula, both of which are factors that contribute to persistent employment segregation and
affect both women’s and men’s behaviors and aspirations in the economy and in society. Second, the
report examines the gender implications of several key emerging trends in the country: labour
migration, reproductive health, population aging and VAWC. These trends have important gender
dimensions that are not commonly recognized by policy makers, but will generate a distinctive set of
challenges for promoting opportunities and managing gender-specific risks. Third, by focusing in detail
on gender, development, and public policy, this report aims to contribute significantly to the
development of basic indicators and analysis on gender, development, and public policy that have not
been available previously.
The report is organized in 2 parts. The first part of the report presents key progress, challenges,
conclusions and policy recommendations.
The second part will feature thematic papers on the three areas of analyses: human endowments,
economic and voice context after specific themes: teen age pregnancy, gender in disaster risk reduction,
women and girls with disabilities and women in community leadership.
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Introduction: why does gender matter for development in the
Philippines?
Gender equality matters in its own right. This development principle resonates in the pages of the World
Development Report 2012 on Gender Equality and Development. It follows Amartya Sen’s view of
development as a process of expanding freedoms equally for all people. This view of development
highlights gender equality as a core objective in itself.
Just as development means less income poverty or better access to justice, it should also mean fewer
gaps in well-being between males and females- this viewpoint is evident in the ODA’s recognition that in
the Philippines, women’s empowerment and gender equality are development objectives in their own
right, as embodied in Millennium Development Goals. It is seen as well in the Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), ratified by the Philippines in 1981,
the convention established a comprehensive framework for the advancement of women and has been
mainstreamed in the Magna Carta of Women, RA 9710.
Gender equality is smart economics: it can enhance economic efficiency and improve other
development outcomes in three ways: first, removing barriers that prevent women from having the
same access as men to education, economic opportunities, and productive inputs can generate broad
productivity gains—gains all the more important in a more competitive and globalized world. Second,
improving women’s absolute and relative status feeds many other development outcomes, including
those for their children. Third, leveling the playing field—where women and men have equal chances to
become socially and politically active, make decisions, and shape policies—is likely to lead over time to
more representative, and more inclusive, institutions and policy choices and thus to a better
development path.
Women in wage employment was placed at 41.9 percent in 2009 (DOLE, 2011 p.11), 50 percent of
workers in agriculture are women (BLES, 2008-2010), and more than half of the country’s university
students are women17. All these considered, gender equality can have large impacts on productivity for
the Philippines. Worker productivity in the Philippines and the rest of the East Asia and the Pacific region
has the potential of expanding by 18 percent if women are given wider space and equal opportunities
with men. Presently, Filipino women only get 76 percent of what men earn and women farmers lack
security of land tenure, as they do in most parts of rural Philippines, the result is lower access to credit
and inputs and to inefficient land use, reducing yields. (World Bank 2012).
For the economy to be functioning at its potential, women’s skills and talents should be engaged in
activities that make the best use of those abilities. But, as the stories of many women illustrate, this is
not always the case. Women in the Philippines are more likely to work in small firms, the informal sector
and lower-paid sectors.
In countries and regions with rapidly aging populations, like China and Europe and Central Asia,
encouraging women to enter and remain in the labor force can help dampen the adverse impact of
shrinking working-age populations. Although in the Philippines, traditional and cultural mindset
associated with the aging population will mean expanding the care economy to accommodate the care
17
Source: CHED
19 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
needs of senior citizens, as oppose to finding innovative means to make them productive and part of the
labor force even in their senior years.
The WDR 2012 also notes that greater control over household resources by women leads to more
investment in children’s human capital, with dynamic positive effects on economic growth and in
today’s globalized world, countries that reduce gender-based inequalities, especially in secondary and
tertiary education and in economic participation, will have a clear advantage over those that delay
action.
The WDR 2012 also state that women’s lack of agency—as seen in domestic violence—has
consequences for their children’s cognitive behaviors and health as adults. Medical research from
developed countries has established a link between exposure to domestic violence as a child and health
problems as an adult—men and women who experienced violence in the home as children are two to
three times more likely to suffer from cancer, a stroke, or cardiovascular problems, and five to ten times
more likely to use alcohol or illegal drugs than those who did not (World Bank, 2012). Numerous studies
also document how experiencing violence between parents as a child is a risk factor for women
experiencing violence from their own partners as adults, and for men perpetrating violence against their
partners (World Bank, 2012).
Agency is about one’s ability to make choices— and to transform them into desired actions and
outcomes. Across all countries and cultures, there are differences between men’s and women’s ability
to make these choices, usually to women’s disadvantage. These gendered differences matter for
women’s well-being but also for a whole set of outcomes for their families and for society in general.
Women’s agency influences their ability to build their human capital and take up economic
opportunities. Women’s agency also matters for the welfare of their children.
Conversely, when women and men do not have equal chances to be socially and politically active and to
influence laws, politics, and policy making, institutions and policies are more likely to systematically
favor the interests of those with more influence. Institutional constraints and market failures that feed
gender inequalities are less likely to be addressed and corrected, leading to their persistence. As
highlighted in the WDR 2012, an “inequality trap” may thus emerge, preventing generations of women
from getting educated and taking up economic opportunities on a par with men, reducing their ability to
make informed choices and to realize their potential as individuals (World Bank, 2012).
20 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
Socio Economic Overview of the Philippines
15. Geography. The Philippines is a diverse and culturally rich country of some 7, 100 islands, the three
major islands are Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. Located in the Pacific Rim of Southeast Asia, it
entered middle-income country in 201018. While it is predominantly a Roman Catholic country,
indigenous peoples groups and Moro peoples are spread all over the country, providing a rich
diversity of cultural traditions and social practices. The country is administratively divided into 17
regions, 80 provinces, 143 cities, 1,491 municipalities, and 42,027 barangays19.
16. Population. The Philippines is one of the most populous countries in the world, ranked number 12.
Based on the 2010 Census on Population and Housing, current household population is at 94 million.
The annual population growth rate was 1.9% for 2000–2010, down from 2.04% for 2000-2007.
Children, youth and young adult (ages 0 – 29) make up a little more than half of the population.
Median age for males is pegged at 22.9 years, while that for females, 23.9 years. The voting-age
population (18 years old and over) is 60.3 percent. Senior citizens (60 years old above) constitute 6.8
percent of the household population, females (55.8 percent) outnumbered the males (44.2 percent)
(The Age and Sex Structure of the Philippine Population (Facts from the 2010 Census) 2012).
Table 16-A. Philippines Population by Age Group and Sex 2010 and 2015 Projections
Age Group
Age
2010
2015
Both Sexes
Male
Female
Both Sexes
Male
Total
94,013,200 47,263,600 46,749,600 102,965,300 51,733,400
Children
0-4
10,984,800
5,619,400
5,365,400
11,386,600
5,828,500
5-9
10,370,300
5,289,200
5,081,100
10,950,900
5,595,100
Adolescent
10-14
9,801,500
5,006,300
4,795,200
10,343,600
5,269,700
and Youth20
Core Youth21
15-19
9,603,300
4,900,900
4,702,400
9,757,800
4,978,600
20-24
8,857,500
4,478,600
4,378,900
9,544,900
4,865,300
25-29
7,892,000
3,940,800
3,951,200
8,795,500
4,439,500
Adult
30-34
7,001,500
3,474,900
3,526,600
7,842,700
3,910,200
35-39
6,008,400
3,013,200
2,995,200
6,942,200
3,439,600
40-44
5,442,300
2,737,600
2,704,700
5,924,800
2,962,400
45-49
4,702,100
2,376,700
2,325,400
5,330,100
2,669,800
50-54
3,931,600
1,974,500
1,957,100
4,554,700
2,285,500
55-59
3,050,800
1,521,500
1,529,300
3,747,900
1,860,500
Senior
60-64
2,307,800
1,122,800
1,185,000
2,843,700
1,392,700
Citizens
65-69
1,559,300
735,700
823,600
2,055,900
973,200
70-74
1,189,400
533,700
655,700
1,305,700
593,200
75-79
700,500
298,500
402,000
904,200
384,000
80+
610,100
239,300
370,800
734,100
285,600
Source: NSCB. 2012. http://www.nscb.gov.ph/secstat/d_popnProj.asp
Age group segregation for CGA 2012
18
Female
51,231,900
5,558,100
5,355,800
5,073,900
4,779,200
4,679,600
4,356,000
3,932,500
3,502,600
2,962,400
2,660,300
2,269,200
1,887,400
1,451,000
1,082,700
712,500
520,200
448,500
The World Bank classifies middle income countries as those with per capita income of US$1,000 to US$10,000.
The Barangay (village) is the smallest political unit in the Philippines.
20
Republic Act 8044 definition and based on the classification of NYC as explained in the 2012-2016 Philippine
Youth Development Plan. Page 12.
21
Ibid.
19
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17. Politics. The Philippines has a presidential-unitary system of government with some administrative
functions devolved to its local government units. The country prides itself on being Asia’s first
democracy. However, more than a century after it gained independence, the country faces an uphill
climb in consolidating its democratic institutions. Corruption, patronage-driven political economy
discourage investor confidence and erode public trust in the Government22. Recent political analysis
concludes the return of cronyism23. Political dynasties have become more evident. However,
reforms are underway; the Platform of Government of President Benigno S. Aquino III is anchored
on transformational leadership to effect change. The President’s social contract with the Filipino
people underscores his mission of being the nation’s first and most determined fighter of corruption.
The social contract also mentions gender equality, specifically concern for gender disparities and
shortfalls and the promotion of equal gender opportunity in all spheres of public policies and
programs24. The KRAs are: Economy, Government Service, Gender Equality, Peace and Order and
the Environment. The current administration’s tag line of “Tuwid na Daan” or the upright path
captures the government’s resolve to address upfront, corruption, patronage politics and cronyism.
It is however silent on the issue of political dynasty.
18. Economy. In 2011, GDP per capita was at US$ 2,346.00. Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty
line (percent of population, 2009) is 26.5 percent. Table 18-A provides a snapshot of selected
socioeconomic indicators. Latest government data shows the economy at its most vibrant pace in
decades. The country's growth-measured by the rise in the gross domestic product (GDP) is one of
the strongest in the region (Table 18-B). The economy is set to expand by 6 percent for 201325.
Household consumption which currently amounts to roughly 70 percent of GDP is set to expand to
5.1 percent and is expected to contribute a little under 4 percent to overall economic growth.
Analysis shows that household consumption will be underpinned by moderate global growth,
through remittances from overseas labour and continued government transfers26.
Table 18-A. The Philippines at a Glance - Selected Socioeconomic Indicators
Indicator
Estimate
Reference year
2,346
2011
NSCB; BSP
3.7
2011
NSCB
Agriculture
12.8
2011
NSCB
Industry
31.5
2011
NSCB
Services
55.7
2011
92.3
2010
NSCB
NSO, 2010 Census
of Population and
Housing
1.9
2000-2010
NSO
2.34
1990-2000
NSO
GDP per capita (US$, current prices)
GDP growth rate (%)
Source
Share of GDP, by sector (%)
Population (millions)
Annual population growth rate (%)
22
ADB et.al. Paradox and Promises: Joint Country Gender Assessment 2008. Page 1.
Based on the conversation of Dr. Winnie Mosod and Former President Fidel V. Ramos in GMA 7 Walang
Pasaway.
24
A Social Contract with the Filipino People: Platform of Government of President Benigno Aquino III
25
Economist Intelligence Unit 2012.
26
Ibid.
23
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Poverty Incidence (% of population)
26.5
2009
NSCB
Note: US$1 = Php average in 2011
Source: World Development Indicators, World Bank
Table 18-B. Cross-country growth rate of real per capita GDP
Country
Hong Kong,
China
1981-1990
1991-2000
2001-2010
5.5
2.4
3.9
Indonesia
4.3
2.9
4.2
Republic of Korea
7.5
5.2
3.7
Malaysia
3.2
4.6
3.1
Philippines
(0.9)
0.6
3.1
Singapore
5.3
4.3
4.1
Thailand
5.9
3.6
3.7
Source: World Development Indicators, World Bank
19. Poverty incidence. The data in Table 19-A shows that the poverty incidence steadily declined from
1991 to 2003, but rose again from 2006 to 2009. This increase in poverty occurred during a period
when the economy grew by 5.4%. In 2003, there were 19.8 million poor Filipinos (a 24.9% poverty
incidence) compared to 23.1 million in 2009 (a 26.5% poverty incidence). The actual number of poor
people has increased. There were 3.3 million more poor people in 2009 than there were in 2003.
Table 5-B shows poverty thresholds, poverty indicators, and the five poorest provinces. The poverty
line is constructed using the price of a food basket (based on a 1 day “typical menu”). The cost of the
food basket (the food poverty line) is scaled up using a “lower bound” methodology to account for
non-food needs. The official poverty line for 2009 was approximately $1.0 per day. As with most
socioeconomic indicators in the Philippines, there are major regional disparities in poverty levels.
Comparing poverty incidence to poverty magnitude paints a very different picture of these
disparities. The list of the poorest provinces becomes quite different (Table 19-B). Most of the
provinces with the highest poverty incidence over 2003–2009 are in Mindanao, as well as some of
provinces in the Visayas. There has been a substantial variance in the top 10 poorest provinces over
this period, but one common feature is that they are mostly the provinces with relatively small
populations27. The top five poorest provinces over 2003–2009 in terms of poverty magnitude come
from the Luzon and Visayas areas. These five areas account for nearly one fifth or 18 percent (based
on 2009 figures) of all poor people in the Philippines. One issue for future analysis is how some
provinces and regions have managed to register substantial gains in the fight against poverty in the
most recent survey period (2003– 2009) as in the case of the provinces of Ifugao and Apayao in the
Cordillera region, and while others have fallen further behind.
The poverty incidence of families slightly decreased from 21.1 percent in 2006 to 20.9 percent in
2009, or from 26.4 percent of the population in 2006 to 26.5 percent in 2009. However, this
improvement is limited, considering the slow growth of incomes, increase in household formation,
27
Note that in the 2008 JCGA, the Provinces of Ifugao and Apayao from the Cordillera region of Luzon belonged to
the 5 poorest provinces.
23 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
natural disasters and inflationary pressures mainly from rising fuel and food prices. In 2009, more
than a quarter of the 23.1 million poor Filipinos lived in four regions. While only one-third of poor
Filipinos came from Mindanao, more than half of the provinces in the bottom cluster are located in
the island group. This situation can be attributed to the armed conflict and unsettled peace and
order situation.28
Income inequality remains high. The Gini concentration ratios showed only slight and slow
improvements, from 0.4605 in 2003 to 0.4580 in 2006 and 0.4484 in 2009. The regions with the
most unequally distributed income are Regions 7, 8, 9, 10 and 13 (CARAGA), as these regions have
Gini ratios higher than 0.45.29
The country’s income distribution has improved very slightly since 2000. In 2006, the 0.45 plus Gini
coefficient is still higher than it was over two decades ago and is also the highest in Southeast Asia.
In 2006, the total family income of the population’s richest 10% was about 19 times that of the
poorest 10%.30
Table 19-A. Poverty Trends
Poverty Indicator
1991
2003
2006
2009
Number of poor people (millions)
na
19.8
22.2
23.1
Number of poor families (millions)
na
3.3
3.7
3.9
Poverty incidence, population (%)
33.1
24.9
26.4
26.5
Poverty incidence, families (%)
28.3
20.0
21.1
20.9
Source: NSCB
na = not available
Note: In February 2012, the government revised the methodology for estimating poverty in
the Philippines. Comparable estimates using this new methodology are currently available
only for 1991, 2003, 2006, and 2009.
Table 19-B. Poverty Lines, Poverty Indicators, and 5 Poorest Provinces, 2003-2009
Indicator
Poverty line, per
person per year
(current Php)
Poverty line, per
person per day
(current Php)
US-dollar
equivalent
Poverty
incidence (% of
population)
Poverty
magnitude
(millions of
2003
2006
2009
10,976
13,348
16,841
30.1
36.6
46.1
0.6
0.7
1.0
24.9
26.4
26.5
19.8
22.2
23.1
28
Philippine Development Plan 2011-2016. Chapter 8. Page 233.
Ibid.
30
Ibid.
29
24 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
people)
5 Poorest
Provinces,
ranked by
poverty
incidence as % of
population
5 Poorest
Provinces,
ranked by
poverty
magnitude in
millions of
people
2003
Zamboanga
del Norte
2006
Masbate
Agusan del
Sur
56.9
56.0
Zamboanga
del Norte
Agusan del
Sur
Northern
Samar
Siquijor
Zamboanga
Sibugay
53.0
52.4
64.2
2009
53.8
Zamboanga
del Norte
Agusan del
Sur
Surigao Del
Norte
Maguindanao
53.4
Masbate
54.2
Masbate
52.0
Romblon
54.0
2003
59.5
53.9
2006
Cebu
Camarines
Sur
Negros
Occidental
1.1
Cebu
1.2
0.7
0.8
0.7
Pangasinan
Negros
Occidental
Leyte
0.6
Pangasinan
0.6
61.6
58.1
57.0
2009
1.3
0.8
Cebu
Negros
Occidental
Camarines
Sur
Camarines Sur
0.8
Pangasinan
0.7
Leyte
0.6
Leyte
0.6
0.9
0.8
20. Simple Literacy Rate (SLR) and Functional Literacy Rate (FLR). Following the definitions set by the
NSCB Simple Literacy Rate (SLR) indicates a person’s ability to read and write while understanding a
simple message in any language or dialect, while Functional Literacy Rate (FLR) assumes a higher
level of literacy, including a grasp of numeracy, encompassing the overall ability of a person to use
written communication in carrying out important activities in his/her life.
Based on 2008 data, the Simple Literacy Rate for females stand at 96.1 percent and 95.1 percent for
males31. And the Functional Literacy Rate for females stands at 88.7 percent and 84.2 percent for
males32. Women are ahead by 1 percentage point in terms of SLR and significantly, 4.5 percentage
points for FLR which assumes a higher level of literacy compared to men. FLR are lifelong literacy
skills that can translate to higher survival skills necessary, for instance, in the conduct of women’s
reproductive roles such as dispensing remedies at home or community leadership and volunteering.
Data compiled by UNICEF show that the literacy rate among children and young people aged 15-24
years old from 2005-2010 is higher for females, at 98 percent, and 97 percent for males
(PLAN;WAGI, 2012 p.21).
21. Spending Patterns. There are numerous differences in Filipino families’ spending patterns,
depending on their income level (Table 21-A). Food expenditure constitutes nearly half of the total
expenditure of households in the bottom 30% of the income distribution. The poor spend a much
larger share of their non food expenditure on house rent and transportation and communication
compared to their rich counterparts. As of the 2009, substantial increase in terms of spending for
31
32
NSCB. 2008
NSCB. 2008
25 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
education and medical expenses can be noted among the bottom 30% of the income distribution
which was only 1.3 and 1.7 respectively in 2006.
Table 21-A. Distribution of family expenditures by expenditure item by income group, 2009
Share to household's total expenditure (%)
Expenditure item
Bottom 30% of the income
distribution
Upper 70% of the income
distribution
Food expenditures
40.2
62.6
Non-food expenditures
59.8
37.4
Alcoholic Bev
0.6
1.0
Tobacco
0.7
1.6
Fuel
Transportation &
Communication
7.2
6.3
8.2
4.0
Household Operations
2.4
1.7
Personal Care
3.8
3.8
Clothing
2.2
1.9
Educational Fees
4.6
1.7
Recreation
0.4
0.1
Medical Fees
3.0
1.3
Non-durable Furniture
0.2
0.2
Durable Furniture
2.9
0.9
Taxes
2.3
0.1
House rent
13.4
7.4
House Repair
0.6
0.4
Occasions
2.9
1.6
Gifts
1.5
0.5
Other Expenditures
2.9
3.0
Source of basic data: 2009 Family Income and Expenditure Survey (FIES)
22. Internet Use. The Philippines ranked 6th among Asia top internet countries with 32.4% of the
population or roughly 33,600,000 internet users33.
23. The MDG. According to the PDP 2011-2016, the Philippines is on track in pursuing the MDGs on
poverty, gender equality, child health, disease control and sanitation34. However, the Philippines
Midterm Progress Report on the MDG would point to “a low probability of achieving the targets for
universal primary education, improving maternal mortality, and increasing access to reproductive
health care by 2015.”35 This same issues has been pointed out in the 2008 JCGA36 and based on 2001
data, would show very little progress in relation to the 2015 target.
33
http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats3.htm#asia
Philippine Development Plan 2011-2016, Chapter 8, page 232.
35
Ibid, p.26
36
Paradox and Promise in the Philippines, A Joint Country Gender Assessment (2008) by Asian Development Bank,
34
26 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
Table 23-A. Philippines Human Development Goals
Probability
Goals/Targets/Indicators
Baseline
Target
Latest
*
GOAL 1. ERADICATE EXTREME POVERTY AND HUNGER
target 1.A
Halve, between 1990s and 2015, the proportion of people whose income is less than one
dollar a day
indicator 1.1A
Proportion of population below
33.1
16.6
26.5
Medium
national poverty threshold **
1991
2015
2009
indicator 1.2
indicator 1.3
target 1.B
Poverty gap ratio **
Share of poorest quintile in national
consumption
8.6
4.3
2.7
1991
2015
2009
6.2
increasing
6.2
1991
High
2009
indicator 1.4
Achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all, including women and
young people
Growth rate of GDP per person
1.6
increasing
0.5
employed
1990
2011
indicator 1.5
Employment-to-population ratio
59
increasing
1990
indicator 1.6
indicator 1.7
indicator 1.7a
indicator 1.7b
Proportion of employed population
living below the national poverty
threshold
Proportion of own-account and
contributing family workers in total
employment
Proportion of own-account (selfemployed) workers in total
employment
Proportion of contributing (unpaid)
family workers in total employment
20.5
2011
decreasing
2003
51.3
decreasing
41.2
2011
decreasing
1990
15.7
22.4
2009
1990
35.6
60.1
29.6
2011
decreasing
1990
11.6
2011
target 1.C
Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from hunger
indicator 1.8
Prevalence of underweight children
under 5 years of age using Child
Growth Standards (CGS)
Percent of household with per capita
energy less than 100% adequacy
indicator 1.9
26.5
13.6
20.2
1992
2015
2011
74.2
37.1
66.9
1993
2015
2008
Medium
Low
indicator 1.9a
Proportion of population with mean
73.3
one-day energy intake less than 100%
2008
adequacy
indicator 1.9b
Proportion of population below
16.5
8.25
10.8
High
national subsistence (food) threshold
1991
2015
2009
**
GOAL 2. ACHIEVE UNIVERSAL PRIMARY EDUCATION
target 2.A
Ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a
full course of primary schooling
Canadian International Development Agency, European Commission, National Commission on the Role of Filipino
Women, United Nations Children’s Fund, United Nations Development Fund for Women, United Nations
Population Fund
27 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
indicator 2.1
indicator 2.2
indicator 2.2a
indicator 2.3
indicator 2.3a
Net enrolment ratio in primary
education
Proportion of pupils starting grade 1
who reach grade 6 (Cohort Survival
Rate)
Primary completion rate
Literacy rate of 15 to 24 years old
Ratio of literate females to males of
15-24 year-old
84.6
100
89.9
1990
2015
2010
69.7
100
74.2
1990
2015
2010
64.2
100
73.1
1990
2015
2010
96.6
100
97.8
1990
2015
2008
1
1
1
1990
2015
2008
Low
Low
Low
Low
High
GOAL 3. PROMOTE GENDER EQUALITY AND EMPOWER WOMEN
target 3.A
Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education preferably by 2005 and to
all levels of education no later than 2015
indicator 3.1a
Ratio of girls to boys in primary
1
1
1
High
education
1996
2015
2010
indicator 3.1a.1
indicator 3.1b
indicator 3.1b.1
Ratio of girls to boys in elementary
participation rates
Ratio of girls to boys in secondary
education
Ratio of girls to boys in secondary
participation rates
indicator 3.1c
Ratio of girls to boys in tertiary
education
indicator 3.2
Share of women in wage employment
in the non-agricultural sector
indicator 3.3
Proportion of seats held by women in
national parliament
1
1
1
1996
2015
2010
1.1
1
1.1
1996
2015
2010
1.2
1
1.2
1996
2015
2010
1.3
1
1.2
1993
2015
2010
40.1
50
41.9
1990
2015
2009
11.3
50
21.4
1992
2015
2010
GOAL 4. REDUCE CHILD MORTALITY
target 4.A
Reduce by two-thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five mortality rate
indicator 4.1
Under-five mortality rate
80
26.7
33.5
indicator 4.2
indicator 4.3
Infant mortality rate
Proportion of 1 year-old children
immunized against measles
1990
2015
2008
57
19
24.9
1990
2015
2008
77.9
100
90.6
1990
2015
2009
GOAL 5. IMPROVE MATERNAL HEALTH
target 5.A
Reduce by three-quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the maternal mortality ratio
indicator 5.1
Maternal mortality
121-207
30.3-51.8
95-163
(based on 7-12 PMDF*** range)
1990
2015
2010
indicator 5.2
Proportion of births attended by
skilled health personnel
58.8
100
74.3
1990
2015
2009
target 5.B
Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS
28 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
High
Medium
Low
Low
High
Low
High
High
Medium
Low
Low
indicator 5.3
indicator 5.5a
indicator 5.5b
indicator 5.6
Contraceptive prevalence rate
40
100
50.7
1993
2015
2008
91.2
increasing
95.8
Antenatal care coverage (at least one
visit)
1993
Antenatal care coverage (at least four
visits)
1993
Unmet need for family planning
26.2
52.1
Low
2008
increasing
77.8
2008
decreasing
1993
22.3
2008
GOAL 6. COMBAT HIV/AIDS, MALARIA AND OTHER DISEASES
target 6.C
Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence of malaria and other major
diseases
indicator 6.6a
Prevalence associated with malaria
118.7
0
13.3
High
indicator 6.6b
indicator 6.8a
indicator 6.8b
Death rate associated with malaria
Prevalence associated with
tuberculosis
Death rate associated with
tuberculosis
1990
2015
2008
1.4
0
0.2
1990
2015
2006
246
0
273.1
1990
2015
2008
39.1
0
29.7
1990
2015
2006
High
Low
Low
indicator 6.9a
Proportion of tuberculosis cases
53
70
72
High
detected under directly observed
2001
2015
2008
treatment short course (DOTS)
indicator 6.9b
Proportion of tuberculosis cases
73
85
79
High
cured under directly observed
2001
2015
2008
treatment short course (DOTS)
GOAL 7. ENSURE ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
target 7.A
Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies & programmes
to reverse the loss of environmental resources
indicator 7.1
Proportion of land area covered by
20.5
increasing
23.9
forest
1990
2003
indicator 7.2
Consumption of ozone-depleting CFCs
(ODP tons)
2981
decreasing
1990
236
2009
indicator 7.B
indicator 7.5a
Reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010. a significant reduction in the rate of loss
Ratio of area protected to maintain
8.5
increasing
13.5
biological diversity to surface area
1990
2010
indicator 7.6a
Number of species threatened with
extinction
target 7.C
indicator 7.7
indicator 7.8
target 7.D
183
decreasing
1992
209
2011
Halve, by 2015, the proportion of population without sustainable access to safe drinking
water and improved sanitation
Proportion of families with access to
73
86.5
84.8
High
safe water supply
1990
2015
2010
Proportion of families with sanitary
toilet facility
67.6
83.8
92.5
1990
2015
2010
High
By 2020, have achieved significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum
dwellers
29 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
indicator 7.9
Proportion of families with access to
secure tenure
91
increasing
1990
90.8
2010
GOAL 8. DEVELOP A GLOBAL PARTNERSHIP FOR DEVELOPMENT
target 8.D
Deal comprehensively with the debt problems of developing countries thru national &
international measures in order to make debt sustainable in the long term
indicator 8.12
Debt service as a percentage of
27.2
decreasing
11.2
exports of goods and services
1990
2010
target 8.F
indicator 8.14
indicator 8.15
In cooperation with the private sector, make available the benefits of new technologies,
especially information and communications
Telephone lines subscribers per 100
1.5
increasing
3.7
population
1990
2011
Cellular phone subscribers per 100
population
0.1
1991
increasing
95.2
2011
Probability of Achieving the Goal:
 Low ; Pace of Progress is less than 0.5
 Medium ; Pace of Progress between 0.5 and 0.9
 High ; Pace of Progress is greater than 0.9
Source: MDG Watch, NSCB as of 12 September 2012
24. Labour and employment. From 2008 to 2010, employment grew at slow pace on the average at 2.4
percent (1.6 in 2008; 2.9 in 2009; 2.8 in 2010)37 and was not in sync with the steady growth in GDP
but, as DOLE observes, followed a “boom and bust patterns”38(Table 24-A). Employment data for
2010 (Table 24-B) would show that more than half (51.8%) of the employed were in the services
sector. The share of agriculture, forestry and fishing sector stood at 33.2 percent while that of
industry was 15.0 percent. In the same year, the biggest employment contribution came from
agriculture, hunting and forestry (29.1%); whole sale and retail trade (19.5%); manufacturing (8.4%);
and transport, storage and communication (7.6%). The smallest shares were attributed to mining
and quarrying (0.6%); electricity, gas and water (0.4%); financial intermediation (1.1%); and health
and social work (1.2%)39.
Employment has shifted from agriculture to services40. Labour force participation has remained
stable for the last decade41. Unemployment levels remained unchanged (7.4% in 2010) and
disproportionately affect the youth and the more educated42. A quarter of young people (25%)
remain both out of work and out of training and education43.
According to ILO’s Decent Work Country Profile, gains in gender equality have been uneven.
Occupational segregation (by sex) is high, as is gender gap in some occupations.44
37
DOLE. 2011. The Philippine Labor and Employment Plan 2011 – 2016.
Ibid.
39
DOLE. 2011. Philippines Labor and Employment Plan 2011-2016. Page 5.
40
ILO. 2012. Decent Work Country Profile: Philippines. International Labour Office. Geneva: ILO, 2012.
41
Ibid.
42
Ibid.
43
Ibid.
44
Ibid.
38
30 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
Growth in wage employment has been minimal and 15 percent of the employed are in precarious
work45. The Decent Work Country Profile also states that more than 4 in 10 workers are in
vulnerable employment (sum of unpaid family workers and own-account workers as a percentage of
total employment)46. They are the least likely to have formal work arrangements, are the least likely
to have social protection and safety nets to guard against economic shocks, and often are incapable
of generating sufficient savings to offset these shocks.47
Despite Philippines’ recent robust economic growth, unemployment rates for men and women
remain high with young women experiencing higher unemployment rates than younger men,
indicative of “jobless growth”. This trend indicates that the recent growth in the Philippines
economy was weak on job creation to compensate for the loss of jobs in agriculture and industry,
and meet new demands in the labour market. This means that the economy is unable to effectively
promote inclusive growth that will benefit women (Celis, Magsombol and Sobritchea 2012).
Table 24-A.
Gross Domestic
Product growth (%)
Unemployment rate
(%)
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2.9
3.6
5.0
6.7
4.8
5.2
6.6
4.2
1.1
7.6
3.9
11.1
11.4
11.4
11.8
7.8
8.0
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.4
7.0
Sources: NSCB (GDP growth) and BLES (unemployment).
Figure 1.
45
Decent work country profile: Philippines. International Labour Office. Geneva ILO. 2012.
Ibid.
47
World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development. 2011. The International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development
46
31 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
Table 24-B. Employment Shares by Major Industry Group: 2001 and 2010 (in 000 %)
Major Industry
2001 Group
2010
2001-2010 Change
Group
No.
% Share
No.
% Share
No.
% Share
Total
29,156
100.0
36,035
100.0
6,879
100.0
Agriculture,
Forestry and Fishing
10, 850
37.2
11,956
33.2
1,106
16.1
Agriculture, Hunting
and Forestry
9,716
33.3
10,487
29.1
771
11.2
Fishing
1,134
3.9
1,469
4.1
335
4.9
Industry
4,712
16.2
5,398
15.0
686
10.0
Mining
and
Quarrying
103
0.4
199
0.6
96
1.4
Manufacturing
2,906
10.0
3,033
8.4
127
1.8
Electricity, Gas and
Water
119
0.4
150
0.4
31
0.5
Construction
1,585
5.4
2,016
5.6
431
6.3
Services
13,593
46.6
18,682
51.8
5,089
74.0
Wholesale
and
Retail Trade
5,255
18.0
7,035
19.5
1,780
25.9
Hotels
and
Restaurants
668
2.3
1,063
2.9
395
5.7
Transport, Storage
and
Communications
2,118
7.3
2,722
7.6
604
8.8
Financial
Intermediation
292
1.0
400
1.1
108
1.6
Real Estate, Renting
and
Business
Activities
516
1.8
1,147
3.2
631
9.2
Public
Administration and
Defense,
Compulsory Social
Security
1,382
4.7
1,847
5.1
465
6.8
Education
920
3.2
1,176
3.3
256
3.7
Health and Social
Work
314
1.1
450
1.2
136
2.0
Other Community,
Social and Personal
Activities
906
3.1
914
2.5
8
0.1
Private Households
with
Employed
Persons
1,218
4.2
1,926
5.3
708
10.3
Extra-Territorial
Organizations
4
a
2
a
(2)
a = less than 0.05%
Source: NSO, LFS
32 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
Annual Growth
Rate (%)
2.4
1.1
0.9
3.0
1.5
7.8
0.5
2.7
2.7
3.6
3.3
5.3
2.9
3.6
9.3
3.3
2.8
4.2
0.2
5.3
(0.9)
25. Budgets for basic services. The share of social services to GDP has substantially increased in 2012
(Table 25-A), and at comparable rate with that in 2000. The 2008 JCGA observes that the budgets for
health and education are below international standards. The WHO benchmark for health
expenditure in developing countries like the Philippines should at least be 5 percent of GDP, while
UNESCO prescribes a standard of 6 percent of gross national product for investments in education
alone. Increase in the allocation for social services will create jobs and generate livelihood
opportunities for local women who mostly participate in delivering basic services at the community
level and can increase money for discretionary spending, which can come useful, for example,
during natural disasters and calamities. However, increasing allocations for social services can also
affect mandated expenditures, such as the wage bill- salaries of government workers where 58.7
percent are women, interest payments for loans on poverty alleviation and social services
infrastructures, and local government unit transfers accounts.
Table 25-A. Sectoral Distribution of Public Expenditures as a % of GDP
2001 2002 2003
Economic
8.2
9.7
7.3
services
Social
5.4
5.6
5.3
services
Defense
1.0
1.1
1.1
General
public
4.2
4.2
4.1
services
Source: DBM, BESF (various years)
*estimates
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013*
7.0
5.9
6.2
6.7
6.9
6.9
5.6
4.5
5.7
5.2
4.7
5.3
5.4
4.7
4.9
5.1
4.4
5.1
6.1
5.7
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.8
1.0
0.7
0.8
0.8
3.4
3.9
3.7
3.7
3.3
3.4
3.7
3.3
3.9
3.7
Figure 2.
26. GAD Planning and Budgeting. The Department of Budget and Management has issued annual
budget circulars since 1997 that support implementation of GAD budgets at the local level. The
current local budget circular on internal revenue allotment requires agencies to apply a minimum of
33 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
5% of the funds for a project to address gender issues. In 2001, the PCW (then NCRFW), Department
of Interior and Local Government, and Department of Budget and Management issued a joint
memorandum circular to all local government units (LGUs) containing guidelines for integrating GAD
in the local planning and budgeting system. This included detailed instructions on how to formulate
a GAD plan and budget and spelled out monitoring and reporting obligations. The local budget
memorandum of June 2007 also required LGUs to undertake GAD planning in the normal course
developing their programs, activities, and projects for the 2008 financial year. LGUs report having
mixed experiences in GAD planning and budgeting. Common complaints are technical difficulties
and political issues in trying to allocate funds.
The Philippine GAD Budget Policy responds to two (2) gender budget categories: (i) ODA-funded
programs and projects and; (ii) the domestic budget that intends to finance GAD mainstreaming in
Philippine bureaucracy. The policy is expected to influence how the total budget of government
agencies is allocated and spent (Jeanne Frances I. Illo 2010).
Budget calls continue to provide guidelines for the preparation of the GAD budget and the process
seems to be adhered to by a majority of government agencies and offices that submitted their GAD
budgets, at least for 2007 and 2008 (68 percent and 65 percent, respectively) (Jeanne Frances I. Illo
2010). This budget call have been reiterated by PCW through its Memorandum Circular No. 2012-01
27. Policy Environment for Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment. Gender equality and the
institutional empowerment of women can be traced to the administration of President Ferdinand E.
Marcos, with the establishment of the NCRFW in 1975. With the passage of RA 9710 in 2010
(Magna Carta of Women), NCRFW was re-named the Philippine Commission on Women (PCW).
Earlier progress from previous administrations has been driven by significant policy actions such as
the Philippine Plan for Gender-Responsive Development (PPGD 1995-2025) formulated under the
administration of President Corazon Cojuanco Aquino. The PPGD 1995-2025 is the 30-year plan
which carries the long term vision of women’s empowerment and gender equality of the Philippines
and mandates the crafting of time-bounded framework plans for women. Sweeping legislative
changes took place in the 1980s and 1990s recognizing gender equality across a wide array of
domains. The 1987 constitution reinforced earlier constitutions by giving added emphasis to the
notion of gender equality. The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law of 1988 assured equal rights to
ownership of land. And a 1989 act amended the Labor Code to protect women from discrimination
in hiring and pay (World Bank, 2012).
During the administration of President Fidel V. Ramos the GAD budget policy was introduced and
full representation of women in the NAPC was institutionalized.
The first (1st) Framework Plan for Women was formulated under the administration of President
Joseph E. Estrada in 2004. The framework plan was implemented until 2010 by the administration of
President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo and it was during her watch that the hallmark law for women
and gender equality- Republic Act 9710, that the Magna Carta of Women 2009 was passed
including the swift approval of its IRR. The MCW expanded the role of PCW as oversight for gender
equality and designates the Commission on Human Rights as gender ombud.
The current administration of President Benigno C. Aquino III, see gender equality as necessary to
attain the goals of transformative leadership and inclusive growth. With the PDP 2011 - 2016, the
34 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
government is ever more committed to gender equality. Consolidating the gains of previous
administrations, recent policy gains are on women’s reproductive health through the passage of RA
10354 Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012; and women’s economic
empowerment through the passage of RA 10151 An Act Allowing the Employment of Night Workers
2011 and RA 10361 An Act Instituting Policies for the Protection and Welfare of Domestic Workers
2012. The present administration also see the formulation and the start of implementation of the
Women’s Empowerment, Development and Gender Equality Plan 2013– 2016, the 2nd Framework
Plan for Women, and the second time slice plan of the PPGD 1995-2025.
However, despite a robust policy for gender equality, there are still discriminatory provisions in
some laws that are in force in relation to RA 9710 (MCW) and the CEDAW which the country ratified
in 1981. These conflicting provisions can be found in the Family Code of the Philippines; Revised
Penal Code; Rules of Court; Code of Muslim Personal Laws; and in RA 8353 and RA 10158.
Still, advocates believe that there are laws that need to be passed to further gender equality in the
country; for instance, versions of the Anti Discrimination and the Divorce Bills remain pending in
congress.
The passage of RA 9710 Magna Carta on Women (MCW) in 2009 is a major policy milestone for
women empowerment and gender equality in the country. The MCW is a comprehensive women’s
human rights law that seeks to eliminate discrimination against women by recognizing, protecting,
fulfilling and promoting the rights of Filipino women, especially those in the marginalized sectors.
Following the passage of RA 9710 Magna Carta of Women, significant milestone include RA 10151
An Act Allowing the Employment of Night Workers in 2011, the passage of RA 10354 Responsible
Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012 and RA 10361 An Act Instituting Policies for the
Protection and Welfare of Domestic Workers 2012.
Numerous laws have been institutionalized to remove barriers that impede women and girls access
to their rights in terms of productive capital, justice, economic and participation in development.
Table 27-A enumerates a number of these significant laws and policies on gender equality and
women’s and girl’s rights.
Table 27-A. Laws and Policies on Gender Equality and Women Empowerment in the Philippines
Index Number
Title
Significance and Relevant Provisions
RA 7192
The Women in Development and Nation Building Act
RA 9710
Magna Carta of Women
Act to Recognize, Protect, Promote the Rights of Indigenous Communities RA 8371
Section 26. Provisions on the rights of indigenous women
Endowments
RA 7875
National Health Insurance Act of 1995
RA 7883
Barangay Health Workers’ Benefits and Incentives Act of 1995
Act prohibiting demand of deposits or advance payments for the confinement
RA 8344
or treatment of patients in hospitals and medical clinics
RA 8508
Health Research and Development Act of 1998
RA 8508
Philippine Aids Prevention and Control Act of 1998
Philippine AIDS Prevention and Control Act of 1998 addressing the conditions
RA 8504
that aggravate AIDs and HIV infection such as poverty, gender inequality,
prostitution, marginalization, drug abuse and ignorance
35 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
Year Enacted
into Law
2002
2009
1997
1995
1995
1997
1998
1998
1998
RA 10354
RA 9994
RA 8972
RA 6725
RA 7882
RA 8042
RA 8289
RA 8291
RA 8425
RA 10022
RA 10151
RA 10361
RA 7160
RA 7941
RA 8187
RA 8425
RA 8552
RA 8171
RA 8369
RA 8508
RA 10398
RA 7877
RA 8353
RA 9208
RA 9262
RA 7610
RA 8044
RA 7658
RA 6972
RA 7600
RA 8296
RA 9231
RA 1997
Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012
Expanded Senior Citizens Act of 2010
Solo Parents Welfare Act of 2000
Expanding Economic Opportunities
An Act Strengthening the Prohibition on Discrimination Against Women with
Respect to Terms and Conditions of Employment Amending for the Purpose
Art. 135 of the Labor Code, as Amended
An Act Providing Assistance to Women Engaging in Micro and Cottage Business
Enterprises and for other Purposes
Migrant Workers and OFW Act
Magna Carta of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises
GSTs Act of 1997
Social Reform and Poverty Alleviation Act – identifies women as basic
sector/disadvantaged sector which this act addresses. Also led to creation of
the National Anti-Poverty Commission and microfinance facilities for the poor.
An Act Amending Republic Act No. 8042 otherwise known as the Migrant
Workers and Overseas Filipinos Act of 1995, As Amended, Further Improving
the Standard of Protection and Promoting of the Welfare of Migrant Workers,
Their Families and Overseas Filipinos in Distress and for other Purpose
An Act Allowing the Employment of Night Workers
An Act Instituting Policies for the Protection and Welfare of Domestic Workers
Agency
Local Government Code – Women Representation in Local Development
Councils and Local Special Bodies
Party-List System Act of 1995
Paternity Leave Act
Social Reform and Poverty Alleviation Act
Domestic Adoption Act of 1998
Providing for the Repatriation of Filipino Women who have lost their Philippine
citizenship by marriage to aliens or who are natural born
Family Courts Act
Rape Victim Assistance and Protection Act of 1998
An Act Declaring November Twenty-Five Of Every Year As “National
Consciousness Day For The Elimination Of Violence Against Women And
Children"
Anti-sexual Harassment Act of 1995
Resolution No. 94-2854: Policy on SH in the Workplace
Anti-rape Law of 1997
Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act of 2003
Anti-Violence Against Women and Their Children Act
Special Protection of Children Against Child Abuse, Exploitation and
Discrimination Act
Youth in National Building Act
Prohibiting the Employment of Children Below 15 Years of Age in Public and
Private Undertakings
Barangay-Level Total Development and Protection of Children Act
Rooming-In and Breastfeeding Act of 1992
The National Children’s Broadcasting Day
Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labor and Affording Stronger
Protection for the Working Child
Children’s Television Act of 1997
36 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
2012
2010
2000
1989
1995
1995
1997
1997
1997
2009
2011
2012
1991
1995
1996
1997
1998
????
1998
????
1995
1997
2003
2004
1995
1990
1992
1997
1997
RA 8980
RA 8044
RA 8551
RA 8745
PCW MC No.
2011 - 01
PCW – NEDA –
DBM JC No.
2012-01
The Early Childhood Care and Development Act
Youth in Nation Building Act - that creates the National Youth Commission
tasked with, among others, integrating the concerns of the girl-child/young
women (ages 15-30 years old) in the Medium Term Youth Development Plan
PNP Reform and Reorganization Act of 1998
- creation of women’s and children’s desks in all police stations
- formulation of a GST program
- equal opportunities for women in the PNP
- prevents sexual harassment in the workplace
- prohibits discrimination on the basis of gender and sexual orientation
- requires 10% quota of the PNP’s annual recruitment, training and education
for women.
Gender Mainstreaming
DBM and NEDA to set guidelines for the implementation of GAD
programs/projects with the 5% of the agency’s total budget in accordance with
RA 7192 and the PPGD.
Guidelines for the Creation, Strengthening, and Institutionalization of the
Gender and Development (GAD) Focal Point System
Guidelines for the Preparation of Annual Gender and Development (GAD) Plans
and Budgets and Accomplishment Reports to Implement the Magna Carta of
Women
37 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
2000
1995
1998
1998
2011
2012
CHAPTER 1
Endowments: Gender Equality and Human Development
The discussion on endowments, defined here as human capital and other productive assets that will
allow women and men, boys and girls to live healthy and productive lives, focuses on housing and
security of tenure, education and health, well-being of children, well-being of senior citizens, social
protection, and land as productive asset.
28. Education. Education is one of the fundamental mechanisms by which women and men create
better economic opportunities for themselves. For women, education leads to increased decisionmaking power in the household and in their communities.
The 1987 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines (1987 Constitution) sets out that the
education sector be given the highest budgetary allocation, however, the JCGA in 2008 observed
that the sheer number of school enrollees each year compels the Government to prioritize
expenditure on quantity, which leaves little room to improve quality. Access to education differs
between males and females in terms of enrollment, survival and completion rates, literacy,
academic level, and choice of discipline.
Interestingly, the gender gap in education in the Philippines tends to be the reverse of what is found
in many other countries. Enrolment rates for girls and all other education indicators surpass those of
boys.
In pre-primary education, gross enrolment from 2007-2010 is higher for females, at 49 percent,
compared to 48 percent for males. Similarly, enrolment in secondary school is also higher for
females, at 66 percent, compared to 55 percent for males for the same period (PLAN;WAGI, 2012).
In 2009, the combined gross enrolment ratio for girls (at 83%) was higher than for boys (at 79%),
with the gender parity index for elementary level for both public and private schools at 1.03. The
gap was widest in the secondary level, with cohort survival at only 56.73 percent for boys and 67.80
for girls (PLAN;WAGI, 2012).
Net attendance also shows a higher percentage for females, at 70 percent, compared to 55 percent
for males. Indeed, girls are also consistently performing better than boys in terms of elementary and
high school enrolment, attendance, retention, and attainments, and are now beginning to perform
better in mathematics and science, which were traditionally considered to be a male domain
(PLAN;WAGI, 2012).
This trend may be attributed to how young boys are expected to drop out of school because they
need to work in order to supplement the income of their parents or, in many instances, because
they become the primary income earners themselves (PLAN;WAGI, 2012).
Although tuition is free in public schools, resources are still needed to pay for other expenses, such
as books, school supplies, uniforms, etc. The lack of such resources in many families results in high
drop-out rates in school and is often the cause of low motivation levels in boys (PLAN;WAGI, 2012).
38 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
Figure 3. Ratio of female to male gross enrollment
in secondary education, most recent year
Figure 4. Ratio of female to male gross enrollment
in tertiary education, most recent year
On the other hand, in a study conducted by the Philippine Institute for Development Studies, 26
percent of girls surveyed indicated housekeeping as the reason for dropping out of school
(PLAN;WAGI, 2012 p.23).
The NDHS for 2008, correlate education with decreased fertility rates; women who have gone to
college have an average of 2.3 children, while women with only elementary education have 4.5
children48 and women with high school and college education are much more likely to delay
childbearing than women with only elementary education49
The NDHS 2008 reveals that on the basis of the number of women surveyed:
 One-third of women age 15–49 have gone to college.
 More than 90% have completed at least elementary school.
 Women living in urban areas, especially those in the National Capital Region, are most likely
to have attended college.
 Education among women is increasing over time.
 More than 40% of women age 20–24 have attended college compared to only 32% of
women age 45–49.
 Almost all (97%) Filipino women are literate50.
Despite the increase in women’s education rates and completion, they continue to participate in the
areas that women are traditionally occupied in reflecting continued systemic segregation in
education. At the tertiary level, a pattern of gender stereotyping in the chosen area of study
48
NDHS, NSO. 2008. Page 3.
Ibid.
50
NDHS. 2008. Page 2.
49
39 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
persists. Women continue to choose fields that perpetuate their socially ascribed roles. They
dominate the education, medical, and allied fields, and business administration. On the other hand,
very few women take engineering and technology courses (see Table 30-A).
The JCGA 2008 noted that a higher percentage of women pass the board examinations in
criminology, fisheries technology, forestry, geodetic engineering, geology, mechanical engineering,
metallurgical engineering, mining engineering, naval architecture, marine engineering, electrical
engineering, and sanitary engineering (JCGA 2008). However, the GLMS points that increase in
education levels of Philippine women does not necessarily contribute to equal opportunity in the
labour market because women remain concentrated in their traditional field of study such as
nursing, hotel and catering, and are underrepresented in areas such as law, information technology,
engineering, agriculture and architecture. These gender differences in the field of study contribute
to the occupational and industrial segregation by sex. This means that unless Philippine women
branch out of their traditional education fields, the inefficiencies in the allocation of labour in the
economy will remain (Celis, Magsombol and Sobritchea 2012; ADB GLMS).
Table 30-A. Higher Education Enrollment and Graduates by Discipline Group and
Gender (Public + Private), Academic Year AY 2005/06 - AY 2009/10
Discipline Group
Male
Female
TOTAL
5,493
8,705
14,198
91,678
260,368
352,046
8,656
8,026
16,682
12,416
15,673
28,089
5,469
1,474
6,943
26,315
50,231
76,546
272,509
451,706
724,215
10,943
9,201
20,144
NATURAL SCIENCE
9,176
14,951
24,127
MATHEMATICS
5,060
7,094
12,154
IT-RELATED
181,218
167,244
348,462
MEDICAL AND ALLIED
134,030
306,305
440,335
2,192
1,641
3,833
256,473
88,189
344,662
ARCHITECTURAL AND TOWN-PLANNING
13,213
7,228
20,441
AGRICULTURAL, FORESTRY, AND FISHERIES
31,299
28,393
59,692
947
4,202
5,149
7,714
28,641
36,355
8,451
22,543
30,994
OTHER DISCIPLINES
85,111
32,337
117,448
MARITIME
87,476
974
88,450
1,255,839
1,515,126
2,770,965
GENERAL
EDUCATION SCIENCE AND TEACHER TRAINING
FINE AND APPLIED ARTS
HUMANITIES
RELIGION AND THEOLOGY
SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION AND RELATED
LAW AND JURISPRUDENCE
TRADE, CRAFT AND INDUSTRIAL
ENGINEERING
HOME ECONOMICS
SERVICE TRADES
MASS COMMUNICATION AND
DOCUMENTATION
Total
Source: CHED
40 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
Figure 4.
Though the Philippines have generally experienced convergence in school enrollments among young
people, substantial gaps in the educational endowments of the working age and elderly populations
still remain (World Bank EAP, 2012 p.9).
29. Children and child labour. Children accounted for the largest number of poor persons among the
basic sectors, at 13.4 million in 2003, 14.4 million in 2006 and _____ million in 2010. The proportion
of poor children living in rural areas was twice as much as those living in urban areas. The CDI51 fell
from 0.779 in 2003 to 0.729 in 2006.
Children in especially difficult circumstances include street children, victims of child abuse and
commercial sexual exploitation, child victims of prostitution and pornography, children in conflict
with the law, children in situations of armed conflict, children with disabilities, child victims of illegal
recruitment and trafficking, and child laborers (GOP-NEDA, 2011 p.256).
An NSO and ILO 2011 survey estimating child labor in the Philippines reported that there were 5.49
million working children, aged 5-17, in the Philippines an increase of ____ percent from 2001
(calculate: 4 million children worked in 2001); 58.4 percent, or an estimated 3.21 million of them,
were considered being in child labor.52 Of the 3.21 million, 2.99 million are in hazardous labor, while
217,000 are in other forms of child labor. Of the 2.99 million children in hazardous labor, 1.999
million are boys, while 994,000 are girls. Of the 994,000 girls in hazardous labor, 61.8 percent are
51
The CDI is a composite index measuring average achievement in the three basic dimensions captured in the
human development index, adjusted to account inequalities between women and men (UNICEF, 2010).
52
These figures significantly differ with that in the PDP 2011-2016 which puts the number of “economically active
children (aged 5-17) to 2.1 million only and majority of those aged 15-17 are boys (DOLE BLES)
41 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
unpaid workers in their own household-operated farm or business, while 20 percent are workers in
private establishments. While child labor is predominantly a phenomenon of the male child, these
latest figures once again show the patent sex-segregation of work in the household and
communities, which most often continue until the children are adults. In the agricultural sector, the
girl child and other female members in the family usually assume the role of an unpaid worker, since
the tasks assigned to them are deemed to be extensions of their roles in the household
(PLAN;WAGI, 2012 p.28).
TABLE 29-A. Working Children (5 - 17 Years Old) by Age Group and Sex, Philippines:
2009 - October 2011
INDICATOR
2009
2010
2011
Household Population
Total
5 - 9 Years Old
10 - 14 Years Old
15 - 17 Years Old
28,701
10,671
11,502
6,528
28,934
10,633
11,798
6,503
29,118
10,623
12,011
6,484
Boys
5 - 9 Years Old
10 - 14 Years Old
15 - 17 Years Old
14,598
5,447
5,889
3,262
14,734
5,433
6,039
3,262
14,822
5,421
6,132
3,268
Girls
5 - 9 Years Old
10 - 14 Years Old
15 - 17 Years Old
Working Children
14,101
5,223
5,613
3,265
14,200
5,200
5,759
3,241
14,297
5,202
5,878
3,216
Total
5 - 9 Years Old
10 - 14 Years Old
15 - 17 Years Old
2,199
90
682
1,427
2,095
112
630
1,353
2,482
138
861
1,483
Boys
5 - 9 Years Old
10 - 14 Years Old
15 - 17 Years Old
1,383
51
432
899
1,323
65
390
869
1,567
79
535
954
Girls
816
772
914
5 - 9 Years Old
39
47
58
10 - 14 Years Old
250
240
326
15 - 17 Years Old
528
484
529
Notes:
1. Details may not add up to totals due to rounding.
2. A child is considered working or economically active if at any time during the
reference period is engaged in any economic activity for at least one hour. The child
may be studying, looking for work and/or housekeeping at the same time.
3. Statistical inquiries on working children focus on those aged 5 - 17 years based on the
definition of a child as an individual below 18 years old (1989 UN Convention on the
Rights of the Child and ILO Convention on the Worst Forms of Child Labor, 1999).
Source of basic data: National Statistics Office, Labor Force Survey, Public Use Files.
42 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
30. Health. The World Health Organization (WHO) cites notable accomplishments in the Philippine
public health system, including the approach to the primary health care system and the devolution
of health services to the local level. Nonetheless, there are major geographic inequities in access to
health facilities and services. Local government budgets do not usually prioritize health. Despite the
National Health Insurance Act of 1995 (RA 7875), users of health services still largely pay expenses
out of pocket, a system that further burdens the poor. Philippine National Health Accounts (PNHA)
revealed that in 2007, 54 percent of the total health expenditure comprised out-of-pocket expenses,
and only 9 percent from social health insurance (GOP-NEDA, 2011 p.235).
For 2008, total health expenditure was only PhP 270 billion, or 3.5 percent of the GDP53 which is
below the World Health Organization’s (WHO) benchmark of 5 percent of GDP for developing
countries (GOP-NEDA, 2011 p.235).
As pointed out in the 2008 JCGA, the exodus of nurses and doctors abroad exacerbates problems in
the health sector. These factors consequently affect access to adequate health care.
Table 30–A. Selected Health Indicators
Year
Crude birth rate (per
1,000 popn)
Crude death rate (per
1,000 popn)
Maternal mortality rate
(per 100,000 live births)
Total fertilty rate (births
per woman 15-49 y.o.)
Infant mortality rate (per
1,000 live births)
U5 mortality rate (per
1,000 live births)
Share of women who gave
birth in health facility
Share of women who gave
birth with assistance from
health professional
Contraceptive prevalence
rate (share of women 1549 y.o.)
Share of access to safe
water supply
Hospital bed (per 1,000
people)
Health worker density
(per 1,000 people)
Maternal mortality rate
53
Source/Notes
21.6
2008
NDHS 2008
6
2010
WDI as of Nov 2012
95-163
2010
NSCB MDG Watch
3.3
2008
31
2008
41
2008
NDHS 2008
NDHS 2008. For the 10-year period
preceding the survey (approximately
calendar years 1999-2008).
NDHS 2008. For the 10-year period
preceding the survey (approximately
calendar years 1999-2008).
44
2008
NDHS 2008
62
2008
NDHS 2008
52
2008
NDHS 2008
85
2010
NSCB MDG Watch
0.5
2009
WDI as of Nov 2012
2012
DOH
2010
WDI as of Nov 2012
99
Estimates based on PDP 2011-2016- see Figure 8.2.
43 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
(per 100,000 live births)
31. Reproductive Health. Average fertility rate in the Philippines is at 3.5; average fertility rate for the
richest quintile 2 and average fertility rate for the poorest quintile 5.5 (World Bank, 2012 p.76 Figure
2.4). Women in the Philippines have an average of 3.3 children (NSO and ICF Macro, 2009 p.3). The
average number of children per woman is 2.8 in urban areas and 3.8 in rural areas (NSO and ICF
Macro, 2009). Fertility has gradually decreased over the past 20 years from 5.1 children per woman
in 1983; to 3.5 in 2003; 3.3 in 2008 and 3.1 in 2010 (NSO;ICF Macro, 2009). Fertility varies with
mother’s education. Women who have gone to college have an average of 2.3 children, while
women with only elementary education have 4.5 children. Similarly, fertility varies with women’s
economic status as measured by the wealth index54. The poorest women have more than twice as
many children as women who live in the wealthiest households (5.2 versus 1.9 children per
woman)55.
Table 31-A. Total Fertility Rate
Births per woman 15-49 y.o.
1970
1990
1993
1998
2003
2008
2010
6.3
4.3
4.1
3.7
3.5
3.3
3.1
Sources: 1970, 1990, and 2010 from UN Data (data.un.org); 1993, 1998, 2008 and 2003 Philippines NDHS.
Teenage pregnancy is on the rise with government statistics on female adolescent pregnancies
indicating that the total number teenage pregnancies rose 70% from 114,205 in 1999 to 195,662 in
200956 and is now the highest in the Southeast Asia.
Concerning the young, data from the Young Adult Fertility and Sexuality Survey (YAFSS) for the
period 1994-2002 indicated that the overall prevalence of pre-marital sexual activity increased from
18 percent to 23 percent. It is likewise observed that twice as many females than males experienced
reproductive health (RH) problems. The higher levels of RH problems observed in females can be
attributed to their higher experience of less serious RH problems. It is however noted that there was
an increase in serious RH problems among females as compared to males due to the increasing
proportion of females engaging in sexual risk behaviors and the low level of contraceptive use. The
2006 FPS results also showed that 6.3 percent of women 15-19 years old had begun childbearing
and majority of them were poor and from the rural areas. Other studies show that teenage
pregnancies accounted for 17 percent of induced abortion cases.57
In the NDHS, 10% of women age 15–19 are already mothers or are pregnant with their first child58.
The NDHS also concludes that women with high school and college education are much more likely
to delay childbearing than women with only elementary education59.
54
The NDHS 2008 calculated household wealth through household assets collected from DHS surveys—i.e., type of
flooring; source of water; availability of electricity; possession of durable consumer goods. These are combined
into a single wealth index. Households are then divided into five groups of equal size, or quintiles, based on each
household’s relative standing on the wealth index.
55
Ibid.
56
Philippine News Agency. “Teenage Pregnancies in the Philippines Rise 70-percent over 10 years-UNFPA”.
http://www.interaksyon.com/article/30434/teenage-pregnancies-in-philippines-rise-70-percent-over-10-years--unfpa Accessed October 3, 2012.
57
Source: http://www.undp.org.ph/?link=goal_5 accessed on November 12, 2012
58
NDHS, NSO. 2008. Page 3.
44 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
The 2008 NDHS will show that the median age at first birth for all women is 25–49 is 23.2 years old60
and women in urban areas have their first birth two years later than women in rural areas (24.2
years versus 22.2 years)61.
The age at first marriage presented by the 2008 NDHS show that 16 percent of women in the
Philippines are married by age 1862. The median age at first marriage is 22.2 for women age 25–4963.
Women in urban areas marry two years later than women in rural areas (23.2 years versus 21.0
years)64. Women with more education marry later than those with less education65.
Age at first sexual intercourse, another indicator covered by the 2008 NDHS will show that the
median age at first sexual intercourse for women is 21.566. As with age at first marriage, women
with higher levels of education wait longer to begin sexual activity than those with no education67.
According to the 2008 NDHS, the mean ideal family size (desired family size) for Filipino women is
2.8 children. Ideal family size varies by region, from a low of 2.6 in CALABARZON and the National
Capital Region to a high of 5.1 in ARMM68. Women with no education want the most children (5.0),
while women with high school or college education want the fewest (2.7)69.
Citing results of the 2008 NDHS, more than 90 percent of Filipino women receive at least some
antenatal care (ANC) from a skilled provider, most commonly from a midwife (51%) or doctor
(39%)70. With the exception of ARMM, more than 85 percent of women in all regions received some
ANC. Only 47 percent of women in ARMM received ANC71. More than three-quarters of women had
the recommended four or more ANC visits and 54 percent of women had antenatal care in the first
trimester of pregnancy, as recommended. Further, the 2008 NDHS also show that 82 percent of
women took iron tablets or syrup during their last pregnancy, and more than two-thirds of women
(69%) who received ANC were informed of the signs of pregnancy complications. Three-quarters of
Filipino births are protected against neonatal tetanus.
The 2008 NDHS on delivery and postnatal care reveals that less than half of births in the Philippines
(44%) occur in health facilities—27 percent in the public sector and 18 percent in private sector
facilities. Fifty-six (56%) percent of births occur at home. Home births are much more common in
rural areas (70%) than urban areas (40%). Overall, 62 percent of births are delivered by a skilled
provider (doctor, nurse, or midwife). Another 36 percent are assisted by a traditional birth attendant
or hilot. Postnatal care helps prevent complications after childbirth. More than three-quarters of
women received a postnatal checkup within two days of delivery. However, 9 percent of women did
not receive any postnatal care within 41 days of delivery.
59
Ibid.
Ibid.
61
Ibid.
62
Ibid.
63
Ibid.
64
Ibid.
65
Ibid.
66
Ibid.
67
Ibid.
68
Ibid.
69
Ibid.
70
NDHS, NSO. 2008. Page 8
71
Ibid.
60
45 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
The 2011 FHS72 results reveal that unmet need for family planning (FP) among married women in
the Philippines remains high at 19.3 %, 10.5 % for birth spacing and 8.8 %for limiting births. In the
2006 Family Planning Survey, unmet need for FP73 was 15.7 %, 8.4 % for spacing and 7.3 % for
limiting births. Total unmet need for FP is substantially greater among women considered poor (25.8
percent) compared to non-poor women (16.6 %). In particular, 13.1 % of poor women as compared
to 9.4 % of non-poor women have unmet need for spacing, and 12.6 % of poor women as compared
to 7.2 % of non-poor women have unmet need for limiting births.
Currently married women in ARMM have the highest unmet need for family planning (35.8 %),
specifically for birth spacing (28.2 %). As expected, unmet need for FP decreases with woman's age,
from 37.0 % among women age 15-19 to 7.8 % among women age 45-49. Unmet need for spacing is
higher for younger women (under age 35), while unmet need for limiting births is higher for older
women (aged 35-49). Unmet need also decreases with increasing education; it is highest for
currently married women with no education at all (29.2 %) and lowest for those with college or
higher education (17.6 %). Among women who had attained high school or higher level of
education, unmet need for spacing births is higher than for limiting births.
Table 31-B. Contraceptive Prevalence rate (% of women aged 15-49)
1998
2003
2008
Modern method
32.8
38.5
41.5
Traditional method
27.2
27.3
31.3
Contraceptive prevalence rate
43.4
47.3
51.6
Sources: 2003, 2008 NDHS
32. Maternal Mortality (MMR). MMR is defined as the number of maternal deaths per 100,000 live
births. The indicator on maternal health status is disturbing.
1993 – 209 deaths74
1998 – 172 deaths75
2006 – 162 deaths76
2009 – 162 deaths77
2011 – 221 deaths78
Under the MDGs, the Philippines committed to lower the maternal mortality rate to 52 per 100,000
live births by 2015. In view of the fact that the decline has slowed down considerably and appears to
have stalled, this goal has been identified as the least likely to be achieved for the Philippines.
72
The 2011 Family Health Survey is a nationally representative survey of about 53,000 households and 53,000
women of reproductive age (15-49 years old) which aims to collect data on fertility, family planning practice,
maternal and child health, and maternal mortality. The 2011 FHS is a stand-alone survey and funded mainly by the
United States Agency for International Development (USAID).
73
Unmet need for FP refers to the proportion of currently married women who are not using any method of family
planning but do not want any more children or prefer to space births.
74
NDHS, NSO and Macro International. 1993.
75
NDHS, NSO and Macro International. 1998.
76
Family Planning Survey (FPS). NSO. 2006.
77
DOH. 2009.
78
DOH. 2011
46 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
Out of three (3) million pregnancies that occur every year, half were unplanned and one-third of
these end in abortions, according to a 2006 report of the Allan Guttmacher Institute conducted in
the Philippines. Induced abortion was the fourth leading cause of maternal deaths. Young women
accounted for 17 percent of induced abortions. Over half of births occurred at home and one-third
of them were assisted by traditional birth attendants (TBAs). Around 75 percent of the poorest
quintile did not have access to skilled birth attendants (SBAs) compared to only 20 percent of the
richest quintile.
Universal access to sexual and reproductive health education, information, and services improves
health, saves lives and reduces poverty. The increase in MMR may be traced to inadequate access to
integrated reproductive health services by women, including poor adolescents and men.
Table 34-A. Maternal Mortality Rate, per 100,000 live births
1990 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Low assumption:
assuming 7% level
of female deaths
due to maternal
causes.
121
130
118
115
112
109
106
103
101
99
96
High assumption:
assuming 12% level
of female deaths
due to maternal
causes.
207
222
202
198
193
188
182
177
172
169
164
Source: NSCB; NSCB Resolution No. 11 Series of 2010, Adopting the Interim Estimation Methodology Used in
Generating National Levels Estimates
Figure 5.
47 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
2010
95
163
33. Child Mortality. In contrast to the dire statistics of maternal health care, the country has been
improving slightly on child mortality. The country’s child mortality rate has declined to 30 per 1,000
live births from 32 in 2009, 31 in 2008.79 This moves the Philippines closer to meeting its MDG of 27
deaths per 1,000 live births by 2015. The decrease is attributed to the improvement to sustained
immunization of babies and school children in the country.
34. Senior citizens and aging population. The elderly population in the Philippines has been steadily
increasing in both size and proportion. The 2010 Census enumerated about 6.3 million persons aged
60 years and above. It represents the 6.8 percent of the 92.1 million total household population in
2010.80
In 2012, the life expectancy of a Filipino man is 67.3 years and the life expectancy of a Filipino
woman is 72.9 years. With the advances in medicine and technology, life expectancy is expected to
improve. For the period 2010 to 2020, the life expectancy of a Filipino man is expected to increase
by 2.5 years; while the life expectancy of a Filipino woman is expected to increase by 1.9 years. The
life expectancy of women will remain relatively higher compared to their male counterparts.81
The Philippine Plan of Action for Senior Citizens 2012-2016 which have been formulated under the
leadership of DSWD forecast that there will be approximately 19.6 million senior citizens by 2040,
out of the projected 141.7 million Filipinos. The projection on the share of senior citizens to total
population is increasing over time, from 5.3 percent in 1980 to 6.8 percent in 2010 to 13.8 percent
in 2040. 82
Government envisions to address three (3) major areas of concern on ageing: (i) senior citizens and
development; (ii) advancing healthy and well-being into old age; and (iii) ensuring enabling and
supporting environment83. The focus is consistent with the major areas of concern identified during
the World Conference on Ageing held in Madrid, Spain in 2003.
Actions to ensure that the rights of Senior Citizens are fulfilled are guided by the Vienna
International Plan of Action on Ageing, as well as by the Macau Declaration on Ageing for Asia and
Pacific and the Madrid International Plan on Ageing and Shanghai Implementation Strategy.
In countries and regions with rapidly aging populations, like China and Europe and Central Asia,
encouraging women to enter and remain in the labor force can help dampen the adverse impact of
shrinking working-age populations. In the Philippines however, traditional and cultural mindset
associated with aging require expanding the care economy to accommodate the care needs of
senior citizens, as oppose to finding innovative means to make them productive and part of the
labor force even in their senior years.
79
World Bank. Selected Health Indicators. Sources: NDHS 2008, NSCB MDG Watch, WB World Development
Indicators
80
The Philippine Plan of Action for Senior Citizens 2012-2016. Page 5.
81
Ibid. Page 8.
82
Ibid. Statistics are from World Population Prospects: The 2010 Revisions, UN Population Division, Census of
Population (and Housing) and Census of Population of the National Statistics Office (NSO) and National Statistics
Coordination Board (NSCB) – Technical Staff special computations using the Population Projections of NSO
83
Ibid. Page 3. Cited in the foreword by Alicia R. Bala. Undersecretary, DSWD.
48 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
In their senior years, Filipino women and men live with their immediate families; this situation is
borne out of culture and tradition. Elders are held in high esteem by Filipinos and this is usually
demonstrated by caring and providing for their needs. However, this cultural practice can be a
burden for families who are not prepared to take on the responsibilities of looking after their aging
family members and do not have the economic means.
Because of tradition, aging women and men and their families fall into an obligation and entitlement
trap; where families feel obligated to care for their aging family members (no matter how unprepared they are) and aging men and women expect such entitlements because of their senior
status. This trap can breed inequalities in the household and make senior members vulnerable to
being treated as helpless, unproductive and a burden.
The issue of care work is at the core of discussions pertaining to the aging population. Care of senior
citizens is often delegated to women and girls; this impacts on women’s labor force participation
(care of the elderly family members is full time work and often unpaid work) and on girl’s school
participation. On the other hand, care work for the elderly also breeds inequalities based on gender,
race/ethnicity and sexual orientation. For instance, in the Philippines, the distribution of unpaid care
work is often delegated only among women but paid care work can be delegated to men; also, the
right to receive care work is often determined on economic status.
In the Philippines, the absence of policies in distributing care work of the elderly is not yet being
seriously addressed such as defining the roles of immediate families, barangay health center, and
the community and assigning contributions from national agencies. Incentives for workers with
family responsibilities such as caring for elderly are not yet standard practice as in other countries
(e.g. additional leave from work for doing care work) and social protection for the elderly is at most,
wanting.
35. STI, HIV and AIDS. According to DOH, number of HIV cases rose to 79% as of January 2013. The first
reported case of HIV in the Philippines was in 1984. Today, 72 out of 80 provinces in all 17 regions in
the country, are reporting HIV cases.84 The Philippines is one of only 7 countries in the world where
new cases are rising (the others are Bangladesh, Armenia, Georgia, Kazhakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and
Tajikistan)85. The Philippine AIDS Registry of the National Epidemiology Center of DOH reported
6,015 HIV Ab Sero-Positive Cases as of December 2011. Of the total number of cases, 5,158 (86%)
were asymptomatic while 857 (14%) were AIDS cases. Seventy-three percent (73%) are male86. With
the current number of PLHIVs in the country, treatment can cost to Php 1.05 B per year.87
According to the 2008 NDHS, almost all women (94%) have heard of AIDS. However, knowledge of
HIV prevention methods is lower. Only 53% of women age 15–49 know that HIV can be prevented
by using condoms and by limiting sex to one faithful partner. Only 22% of women have
84
PNAC. STI, HIV and AIDS in the Philippines 2012. Data submitted to PCW for the Philippines Country Paper for
the ASEAN Regional Conference on Male, Youth and HIV and AIDS Networks towards the Prevention of Gender
Based Violence. Manila, Philippines. November 2012.
85
Ibid.
86
5th AIDS Medium Term Plan 2012-2016
87
PNAC. STI, HIV and AIDS in the Philippines 2012. Data submitted to PCW for the Philippines Country Paper for
the ASEAN Regional Conference on Male, Youth and HIV and AIDS Networks towards the Prevention of Gender
Based Violence. Manila, Philippines. November 2012.
49 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
comprehensive knowledge of HIV88. Knowledge of prevention increases with increasing education
and wealth. Some Filipinos still have misconceptions about HIV and AIDS. Only two-thirds of women
know that a healthy-looking person can have HIV, and only 58% know that a person cannot get
infected with HIV by sharing food with an HIV-positive person.
Most Filipino women have only one sexual partner during their lifetime. Among women who had sex
in the year before the survey, only 3% had intercourse with someone who was neither their
husband or cohabiting partner during that time.89 Only 11% of these women reported using a
condom with that partner.90
About half of women know where to get an HIV test, but only 2% have ever been tested and
received the results.91 Women with higher levels of education are most likely to have ever been
tested.92
Young people are not very knowledgeable about HIV/ AIDS. Only 21% of young women age 15–24
have comprehensive knowledge of HIV. Almost two-thirds of young women know a condom
source.93
Seventeen percent of young women (age 18–24) had sexual intercourse by age 18. Among young
women who have had sex, only 4% used a condom at first sex. The large majority (94%) of nevermarried Filipino young women have never had sex. Among those who have had sex in the past year,
14% report using a condom at last sex.94
HIV incidence has been increasing. The LGBT sector is continually stigmatized by the trend and the
UNAIDS calls for a review of strategies in programming for MSMs and HIV/AIDS. Beyond MSMs, it is
also significant to bring an important dimension of HIV infection such as its impact on the working
age population.
HIV incidence among the working-age population is an important health indicator and determinant
of the socio-economic context for decent work.
The number of HIV positive cases per 100,000 of the working age population was between 0.1 and
0.3 in the decade leading up to 2006; however, the rate grew substantially thereafter, from 0.4 in
2007 to 1.1 in 2009 and 2.3 in 2010.95 While majority of these cases are males, the data on working
age women is yet to be fully appreciated and understood.
88
According to the criteria set by the NDHS 2008, an individual with comprehensive knowledge knows that
consistently using condoms during sexual intercourse and having just one uninfected partner reduces the risk of
getting HIV, knows that a healthy-looking person can have HIV, and knows that people cannot become infected
through mosquito bites or by sharing food with an HIV-infected person.
89
NDHS 2008.
Ibid.
91
Ibid.
92
Ibid.
93
Ibid.
94
Ibid.
95
Decent work country profile: Philippines. International Labour Office. Geneva ILO. 2012. Page 8.
90
50 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
Between 1995 and 2010, HIV prevalence among working age women remained fairly low at 0.1 – 0.3
cases per 100,000, while for men this range was broader at 0.1 – 4.4. Among the youth, the rate
from 1995-2008 was at 0.1 – 0.6, and in 2009 – 2010 these climbed to 1.2 and 2.6 respectively which
were higher than those of adults at 1.1 and 2.2 for the same years. It should be noted that the data
excludes cases of OFWs who are not considered as part of the working age population in the LFS.
However data would show that number of cases of OFWs was reported at 24 in 1995 and have
increased to 174 in 2010 (increase by 7.25%), and majority of them are males.96
36. Food Security. The Philippines Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC) Version 2.0
concludes that the Mindanao Island is experiencing acute food security situation. The analysis
covers 25 provinces of the Mindanao Island Group of the Philippines. The areas depicting high levels
of acute food insecurity problems are mainly located in Region IX (Zamboanga Peninsula), in ARMM
(Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao), as well as in the highly natural disaster prone belt along
the east coast of Mindanao and in Lanao del Norte (IPC 2012). Standard gender analysis would show
that women and children are disproportionately affected by food insecurity especially when the
factors, as the 2012 IPC analysis shows, point to high incidence of poverty, underemployment,
increased food prices, displacements due to typhoons, flooding, landslides, and drought, and in
some areas prolonged armed conflict. Over and above experiencing hunger, women and children
are also overburdened when physical access to markets and food is an additional issue in
geographically isolated areas such as the island provinces or the mountainous interior of provinces
where there are poor or no roads at all. Poor food utilization plays an important role for populations
that have very limited access to improved water sources and sanitary toilets.
37. Housing and security of tenure. The NSO NDHS 2008 summarizes that households in the Philippines
consist of an average of 4.8 people. More than one-third (36%) of household members are children
under age 15. More than 80% of households are headed by men97. Overall, 89% of households use
an improved source of drinking water. More than one-third of urban households use bottled water,
and another 60% have another improved source of drinking water (piped water into
dwelling/yard/plot, tube well or borehole, public tap/standpipe, protected spring or protected dug
well). Eighty-four (84%) percent of households in rural areas have an improved water source.
Nationwide, two-thirds of households have access to an improved toilet facility (flush to septic tank,
flush to pit latrine, flush to sewer system). Overall, 15% of rural households have no toilet facility.
Ninety-four percent of urban households have electricity compared with 73% of rural households.98
According to the PDP 2011-2016, total housing need, which includes housing backlog and housing
for new households, is estimated to reach about 5.8 million units by 2016. The NUDHF 2009-2016
indicate that Regions 3, 4B and NCR account for about half of the total housing need.99
Already, urban population is at 66.4 percent of total population as of 2010, or 6 of every 10 Filipinos
now live in urban areas and half on these are females. The ADB projects that the country’s urban
population, which is already squeezed into an increasingly congested space, will grow even more by
67 percent by year 2030. The bloating of the urban population is blamed on lack of employment
96
Ibid.
NDHS, NSO. 2008. Page 2.
98
Ibid.
99
Philippine Development Plan 2011-2016. Page 244.
97
51 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
opportunities, land shortages and natural disasters and climate change--which have rendered
uninhabitable many communities hit by landslides, drought or uncontrolled flooding.100
The phenomenon of urban slums and informal settlements have been characterized by unsanitary
conditions, congestion and limited access to basic urban services, like health centers, schools, waste
disposal and safe water supply.101 All these affect the reproductive roles of women and girls as well
as their general health conditions, especially reproductive health.
The Philippines have yet to categorically state its MDG target on access to secure tenure (indicator
7.9), while it is supposed to increase based on the 1990 baseline of 90% of total population, by 2010
(ten years after) accomplishment registers at 90.8 percent, which is very minimal, a slight increase.
This may be attributable to very low public expenditure on housing which is less than 1 percent of
the total government expenditures and accounts for less than 0.1 percent of GDP, one of the lowest
in Asia102. While, the MDGs on access to safe drinking water and sanitary toilets have already been
achieved,103 increasing the access to housing and secure tenure is expected to be attuned to land
use and green technology housing construction within the framework of climate change adaptation
and disaster risk management.104
The limited budget, unclear compliance of the provision of the UDHA where the required allocation
of at least 20 percent of total project cost in every housing development for socialized housing
finance is not fully implemented105, and reliance to the social insurance system to finance housing
needs, effectively limit the access of the poor to housing assistance which affects a great number of
poor urban and rural women. Government shelter strategies are focused on increasing housing
production either by direct provision of housing units/loans or by giving incentives to developers
who cater mainly to the formal sector and the middle/high- income households. These approaches
do not address the fundamental issues of land supply constraints and financing, weak institutional
mechanisms in housing construction and the financial environment, and unclear focus on poverty
reduction106.
Globally, gender inequalities are prevalent in housing and security of tenure. For example, women
as a group are widely marginalized by administrative institutions in respect of land, property and
inheritance. Women are systematically excluded from decision-making and control over household
resources. This has a historical dimension where access to land and property predominantly has
been a male domain. As a result women have been denied access, ownership and right to property
and inheritance. Several factors have contributed to this - discriminatory policies and laws which
include traditional/customary laws and practices, constitutions with discriminatory provisions;
limited implementation of laws and policies; land registration of land laws in favour of the man; lack
of representation on decision-making bodies; and lack of awareness.107
100
ADB. 2011. Competitive Cities in the 21st Century: Cluster-Based Local Economic Development
Ibid.
102
Habito, 2009. Cited in the Philippine Development Plan 2011-2016. Page 244.
103
Philippine Development Plan 2011-2016. Page 244.
104
Ibid.
105
Ibid.
106
Ballesteros, 2010. Cited in the Philippine Development Plan 2011-2016. Page 244.
107
UN HABITAT. Gender Equality Dimensions of Housing and Secure Tenure. Gender Mainstreaming in Local
Authorities: Best Practices. 2008
101
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The gender dimensions of housing and security of tenure have not been fully recognized by housing
and shelter agencies in the Philippines. A rigorous gender analysis needs to be done by shelter
agencies for them to know the extent of women exclusion and/or involvement in terms of decision
making, influence, and benefits of housing and secure tenure programmes.
The PDP 2011-2012 states that investing in mass and socialized housing will enable investors to
enjoy incentives, as the government seeks to address the housing gap of 5.8 million units from 2010
to 2016 or about 800,000 units per year. The government has also increased the target number of
housing loans from 75,000 to 150,000 housing units. This is in line with the government’s thrust of
facilitating access to a variety of housing options that are decent, affordable, and responsive to the
diverse and changing needs of the people by providing incentives to low-cost mass housing
developers.
38. Social protection. Taking off from the findings of the JCGA 2008,108 NEDA SDC adopted a resolution
on social protection and defining its components in February 2007 signaling government’s
acknowledgement of social protection as a strategy for reducing poverty and vulnerability to risks
encompassing loss of livelihood and employment, hazards and sudden loss of income, and
improving people’s capacity to manage risks. The JCGA 2008 concludes that NEDA SDC’s resolution
is gender blind. While the resolution covers most of the important aspects of social protection, it
does not take into account any other particular risks women face as pointed out in the WDR
2000/20001 (see Box 6.3 of JCGA 2000) except, maternity. Actions to address this gap have not been
reported on, to date.
The 2007 PNHA revealed that 54 percent of the total health expenditure comprised out-of-pocket
expenses, and only 9 percent from social health insurance. Total health expenditure was only
PhP234.3 billion, or 3.2 percent of the GDP, which is below WHO benchmark of 5 percent of GDP for
developing countries.109 High out-of-pocket expenses and low prepayment schemes reflect
unevenness, if not an inequity, in health care financing. The results of the BDR by the DOH and PHIC
highlighted the need for PHIC to increase its enrolment coverage, improve the availment of its
benefits and increase the support value for its claims, for the NHIP to provide Filipinos with financial
risk protection.110 Moreover, benefit delivery for the sponsored program is lowest among member
groups. As of 2011, the BDR is only 8 percent (see Annex 8.6 of PDP 2011-2016). BDR refers to the
cumulative likelihood that any Filipino is (a) eligible to claim; (b) aware of entitlements and is able to
access and avail of health services from accredited providers; and (c) is fully reimbursed by PHIC as
far as total health care expenditures are concerned.
The PDP 2011-2016 states that the current social protection system is characterized by a series of
fragmented and uncoordinated programs and observes that multiplicity of programs and
involvement of many government agencies often result in poor coordination, redundancy in
providing services and overlapping of program beneficiaries.111 The PDP 2011-2016 cites as an
example, that there are 21 agencies involved in the implementation of 65 social protection
programs and projects.112 Social protection programs were found to be inadequately funded, and
108
Social Protection was a major theme in the 2008 JCGA
109
Philippine Development Plan 2011-2016. Page 245.
Ibid.
111
Ibid.
112
Development Academy of the Philippines 2009. Cited in the Philippine Development Plan 2011-2016. Page 245.
110
53 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
most are short-lived.113 The country’s national government spending on social protection was much
lower (0.8% of GDP in 2007) than the mean spending of 87 developing and transition countries on
safety nets (1.9% of their GDP from 1996-2006).114
113
114
Manasan, 2009. Cited in the Philippine Development Plan 2011-2016. Page 245.
Weigand & Grosh Survey, 2008. Cited in the Philippine Development Plan 2011-2016. Page 245.
54 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
CHAPTER 2
Economic Empowerment: Promoting Equal Opportunities
The discussion on economic opportunity will focus on the ability of women to fully and freely participate
in and receive returns from their work in the economy. This chapter will highlight a range of economic
indicators, including labor force participation, earnings, and employment segmentation, whether in the
labor market or in own-run enterprises.
39. Labor force participation rate or women and men. Based on the new data series, the LFPR has
shown little change between 2005 (64.7%) and 2010 (64.1%) (Table 42-A). The LFPR of men also
marginally dipped during this time, from 79.6 percent to 78.5 percent, while that of women
fluctuated between 48 and 50 percent. With hardly any change, the labour force participation gap
during the six-year period remained the same. ILO observes that the downward trend in the LFPR
can be attributed largely to the declining trend in participation among the youth (48.0 percent to
45.4 percent). The LFPR of those in the prime age bracket varied within a narrow band of 76.4 to
79.9 percent.
The findings of the ADB assisted Philippines Gender Labour Market Study (GLMS) (Celis, Magsombol
and Sobritchea 2012) conducted in 2012 on the other hand concludes that the source of gender
employment across sectors has changed gradually, corresponding with the transformation of the
Philippine economy in the last 10 years from an agriculture and industry based one, towards
services. Basically fewer women are now employed in the declining manufacturing sector (women’s
employment fell from 13.3 to 9%) where they enjoyed better employment conditions – this is a
concern for women and gender equality. The same trend is happening in agriculture which remains
a more important source of employment for men (40.5% of employment) than women (21.8%).
Nevertheless, more women - mostly tertiary educated young women are getting employed in the
growing BPO industry, which requires a different set of skills but has demanding and stressful work
conditions such as night shifts that impact negatively on women’s health and home and social life.
There is also an interesting trend in LFPR by age with the LFPR being higher in the middle age groups
and lower in the younger age groups (15-19 years and 20-24 years). This trend is likely to reflect the
increased enrollment of women in education compared to men, and the difficulties young women
face raising children and working in the paid labour market. High fertility rates and child care and
domestic responsibilities dampen women’s participation in the labor force (Celis, Magsombol and
Sobritchea 2012).
Table 39 – A and 39 - B shows the trends in sectoral employment for women and men and show
which sectors are strongly contributing to the LFPR of women and men in the Philippines and how
they are leaning. Substantial employment growth for women in 2006-2010 is seen in sectors that
have been perceived as male dominated such as fishing, electricity, gas and water supply,
construction, transport storage and communications, public administration and defense. However,
employment share of women is still low compared to men in these male-dominated sectors. The
trend in employment growth for men for the same period also show substantial growth in sectors
that have been perceived as traditionally female such as in manufacturing, hotels and restaurants,
education, health and social work and in private households. However the share of employment of
men compared to women remains low.
55 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
The economic shift towards the services sector could be favoring male workers with little education.
On the other hand, high percentage employment growth for females in also apparent in traditionally
male oriented sectors specially in fishing, construction, and in public administration and defense.
This can be attributed to higher tertiary education and licensure outcomes of women.
The employment sectors with high concentrations of informality/informal economy and are
traditional dominated by women show minimal growth such as agriculture, wholesale and retail,
community/social and personal work and negative growth as in the case of manufacturing. The
difference in terms of employment share of women and men in these sectors is minimal. This will
also show that women with less education will most likely be employed in traditionally female
ascribed sectors or in traditionally male sectors where little education is required (such as fishing)
albeit with high concentrations of informality/informal economy. Women tend not to be choosy
with jobs, while educated men or even those with little education would opt for formal employment
and a certain degree of job security and regular pay (such as being employed in private households),
as regular earning is traditionally expected among men/husbands.
Table 39 - A. Employment by Major Industrial Sector, Women and Men, Philippines, 2006 and 2010
Women
Employment Employment Employment Employment Employment
(In ‘000s)
(In ‘000s)
Growth (%)
Share (%)
Share (%)
2006
2010
2006-2010
2006
2010
Agriculture, Hunting and
2872
2943
2.47
22.75
20.85
Forestry
Fishing
101
127
25.74
0.8
0.9
Mining and Quarrying
14
17
21.43
0.11
0.12
Manufacturing
1400
1313
-6.21
11.09
9.3
Electricity, Gas and Water
21
25
19.05
0.17
0.18
Supply
Construction
29
45
55.17
0.23
0.32
Wholesale and Retail Trade
3738
4233
13.24
29.61
29.99
Hotels and Restaurants
484
574
18.6
3.83
4.07
Transport Storage and
154
182
18.18
1.22
1.29
Communications
Financial Intermediation
196
226
15.31
1.55
1.6
Real Estate, Renting and
275
413
50.18
2.18
2.93
Business Activities
Public Administration and
558
737
32.08
4.42
6.21
Defense
Education
750
877
16.93
5.94
6.21
Health and Social Work
260
323
24.23
2.06
2.29
Other Community, Social and
397
451
13.6
3.15
3.2
Personal
Private Households with
1374
1627
18.41
10.89
11.53
Employed Persons
Total
12622
14114
11.82
100.01
100.98
Employment Concentration
62.37
Ratio-top 3 (%)
Source: Promoting Gender Equality in the Labor Market for More Inclusive Growth Philippine
Report. ADB. Compiled from Philippines. BLES. DOLE. Gender Statistics on Labor and Employment,
56 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
Table 3.8. http://www.bles.dole.gov.ph
Table 39 - B. Employment by Major Industrial Sector, Women and Men, Philippines, 2006 and 2010
Men
Employment Employment Employment Employment Employment
(In ‘000s)
(In ‘000s)
Growth (%)
Share (%)
Share (%)
2006
2010
2006-2010
2006
2010
Agriculture, Hunting and
2872
2943
2.21
22.75
20.85
Forestry
Fishing
1327
1342
1.13
Mining and Quarrying
14
17
45.6
0.11
0.12
Manufacturing
1400
1313
4.05
8.26
7.85
Electricity, Gas and Water
108
125
15.74
0.54
0.57
Supply
Construction
1648
1971
19.6
8.23
8.99
Wholesale and Retail Trade
2465
2801
13.63
1232
12.78
Hotels and Restaurants
402
488
21.39
2.01
2.23
Transport Storage and
2329
2541
9.1
11.64
11.59
Communications
Financial Intermediation
148
174
17.57
0.74
0.79
Real Estate, Renting and
508
733
44.29
2.54
3.34
Business Activities
Public Administration and
927
1110
19.74
4.63
5.06
Defense
Education
249
299
20.08
1.24
1.36
Health and Social Work
99
128
29.29
0.49
0.58
Other Community, Social and
406
462
13.79
2.03
2.11
Personal
Private Households with
239
299
25.1
1.19
1.36
Employed Persons
Total
20013
21921
9.53
100.01
100
Employment Concentration
58.79
Ratio-top 3 (%)
Source: Promoting Gender Equality in the Labor Market for More Inclusive Growth Philippine
Report. ADB. Compiled from Philippines. BLES. DOLE. Gender Statistics on Labor and Employment,
Table 3.8. http://www.bles.dole.gov.ph
40. Share of women and men in wage employment. As stated in the PLEP 2011-2016, the share of
women in wage employment hardly changed. During the years 2008-2010, employment rates for
men and women have remained more or less the same. The share of women in wage employment
in 2009 was placed at 41.9% which is of little change from the rate in 2001 at 41.2 percent115 .
For young people, their employability correlates with their educational attainment. Peculiarly,
employment rates decrease with educational level, a pattern that is reversed only at the completion
of a college degree (and then mainly for women). Employment for women who have not finished
high school decreases steadily over multi-year period (2006-2010); for college graduates
employment rates increased gradually over the same period from (20.2 in 2006 to 21.4 in 2010).
The explanation for this phenomenon may be found in the types of available jobs. Many jobs do not
115
DOLE. 2011. Philippines Labor and Employment Plan 2011-2016. Page 11.
57 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
require formal education such as in the agriculture and MSMEs, and jobs of these types are not
sustained, decreasing jobs for non high school graduates. On the other hand, as a result of the
growing number of college graduates, many business establishments now require a college degree
even for factory, sales, or clerical jobs. There are women college graduates who cannot afford to be
unemployed and as such are not too selective about jobs.
Women's consistent edge in literacy over men is subverted in the area of employment. Over time,
women tend to lag behind men in the work force. In addition to gender discrimination in many
institutions, particularly in higher paying jobs, there are often inadequate facilities that would
enable women to combine work and family responsibilities. Mismatches between education and the
job market; forms of work-place inequities that keep women in and from certain kinds of jobs; high
maternal and neonatal mortality rates; and cultural and economic pressures that compel educated
women to stay at home and care for the family are among some of the oft-cited reasons.116
41. Women and men unemployment. Notwithstanding 2005, when men’s and women’s rates were
close to one-another, women in the Philippines have since the mid-1990s seen higher rates of
unemployment than men. Beginning in 2006, however, female unemployment rates fell below those
of men. This decline came with a concomitant improvement in their EPR during the same period,
indicating and overall improvement in employment opportunities for women117.
Despite Philippines’ recent robust economic growth, unemployment rates for men and women
remain high with young women experiencing higher unemployment rates than younger men,
indicative of “jobless growth”. This trend indicates that the recent growth in the Philippines
economy was weak on job creation to compensate for the loss of jobs in agriculture and industry,
and meet new demands in the labour market. This means that the economy is unable to effectively
promote inclusive growth that will benefit women (Celis, Magsombol and Sobritchea 2012).
Table 41-A. Labor Force Participation Rate, Employment rate, and Underemployment Rate,
1998-2012
Labor Force Participation
Employment Rate
Unemployment Rate
Rate
Both
Men
Women Both
Men Women Both
Men
Women
Sexes
Sexes
Sexes
1998
64.6
81.2
48.1
89.7
90.2
89.0
10.3
9.8
11.0
1999
65.1
81.1
49.2
90.2
90.3
90.0
9.8
9.7
10.0
116
117
2000
63.6
79.6
47.7
88.8
89.1
88.4
11.2
10.9
11.6
2001
67.1
82.4
51.8
88.9
89.2
88.4
11.1
10.8
11.6
2002
67.4
82.0
52.8
88.6
88.9
88.2
11.4
11.1
11.8
2003
66.7
82.2
51.4
88.6
89.0
88.1
11.4
11.0
11.9
2004
67.5
83.8
51.2
88.2
88.5
87.6
11.8
11.5
12.4
2005
64.7 a/
79.6 a/
49.9 a/
b/
b/
b/
7.8 a/
7.8 a/
7.8 a/
2006
64.2
79.3
49.3
92.0
91.8
92.4
8.0
8.2
7.6
2007
64.0
78.8
49.3
92.7
92.5
93.0
7.3
7.5
7.0
2008
63.6
78.8
48.6
92.6
92.4
92.9
7.4
7.6
7.1
Ibid.
Decent work country profile: Philippines. International Labour Office. Geneva ILO. 2012. Page 11.
58 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
2009
64.0
78.6
49.4
92.5
92.4
92.8
7.5
7.6
7.2
2010
64.1
78.5
49.7
92.7
92.4
93.1
7.4
7.6
6.9
2011
78.5
49.7
92.4
93.1
7.6
6.9
2012
78.5
50.1
92.8
93.9
7.2
6.7
a/ The NSO adopted the new (ILO) definition of unemployment in the LFS questionnaire starting with the
April 2005 survey round. As the data for January 2005 were based on the old definition of unemployment,
averages for 2005 were computed using the data from April, July and October survey rounds. Due to the
change in methodology, labor force data series for 2005 and onwards are not comparable with the old.
b/ 2005 average cannot be computed due to the adoption of the new unemployment definition starting
April 2005 of the LFS, per NSCB Resolution No. 15 dated October 20, 2004. The revision affects the
composition of the labor force which is the base for the computation of the employment rate. Hence,
data for employment rate starting April 2005 onwards are not comparable with prior survey
rounds/averages.
Source: DOLE BLES
Source of basic data: National Statistics Office, Labor Force Survey, Public Use Files.
Unemployment is a particular problem for young people in the Philippines. Young women, in
particular, are disproportionately affected by unemployment: in 1995, unemployment among young
women stood at 24 percent – some 6.4 percentage points higher than men. By 2010, however, this
gap had declined to 3 percentage points (19.5% against 16.5%). In 2010, youth (aged 15-24 years
old) comprised only one-fifth (21.3%) of the labour force but more than half (51.1%) of the total
unemployed. Youth jobless rates were more than twice the national rates and more than three
times the adult (ages 25 and over) unemployment rates (in both the old and new data series).
Unemployment rates of the prime and elderly age groups averaged at 5 percent and 2 percent,
respectively, as against that of the youth which stood at 17 percent, based on new data series.118
TABLE 41-B. Employed Persons by Highest Grade Completed and Sex, Philippines: 2006 – 2012
(In Thousands)
Highest Grade Completed and Sex
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
2.0
2.0
1.9
1.8
1.8
?
?
Elementary
33.4
32.8
32.4
31.6
30.5
?
?

Undergraduate
16.7
16.5
15.8
15.6
15.3
?
?

Graduate
16.7
16.4
16.6
15.9
15.2
?
?
38.1
38.4
38.8
38.9
39.4
?
?
Both Sexes
No Grade Completed
High School

Undergraduate
13.9
13.8
13.5
13.5
13.3
?
?

Graduate
24.2
24.6
25.3
25.3
26.0
?
?
26.5
26.8
26.9
27.7
28.4
?
?
12.6
12.8
12.6
13.2
13.5
?
?
13.9
14.0
14.3
14.6
14.9
?
?
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
College


Male
118
Undergraduate
Graduate and
Higher
Ibid. Page 13.
59 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
No Grade Completed
2.0
2.0
2.0
1.9
1.8
?
?
Elem Undergraduate
18.8
18.6
18.0
17.8
17.4
?
?
Elem Graduate
17.2
16.9
17.1
16.5
15.8
?
?
HS Undergraduate
14.9
14.8
14.5
14.5
14.4
?
?
HS Graduate
24.6
24.9
25.8
25.9
26.6
?
?
Coll. Undergraduate
12.6
12.8
12.6
13.0
13.3
?
?
9.9
10.0
10.2
10.4
10.7
?
?
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Coll. Graduate and Higher
Female
No Grade Completed
1.9
1.9
1.8
1.8
1.6
?
?
Elem Undergraduate
13.4
13.1
12.5
12.2
11.9
?
?
Elem Graduate
15.9
15.5
15.7
15.1
14.3
?
?
HS Undergraduate
12.4
12.3
11.8
12.0
11.7
?
?
HS Graduate
23.6
24.0
24.6
24.5
25.2
?
?
Coll. Undergraduate
12.6
12.8
12.7
13.4
13.8
?
?
Coll. Graduate and Higher
20.2
20.4
20.9
21.0
21.4
?
?
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Notes: 1. Details may not add up to totals due to rounding.
2. Data were averages of four survey rounds (January, April, July and October).
?
?
Figure 6.
60 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
Table 41-C. MDG Indicators on Employment119
Indicator
Ave.
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
Growth Rate
of Labor
Productivity
1.6
(4.2)
1.3
3.0
3.1
2.7
3.3
4.1
2.1
(1.7)
4.4
Employmentto-Population
Ratio
59.3
59.6
59.7
59.1
59.5
59.4
59.1
59.3
58.9
59.2
59.3
Working
Poverty Rate1
26.7
NA
NA
25.1
NA
NA
28.2
NA
NA
NA
NA
Vulnerable
Employment
Rate
43.9
45.2
45.7
44.6
42.8
44.8
44.5
43.6
43.5
42.6
41.7
Share of
Women in
Wage
Employment
in the Nonagricultural
Sector
41.6
41.2
41.9
41.3
40.7
41.4
42.0
41.9
41.7
41.9
NA
NA = Not available.
1
Based on old methodology of estimating poverty.
Sources: National Statistical Coordination Board, National Accounts of the Philippines
National Statistics Office, Labor Force Survey
National Statistics Office, Merged Files of the Family Income and Expenditures Survey and Labor Force Survey.
TABLE 41-D. Employed Persons by Class of Worker and Sex, Philippines: 2006 – 2010 (In Thousands)
Wage and salary workers
Own account workers
Unpaid family workers
Both Sexes
119
Men
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
10,316
10,827
11,093
11,581
12,137
Women
6,357
6,682
6,754
7,099
7,489
Men
7,880
7,884
7,984
7,949
7,946
Women
4,070
4,117
4,097
4,213
4,305
Men
1,818
1,832
1,882
1,873
1,838
Women
2,195
2,219
2,279
2,345
2,319
32,636
33,560
34,089
35,061
36,035
Ibid. Page
61 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
Figure 7
42. Employment opportunities for women and men. The agriculture sector, which includes forestry and
fishing, continues to employ large numbers of workers in the Philippines, although it does so at a
declining rate (Table 42-A and 42-B). New jobs are instead found in other workplaces, mainly in
export-oriented economic zones and BPOs. The fastest-growing employment sectors are the
services industries. The global trend of increased trade in services, especially in business processing
outsourcing—sometimes also called the call or contact center industry—has benefited the
Philippines. Service firms in information and communication technology have absorbed an
increasing number of workers over the past decade. The domestic tourism industry has also
experienced a strong expansion. More men than women work in the agriculture sector, though
there is an increase in women’s unpaid family work in agriculture (Table 45-A). However, in many of
the new workplaces, more women than men are employed. But the number of “new jobs” is not
substantial to narrow the gap between male and female unemployment rates.
Interestingly, the Decent Work Country Profile 2012 assessment on work, family and personal life
states that a rising trend in the proportion of men becoming economically inactive due to
household/family duties contrast the declining trend in women in similar situations which may
suggest that men are now sharing in these duties and represents a break from tradition and a
possible advancement in terms of gender equality in the labour market. The country profile also
shows that while the proportion of married men who are employed remained unchanged, a growing
proportion of married women are now in employment. On the downside, an increasing trend of
economic inactivity is observed among the youth (15 to 24 years) and this was accompanied by a
high proportion of youth who are neither in school nor in employment, particularly among
women.120
120
Decent work country profile: Philippines. International Labour Office. Geneva ILO. 2012. Page 39.
62 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
The Decent Work Country Profile 2012 notes family structures are also changing, with a decline of
employed men who are household heads, and an increase in the proportion of women who take on
this role.121
A disturbing trend worth mentioning is the increasing use of casual laborers by certain sectors such
as wholesale and retail and restaurants which is seriously disadvantaging women in terms of low pay
and lack of job security and continuity. Data has showed an increase in the share of casual workers,
and a decline in the share of permanent workers, indicating a decline in work security and a
reduction in wages. This aspect, which is a growing trend in the Philippines, seriously exploits
women’s labour, especially young women (Celis, Magsombol and Sobritchea 2012; GLMS, sub
section iii, page 24).
The proportion of the employed that are household heads is in decline in the Philippines, which may
suggest that non-working family members are increasingly taking on family responsibilities to relieve
the burden placed on employed relatives. The decline is attributable to the declining proportions of
employed male household heads rather than women (whose shares are actually on the rise).122
Table 42 – A. Percentage of Women in the Unpaid Family Workers in Agriculture
2002
Share of women (%)
49.95
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
50.39
51.30
52.00
50.67
50.85
51.31
52.13
52.22
Source: BLES, Gender Statistics on Labor and Employment (2008 and 2011)
Figure 8.
43. Women’s and men’s wages. Based on the 2008 NDHS, of total respondents, 60% of married women
age 15–49 are employed. Eighty-five percent of employed women receive cash only, while 6% are
not paid at all.
Over the period 2001–2005, both men and women experienced an increase in average nominal daily
basic pay but the increase for females was lower by 1%. The JCGA 2008 also states that in
121
122
Ibid.
Ibid.
63 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
agriculture and non-agriculture industries, men are paid considerably more on a daily basis than
women.
Private households has a very high proportion of low-paid employees at 63.7 percent in 2001, rising
to 75.5 percent in 2009 then decreasing to 73.8 percent in 2010.123 Standard gender analysis would
often point that most of those who are employed in private households are women.
The Decent Work Country Profile (2012) Philippines noted that for four years (2001-2004), women
reported a higher average than men as regards real daily basic pay. However, from 2005 to 2008,
men’s pay surpassed women, and in 2009, women’s pay was marginally higher and continued to
slightly increase in 2010.124
Overall, as the Decent Work Country Profile (2012) of the Philippines would show- the average daily
basic pay of women in real terms was generally lower than that of their male counterparts, except in
occupation group that includes plant, machine operators and assemblers. Women in this group
demonstrated the lowest employment share (less than 10%) and the narrowest gender wage gap
compared to other occupational groups (Table 46-A). This means that although women account for
only a small proportion of workers in this occupational group, their basic pay was relatively higher
than that of their male counterparts.125 This trend is reinforced by social and cultural norms to a
large degree and the lack of legislation or enforcement supporting equality of pay for women. The
2012 GLMS cites the CEACR finding that there is a disconnect between the national law (in relation
to the combination of Article 135(a) of the Labor Code and the 1990 Implementing Rules of RA No.
6725) and the international standards set and principle of “equal pay for work of equal value”
(Celis, Magsombol and Sobritchea 2012).
Table 43-A. Gender Wage Gap, in %
2001
Officials of government,
corporate
executives,
managers,
managing
proprietors
and
supervisors
-2.3
Professionals
10.8
Technicians
and
associate professionals
5.9
Clerk
5.0
Service workers and
shop and market sales
workers
33.0
Farmers,
forestry
workers and fisherfolks
20.5
Trades
and
related
workers
19.4
Plant
and
machine
operators
and 0.6
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
-2.7
10.9
3.9
12.9
1.1
11.2
0.5
13.2
3.9
12.3
1.9
16.7
-2.9
15.5
-5.1
13.3
1.6
12.2
7.7
2.1
7.7
3.9
9.9
2.0
11.6
1.1
13.6
-3.2
12.7
2.4
11.3
3.8
16.3
5.0
14.7
3.7
35.7
35.8
34.9
35.4
37.2
35.2
35.0
33.9
35.7
12.5
16.1
16.0
30.2
25.1
37.0
33.8
28.2
24.4
19.3
18.0
19.9
18.3
24.8
21.5
22.5
22.6
23.5
-3.4
-4.7
-4.9
-2.6
0.3
0.1
-3.0
-6.0
-3.1
123
Decent work country profile: Philippines. International Labour Office. Geneva ILO. 2012. Page 23.
Ibid.
125
Ibid.
124
64 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
assemblers
Laborers
unskilled
workers
20.4
19.5
21.6
22.5
26.9
30.9
25.9
27.5
27.8
26.6
Special occupations
39.0
37.9
42.5
46.3
46.1
37.3
44.0
32.6
44.9
35.1
Gender Wage Gap – defined as average daily basic pay of men and women as a percentage of average daily basic
pay of men.
Source: NSO, LFS – From Table 8. Equal opportunity and treatment in employment, Decent work country profile:
Philippines. International Labour Office. Geneva ILO. 2012. Page 59.
44. Women Migrant Workers. Overseas labour migration has continued to offset some of the effects of
weak domestic job growth. The large number of OFWs is a key feature of the Philippine labour
market. The annual flow of OFWs reached the one million mark in 2006 (1.063 million), followed by
robust growth rates in 2008 (14.7% or 1.236 million) and 2009 (15.1% or 1.423 million). About threefourths of OFWs are land based workers.126
Over the 9 year period (2001-2009) women were dominant in three (3) major occupation groups:
services e.g. domestic workers and caregivers (55.7%); professional and technical workers e.g.
nurses and teachers (27.7%); and production e.g. factory workers (11.2%).127The 2011 survey on
OFWs conducted by NSO on the other hand, will show not much difference in terms of the number
of women and men OFWs. During the survey period, NSO states that there were more male OFWs
(1.1 million or 52.2% of the total OFWs) than female OFWs (47.8%). However data would show that
there are more women for the largest proportion of OFWs which is the age groups of 25 to 29 years
and the 30 – 34 age group.128
Female OFWs were younger compared to male OFWs. About three in ten (26.6%) female OFWs
were in age group 25 to 29 years, and one in every four (24.8%) in age group 30 to 34 years. Among
the male OFWs, the largest proportion was in age group 45 years and over (22.9%).129
Most of the male OFWs were employed either as plant and machine operator and assembler
(23.8%) or as trade and related worker (23.5%), while more than half (55.5%) of female OFWs were
laborers and unskilled workers.130
Apart from helping ease the pressure of unemployment, overseas employment generates foreign
exchange remittances. Data from BSP indicates that the share of remittances to the GNP over the
past ten years (up to 2011) ranges from 7.9 percent to 10 percent and has kept the Philippine afloat
in times of economic crises; the figures for 2009 shows the economy overcoming the Asian
recession as it grew by 1.1 percent.131
Migration for work, both international and local, has been recognized as a long-term structural
feature of the national economy with women making up 50 percent of overseas workforce.
According to the Philippine Development Plan 2011-2016 the economy has been healthier in
decades for various reasons: Thanks to overseas remittances, surpluses on current account have
126
The Philippine Labor and Employment Plan 2011-2016. DOLE. 2011. Page 12.
Ibid.
128
NSO. 2011. Survey of OFWs 2011.
129
Ibid.
130
Ibid.
131
Ibid. Page 13.
127
65 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
been run consistently since 2003. The country is emerging relatively unscathed from the worst global
economic downturn since the 1930s132.
Another emerging concern is the return and reintegration of women migrant workers. This aspect of
migration carries with it enormous potentials to empower women economically considering the
skills and knowledge that have been acquired during years of work abroad. Another aspect of labour
migration deals with the issue of de-skilled professionals and their concomitant reintegration into
the formal economy. At the moment, the National Reintegration Center for OFWs (NRCO) is the
office mandated to look into reintegration of migrant workers.
45. Women in the private sector. The private sector in the Philippines represents 95% of the economy
and accounts for 85% of total expenditure from 1991–2002. It employs more than 90% of the
country’s total workforce. Of the 825,000 registered private companies, 91% are microenterprises
and 8.5% are small and medium-sized enterprises, while only 0.5% are large enterprises. A study by
the Women’s Business Council showed that women owners of micro, small, and medium sized
enterprises can be found in manufacturing (41%); jewelry, garments, and furniture (37%); marketing
(9%); and real estate (7%).17 However, a lack of training and access to credit are perennial issues.
Women owners are also pressured to balance managing their business and family life.
46. New Work Places for Women. The JCGA 2008 provided a substantial analysis on new work places
for women and information technology (IT) intensive business processes is one of them. The call
center industry employed almost 50,000 of the 82,000 workers in the BPO industry. For instance, in
2005 the 75 call centers had almost 50,000 employees and 58.8 percent of them are women. Other
important BPO industries for women were data processing with a share of 65.2 percent of women
and the medical transcription industry with a share of 74.5 percent. These new types of industries
show a clear preference for employing women (ADB 2008b: 28f; NSO 2009c). In 2005, more than
half of the employees in the BPO industry were women. At the same time these workplaces are
linked to new occupational health hazards such as long working hours and sleep deprivation and
caffeine dependence, stress and exposure to different types of chemicals.133
The case study on BPOs in the GLMS (Section IV, page 60) will show that despite being a new
industry, the existing social and cultural biases is prevalent where women, while predominant, are
employed in the low skilled and low paying jobs such as voice services, data entry, technical support,
business analysts, accounting, clerical, etc., while men are employed in the high skilled and higher
paying jobs such as IT engineers, hardware trade, quality officers and supervisory/management.
The BPO industry is also characterized by high attrition rate because workers are young,
overqualified, they regard the employment as being temporary, and the nature of the work with
night shifts, as being stressful and demanding. Nevertheless, a recent report by IBM Global
Locations Trend stated that the Philippines has surpassed India as the leading country in the world in
the BPO industry with employment growth predicted to increase by 25% by 2016. The BPO industry
offers strong employment prospects for women in future (although not in massive numbers) but
special interventions are needed to make it more inclusive for women where they are able to also
freely compete in jobs in men’s traditional domain in the BPO sector. A useful intervention would be
to promote programs on educating women on labour market trends, HR demand and supply and job
132
Philippine Development Plan 2011-2016. Pages 32-33.
GTZ and DTI. Enhancing Competitiveness through Gender Mainstreaming: The role and status of women and
men in MSME development in the Philippines. 2010. Page 34.
133
66 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
prospects and remuneration. This will enable women to make informed choices about their
education and career paths. Sex-disaggregated data should be collected and disseminated through
effective channels for this purpose (Celis, Magsombol and Sobritchea 2012).
47. Women in the Informal Economy. The World Bank estimates that up to 80 percent of economic
activity (globally) takes place in the informal economies. Excessive bureaucracy and regulation may
prevent firms from entering the formal sector.134
The Philippine informal sector was officially defined in the Social Reform and Poverty Alleviation Act
of 1988 (RA 9485) as: “poor individuals who operate businesses that are very small in scale and not
registered with any national government agency, and to workers in such enterprises who sell their
services in exchange for subsistence wages or other forms of compensation…”135
There were about 10.5 million informal economies operators in the Philippines as identified in the
2008 Informal Sector Survey, a nationwide survey conducted by the NSO. Of the total number, 6.8
million (66%) are males and 3.5 million (34%) are women (Table 47 – A). Self employed numbered
to about 9.1 million while employers at 1.3 million.
Many women, especially in lower income economies, work in the informal economy or in vulnerable
employment, where activity is often untaxed and usually not counted by the authorities. It is where
labor rights and contracts cannot be enforced. While informal employment can lead to short term
gains, these may be outweighed by informality’s long term negative impact on economic growth and
job creation.136
Economic participation of women in the informal economy is lowest in the ARMM, low participation
is also observed in Cagayan Valley, Ilocos Region and the Cordillera Administrative Region. In the
NCR estimates of women in the informal economy is almost equal with that of men (49%) and
substantial estimates (above 35%) in Central Luzon, CALABARZON, Central Visayas, and Northern
Mindanao, these are regions with high agricultural activities and with highly urbanized cities
(Table 48 – A). Majority of men and women in the informal economy belong to the 25 – 54 age
group (Table 47 – B).
NSO 2008 ISS data on informal economy employees will show that among the various group
occupations, 47.4 percent of informal workers are farmers, forest workers and fisher folks; 31.2
percent are managing proprietors (wholesalers and retail traders). Similarly, data on informal
economy operators will show that 41.3 percent operate in agriculture and forestry while 29.6 are in
retail trade and about 10 percent in transport.
It should be noted that women workers in both formal and informal economies can be found in
large numbers in agriculture, forestry and trading (wholesale and retail). Given the distribution of
134
World Bank 2010: Women, Business and Law. Measuring Legal Gender Parity for Entrepreneurs and Workers in
128 Economies, Washington DC. 178p.
135
Sibal, Jorge V. Measuring the Informal Sector in the Philippines and the Trends in Asia. 2007. Presented in the
10th National Convention on Statistics (NCS). Manila, Philippines, 1-2 October 2007.
136
Spaeth, Brigitte; Franco, Jean; Raras, Sam. 2010. Enhancing Competitiveness through Gender Mainstreaming:
The role and status of women and men in MSME development in the Philippines. 2010. PSP SMEDSEP, GTZ,
German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development. Page 23.
67 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
male and female in the informal economies as shown by the 2008 ISS, it can be estimated that 50
percent of women in the informal economy are in agriculture and around 30 percent are in
wholesale and retail trade. The remaining 20 percent are distributed in other informal economic
activities such as manufacturing, hotel and restaurants and household/domestic work.
Based on the NSO 2008 ISS, the nature of employment for women in the informal economy can be
characterized by the following:137
 72 percent do not have formal written contract of employment, most of the women are
employed through verbal agreements only.
 54 percent receive salaries without the standard payslip.
 70 percent are not covered by social insurance (SSS/GSIS).
 83 to 85 percent are not provided with paid leave, no paid sick leave, no paid maternity and
paternity leave.
 50 percent are not covered by any form of protection from dismissal.
 80 percent of the women will not be compensated upon their dismissal.
Most of the women in the informal economy are high school graduates (39%), followed by
elementary graduates (17%) and college graduates (14%). Elementary, highschool and college
undergraduates account for the rest 39 percent.138
Table 47 - A. Number of operators of informal economies based on the first job by sex and region (estimates in
thousands) 2008 Informal Sector Survey Phase 1
Total
Male
Female
Philippines
10, 454
6,895 (66%)
3,559 (34%)
National Capital Region
Cordillera Administrative
Region
I – Ilocos Region
II – Cagayan Valley
III – Central Luzon
IVA – CALABARZON
IVB – MIMAROPA
V – Bicol
VI – Western Visayas
VII – Central Visayas
VIII – Eastern Visayas
IX – Zamboanga Peninsula
X – Northern Mindanao
XI – Davao
XII – SOCCSKSARGEN
XIII – Caraga
ARMM
785
161
398
115
387 (49%)
46 (28%)
630
437
867
1,161
418
747
842
781
571
412
568
540
585
336
612
458
339
553
701
275
498
553
482
372
291
360
364
405
228
504
172 (27%)
98 (22%)
315 (36%)
460 (39%)
143 (34%)
249 (33%)
290 (34%)
299 (38%)
200 (35%)
121 (29%)
208 (36%)
176 (32%)
180 (30%)
108 (32%)
108 (17%)
137
These observations/computations are based on the NSO 2008 ISS Table 11. Employees: (Type of production
unit, Informality) By Conditions of Employment of Primary job by Sex, Philippines: April 2008 (Estimates in
thousands)
138
These observations/computations are based on the NSO 2008 ISS Table 3. Employed Persons: Type of
Production Unit by Highest Grade Completed, by Primary Job by Sex: April 2008
68 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
Source: NSO, 2008 Informal Sector Survey
Table 47-B. Number of informal economies based on the first job by age group and region (estimates in
thousands) 2008 Informal Sector Survey Phase 1
Age Group
Total
15-24
25-34
35-44
45-54
55-64
65 & Over
Philippines
10, 454
544
2,103
2,878
2,462
1,571
895
National Capital Region
785
Cordillera Administrative
161
Region
I – Ilocos Region
630
II – Cagayan Valley
437
III – Central Luzon
867
IVA – CALABARZON
1,161
IVB – MIMAROPA
418
V – Bicol
747
VI – Western Visayas
842
VII – Central Visayas
781
VIII – Eastern Visayas
571
IX – Zamboanga Peninsula
412
X – Northern Mindanao
568
XI – Davao
540
XII – SOCCSKSARGEN
585
XIII – Caraga
336
ARMM
612
Source: NSO, 2008 Informal Sector Survey
41
7
161
34
232
47
200
37
108
23
43
13
35
16
36
44
20
36
43
43
24
26
28
32
40
21
51
128
92
160
225
95
139
125
135
114
77
114
133
138
63
169
179
122
263
331
103
198
234
214
140
117
141
127
161
83
184
140
102
200
295
86
169
219
194
129
93
143
115
125
81
133
100
71
141
178
68
127
129
123
87
63
86
83
74
55
57
48
33
67
89
46
79
91
71
77
37
55
49
46
33
18
48. MSMEs. Expectations have been raised that MSMEs particularly in manufacturing and services could
become the key to new dynamism in economic development139.
The assessment conducted by GIZ and DTI in 2010 on the role and status of women and men in
MSME development in the Philippines, notes that about one half of the enterprises are owned and
managed by women. Most of these enterprises are small consisting of only the owner/manager
without any employees. Most of them are motivated out of necessity. They are founded with little
capital below PHP 10,000.00140 in activities with low entry barriers, such as retail trade, food stalls or
personal services, but also with low productivity.141
The MSME sector is extremely heterogeneous. The technologically backward sweatshop can be
found alongside highly flexible and innovative small enterprises142.
139
GTZ and DTI. Enhancing Competitiveness through Gender Mainstreaming. The role and status of women and
men in MSME development in the Philippines. 2010.
140
Equivalent to 167 EUR or 218 USD
141
GTZ and DTI. Enhancing Competitiveness through Gender Mainstreaming. The role and status of women and
men in MSME development in the Philippines. 2010. Page 9.
142
GTZ and DTI. Enhancing Competitiveness through Gender Mainstreaming. The role and status of women and
men in MSME development in the Philippines. 2010. Pages 44-45.
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Although, the statistics are not always up to date and reliable as desired143 the following tendencies
can be concluded for MSMEs in the Philippines:
 as in most countries MSMEs constitute the vast majority of enterprises in the Philippines;
 in 2006 the share of MSMEs of all enterprises was 99.7 percent and they provided almost 70
percent of the jobs generated by all enterprises144;
 micro and small enterprises constitute often the only source of new employment and serve
as a safety net not only for the urban poor;
 four out of ten Filipinos aged 18 to 64 are engaged in business which is half of the Philippine
labor force145.
Integral in the above mentioned tendencies is the fact that women play a significant role as
entrepreneurs and operators146 and as part of the labor force147 of MSMEs.
There is evidence that MSMEs of different sizes are interlinked as a result of tightened industrial
tissues through which various forms of business linkages (subcontracting, franchising, value chain
and cluster development, etc.) happen. This linkage would enable better use of the potential of the
different enterprises148 and the linkages that are in turn formed among women entrepreneurs can
be the key to furthering the issue of women’s economic rights and gender equality into the
forefront of MSME development.
49. Women’s access to land and property. Increasing women’s access to land and securing their
property rights provide improved economic security and welfare. In the Philippines, access to land is
still an elusive goal for women because of the cultural preference for men to be caretakers and
inheritors of land. In 2003, a mere quarter of all the emancipation patents distributed went to
women. Likewise, certificate of land ownership awards were granted to less than 16,000 women
compared to more than 33,000 grants to men (CGA 2008 Table 1.9). The legal framework does not
give women full rights to property. Article 96 of the Family Code of the Philippines (EO 209) provides
that the administration and enjoyment of the community property shall belong to both spouses
jointly. In case of disagreement, the husband’s decision shall prevail, subject to the wife having
recourse to the court for proper remedy, but she must bring her action within 5 years from the date
of the contract implementing such decision. This provision was actually culled from the Civil Code of
1949, which was drafted by an all-male Civil Code Commission. According to its proceedings, the
rationale for privileging the husband is that “tradition and experience show that, in very serious
matters concerning family, it is usually the husband who makes the ultimate choices.”
The on-going technical assistance by ADB Strengthening Capacities for Gender Responsive Land
Administration and Management, Land Tenure Improvement and Tax Administration Project,
explains some of the initial gender issues in land tenure:
143
Ibid. Page 44.
Ibid. Pages 29-30. http://www.dti.gov.ph/dti/index.php?p=321 accessed on 26 April 2010.
145
Ibid. Page 40. GEM Philippine Report 2006-2007.
146
Ibid. Pages 56-61.
147
Ibid. Page 26.
148
Ibid. Page 10.
144
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Despite the lack of an operational sex-disaggregated land information system, some land
administration agencies are able to provide data on the gender profile of their beneficiaries, albeit
intermittent and outdated. Available data indicate a gender gap in holders of land tenure
instruments, especially among married men and women according to data of LAMP2. Land tenure
accomplishment reports of the Department of Agrarian Reform for 2006 and Department of
Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) for 2003 to 2007 show a gender gap in the list of
beneficiaries of agrarian reform and land patent issuances, respectively. In 2006 women comprised
only 25% of the total number of recipients of Certificates of Land Ownership Awards and
Emancipation Patents in the whole country. In the same year, only 18% of leasehold contracts (for
land areas exempted from agrarian reform) included women as leaseholders. From 2003 to 2007,
only 39% of the recipients of public land patents issued by DENR were women.
A World Bank study examined literatures on women’s customary access to land in some provinces
of the Philippines (Judd & Julnuan, 2001). This literature survey found rural women in the studied
provinces and regions to be equal with men in rights to land ownership, although in many areas it is
the men who administer or manage the conjugal property. This situation is supported by sexdisaggregated data on holders of patents issued by the Provincial Environment and Natural
Resources Office (PENRO) in Leyte in 2010 under LAMP2.
A study commissioned under LAMP2 showed private organizations to have a stronger preference for
the hiring of men in land administration positions (SMART Research Services, Inc., 2007). More than
half of the study’s respondents from the private sector said that they preferred men for land use
planner, survey aide, engineering assistant, project engineer, geodetic engineer, civil engineer, and
drafters. The gender distribution of land administration personnel in the private sector is 81.9%
males and 18.1% females.
The situation is however different in the public sector. Only one-third or less of the respondents
from the public sector shared the same view although one-half of them preferred men for project
managers. The data on LAM personnel in the public sector show an almost gender balanced
distribution, with 54.2% males and 45.8% females. Records of the Bureau of Local Government
Finance on applications for certifications of training hours on real property appraisal/valuation for
LGU land assessors and appraisers as of July 2011 also reflect an almost gender balanced
distribution, with 52.94% females and 47.06% males.
50. Taxation. Government decisions and directions on taxation (fiscal policy) can either promote gender
equality or further inequalities. This is because taxation policies and taxes affect women and men
differently. However, constant is the appreciation that women can pay taxes if only employment
opportunities are predictably available and when taxation policies take into account existing gender
biases affecting women at home and in the world of work.
The PDP 2011-2016 states that generation of employment is a contribution expected from the
private business sector. Government’s responsibility however – through fiscal and monetary policies
– is to create an environment for vigorous economic activity, as well as to ensure that enough gains
from growth are set aside for larger social purposes or channeled into social investments that
facilitate future growth, including addressing gender biases in the world of work and taxation.
These social gains, will be dependent on government decisions regarding the size and direction of
public spending and taxation (fiscal policy) and by decisions regarding the control of the nation’s
money supply (monetary policy) (PDP 2011-2016, page 36).
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Ideally, factoring gender issues based on a gender analysis, which is being mandated by the gender
equality policies and laws in the country, can make decisions regarding the control of the nation’s
money supply more aware of the gender biases that exist in fiscal policy and monetary policy. Lack
of awareness and low gender competence, preclude the BIR from instituting gender responsive tax
reforms.
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CHAPTER 3
Agency: Increasing Women’s Voice and Participation in Development
The discussion on agency, defined as the ability of women and men to express themselves (exercise
voice) in accordance with their preferences and to take actions on their own behalf (to influence their
surroundings) focuses on multiple dimensions: agency within a household and in several aspects of the
public domain, including civil society, the private sector, and politics. The assessment also focuses on
safety and security as a dimension of agency, defining violence against women as the extreme
deprivation of agency.
51. Decisions on managing women’s earnings. The 2008 NDHS shows that more than half (54%) of
women report that they and their husband jointly make decisions about the wife’s earnings, while
42% say that they make decisions about those earnings themselves.
Table 51-A on the other hand shows a picture in terms of management of transfers based on
earnings and shows slightly higher percentage of females aged 15 and above with accounts at a
formal financial institution compared to men. This higher percentage may also be attributable to the
government’s conditional cash transfer programme since majority of accounts are registered under
the name of the mother.
Table 51-A. Account at a formal financial institution by sex (% age 15+) 2011
Female
Account at a formal financial institution
34
Account used for business purposes
7
Account used to receive government payments
7
Account used to receive remittances
15
Account used to receive wages
9
Account used to send remittances
6
Source: The World Bank Group
Male
19
4
4
10
8
5
52. Violence against women and children (VAWC). Gender-based violence poses physical and mental
health risks to women and children. The observation made in the JCGA 2008 was that the number of
reported cases remains dismally low (see JCGA 2008 Figure 1.13). However, the figures for 2009 –
2011 would show substantial increases in the reporting of cases (Table 52-A). The passage of the
Anti-Violence Against Women and their Children Act of 2004 (RA 9262) and the sustained advocacy
and information campaign involving both men and women could have improved public
understanding of VAWC. Structures for reporting that are in place, such as the Women’s and
Children’s Desk in PNP precincts could have also influenced the good turnout in reporting. Rape and
beating (physical injuries) consistently constitutes the highest number of reported cases. The stigma
attached to violence, along with the notion that it is a private issue between couples, has prevented
the Government from verifying the real extent and magnitude.
In order to know the extent of the problem, the National Statistics Office, conducted the 2008 NDHS
which included the module on violence against women entitled "Women's Safety Module". The
module aims to generate statistics and information on women's experiences of violence from their
spouses/boyfriend or dating partner, incidence of violence against women by geographical area,
73 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
demographics of the victims and perpetrators, including services availed149. Based on the number of
women interviewed:
 20% of women age 15–49 have experienced physical violence since age 15150.
 7% experienced violence in the past 12 months151.
 4% of women who have ever been pregnant report having experienced physical violence during
pregnancy152.
 4% of women who have ever had sex had their first experience of sexual intercourse forced
against their will.
 9% of women have ever experienced sexual violence.
The 2008 NDHS also cite that women with higher levels of education and those from wealthier
households are less likely to report having experienced physical violence. Spousal violence was also
included as a sub module in 2008 NDHS and would show that:
 18%153 of women who have ever been married have experienced physical or sexual violence by a
husband154.
 10% of women experienced spousal physical or sexual violence in the past 12 months.
 49%155 of women whose husbands get drunk very often report that they are victims of physical
or sexual violence.
 About one-fifth of women report that they have fought back physically, while 27% have fought
back verbally.
 18% have sought help from an outside source such as their own family or a friend/neighbor.
 16% of women report that they have ever committed physical violence against their husbands
when he was not already physically hurting her.
 One in seven women agree that a husband is justified in beating his wife for certain reasons.
 The most common reason for justifying wife beating is neglecting the children (12%).
The women interviewed in the survey who experienced violence report that their current or former
husband/partner is the person most often committing the violence. Fathers, mothers, and other
relatives are also commonly cited as perpetrators of violence.
Pushing, shaking, and slapping are the most commonly reported forms of physical violence. Women
from the poorest households are most likely to experience physical or sexual violence by their
spouse. College-educated women are least likely to experience spousal violence.
Another area of concern is violence against young girls in the school. The 2009 State of the Filipino
Children Report by the Council on the Welfare of Children states that out of 10,000 child abuse
cases reported by the Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) in the years between
1998 and 2004, 500-800 cases are committed by teachers. Aside from teachers, children suffer in
the hands of janitors, bus drivers, and school personnel. Children also experience violence
149
Source:http://sgdatabase.unwomen.org/searchDetail.action?measureId=15529&baseHREF=country&baseHREFI
d=1039 accessed on July 2012.
150
NDHS, NSO. 2008. Page 13.
151
Ibid.
152
Ibid.
153
Almost one fifth of the women survey.
154
NDHS, NSO. 2008. Page 13.
155
Almost half of those interviewed.
74 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
committed by their fellow students, such as bullying, or as participants of gang-related fighting.
Types of violence experienced by children include verbal, physical, and sexual abuse.156
Table 52-A. Annual Reported Cases of Violence Against Women
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
6,271
5,374
4,882
5,729
6,905
9,485
15,104
12,948
Rape
997
927
659
837
811
770
1,042
832
Incestuous Rape
38
46
26
22
28
27
19
23
Attempted Rape
Acts of
Lasciviousness
194
148
185
147
204
167
268
201
580
536
382
358
445
485
745
625
Physical Injuries
Sexual
Harassment
3,553
2,335
1,892
1,505
1,307
1,498
2,018
1,588
53
37
38
46
18
54
83
63
RA 9262
218
924
1,269
2,387
3,599
5,285
9,974
9,021
Threats
319
223
199
182
220
208
374
213
Seduction
62
19
29
30
19
19
25
15
Concubinage
121
102
93
109
109
99
158
128
RA 9208
Abduction /
Kidnapping
17
11
16
24
34
152
190
62
29
16
34
23
28
18
25
22
Reported cases
in the PNP
2012
Details:
Unjust Vexation 90
50
59
59
83
703
183
155
Source: Philippine National Police - Women and Children Protection Center (WCPC) in Philippine Commission
on Women (pcw.gov.ph)
156
Because I Am A Girl, PLAN International, WAGI. The National Situationer of Girl Children in the Philippines 2012.
2012. Page 21.
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VAWC is also an issue pointed out by Moro women and IP women. VAWC and economic abuse is
experienced by women in polygamous (polygamy) settings.
The LGBT also report experiencing domestic violence and gender based violence, the FGD157
conducted for the CGA 2012 with representatives of the sector reveals that:
 Male children who show physical manifestations and behaviors usually attributed to femininity
(the Bakla or Bading, as they are labeled derogatorily) are most likely to experience gender
based violence and this is usually perpetuated by men which can also include their fathers or
older brothers, male neighbors and playmates. The violence is usually justified as a corrective
measure to “discipline” the child into behaving according to the norm expected of his sex. This
same children would most likely to experience gender based violence such as bullying in schools
and public/commercial spaces.158
 Female children who show physical manifestations and behaviors usually attributed as
masculine (the Tomboy or Tibo, as they are labeled derogatorily) are most likely to experience
gender based violence and this is usually perpetuated by men which can also include their
fathers or older brothers, male neighbors and playmates. The violence is usually justified as a
corrective measure to “discipline” the child into behaving according to the norm expected of her
sex. This same children would most likely to experience gender based violence such as bullying
in schools and public/commercial spaces. Some of these children are also at risk of being victims
of “corrective” rape, another measure to “discipline” them into behaving according to the norm
expected of her sex.159
The CSO UPR Report on the situations of LGBTs in the Philippines (2011) states that research
(conducted by the Philippine LGBT Hate Crime Watch) shows that of the 141 documented cases of
157
CGA 2012 FGD with LGBT. December 4, 2012. World Bank Knowledge Center, Ortigas, Mandaluyong City,
Manila, Philippines.
158
Ibid.
159
Ibid.
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hate crimes160 from 1996 to August 2011, ninety-five cases involved gay men, twenty-six involved
transgenders, sixteen involved lesbians, and four involved bisexuals. From an average of ten LGBT
people murdered between 1996 and 2008, the number has risen to twelve in 2009, 26 in 2010, and
27 from January to May 2011.161
The UPR CSO Report (2011) also cited an ISIS research exposing systematic rape162 of lesbians by
men to “correct” and to remind lesbians that they are “still women”.
Reporting gender based violence to the police and authorities is a hurdle that LGBT victims face, the
FGD conducted for the CGA 2012163 with representatives of the sector reveals that:
 Reporting of violence perpetuated on LGBTs is a problematic area. Majority of PNP officers
are not aware of SOGI issues and are not aware of gender issues confronted by the LGBT
persons.164
 Reporting of corrective rape and gender based violence inflicted on transwomen and
transmen are coursed through usual crime reporting procedures- there is no capacity to
note GBV of LGBTs as similar to VAWC and this capacity gap is also present among social
workers and health personnel.165
 Gay men and lesbians reporting GBV to PNP often get discriminated on the basis of their
gender identity- they are even often blamed for the violence they encountered, deserving
such circumstances because of the way they present themselves (look, manner of dress,
behavior and manner of speech).166
The UPR CSO Report (2011) also states that lesbians are not afforded the same mental and
psychosocial support and protection as heterosexual women. The language use of “women” in RA
9262 and RA 9710 does not comprehensively include lesbians and bisexual women and made
transgender women invisible as evidenced in the Implementing Rules and Regulations of RA 9710
where it made reference to sexual orientation167 but not to gender identity.
160
Hate crimes generally refer to criminal acts that are seen to have been motivated by bias against persons
belonging to a certain social group, usually defined by race, religion, sexual orientation, disability, class, ethnicity,
nationality, age, gender, gender identity, social status or political affiliation.
(http://thephilippinelgbthatecrimewatch.blogspot.com/) cited in Submission of the Civil Society Organizations
(CSOs) Coalition Report on the situations of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) persons in the
Philippines for the 13th Session of the UN Universal Periodic Review For the Philippines (May 21 – June 1, 2011)
161
Aside from the 141 cases there are 31 cases of LGBT killings that are in the process of being reviewed and
verified as of Aug 2011. (http://thephilippinelgbthatecrimewatch.blogspot.com/2011/09/in-beginning-postedsometime-in-june.html) accessed 2011-11-25, cited in Submission of the Civil Society Organizations (CSOs)
Coalition Report on the situations of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) persons in the Philippines for
the 13th Session of the UN Universal Periodic Review For the Philippines (May 21 – June 1, 2011)
162
Surfacing Lesbians, Bisexual Women and Transgendered People’s Issues in the Philippines: Towards Affinity
Politics in the Feminist Movements. 2010. page 16. cited in Submission of the Civil Society Organizations (CSOs)
Coalition Report on the situations of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) persons in the Philippines for
the 13th Session of the UN Universal Periodic Review For the Philippines (May 21 – June 1, 2011)
163
CGA 2012 FGD with LGBT. December 4, 2012. World Bank Knowledge Center, Ortigas, Mandaluyong City,
Manila, Philippines.
164
Ibid.
165
Ibid.
166
Ibid.
167
Magna Carta of Women Implementing Rules and Regulations 2010 pp 3, 37, 45, & 65
(http://pcw.gov.ph/index.php/downloads/doc_download/376-republic-act-9710-magna-carta-of-women)
77 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
According to the UPR CSO Report (2011), the challenge in addressing Hate Crimes has been the lack
of a legal framework in the Philippines as well as the limitation of the definition of “extra-judicial
killings” to politically motivated crimes. Whether politically motivated or not, the loss of life of any
human being is a violation of ICCPR Article 6, Section 1.
Table 52-B. Research conducted by Iwag Dabaw Inc. in Davao City- 97 LGBT Respondents
Types of Abuse
Within Family
Police / Military
Intimate
Relationship
Physical
56.00%
28.00%
48.00%
Economic (theft
36.00%
33.00%
24.00%
victims)
Sexual
14.00%
50.00%
40.00%
Verbal
76.00%
78.00%
88.00%
Total (in person)
59 (61%)
18 (19%)
25 (26%)
Source: http://outragemag.com/online/tag/davao-lgbts/ accessed: January 29, 2013
Public Places
18.00%
4.00%
4.00%
76.00%
64 (66%)
53. Trafficking of women and children. There is progress in halting human trafficking. The Philippines is
now at Tier 2 Status in the Global Trafficking in Persons Report and no longer in the Tier 2 Watch List
Status. The global community now recognize the efforts both government and civil society have
made to combat human trafficking at home and abroad.
54. Early marriages. Traditional early marriages that are still in practice: “tandeg” (Maguindanaon);
“pagguyud” (Tausug)/ “tangeg” (Maguindanaon), “tenafus” (Teduray). Some of the marriages are
forced and brought about by abduction of women and girls.168
55. Women’s political participation. Increasing the role of women in decision making bodies is a
measure of a country’s commitment to democratic governance and gender equality. Gendered
perceptions on the role of women remain to be the main barrier for as well as accelerating women
who are already in positions of power and authority. While there is a long history of women’s
participation in politics, there is still a considerably low level of representation of women, in
comparison with men. There is also an existing paradox in women’s representation in the
Philippines –two (2) women have been elected as Presidents of the state and numerous women
appointed in cabinet posts – but women, in general, continue to be in the lower levels of
government hierarchy.
Table 55 - A. Number of Elected Women and Men by Position and Sex: 1998, 2001, 2004, 2007 and 2010
Position
1998
2001
2004
2007
2010
Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men
President
VicePresident
0
1
1
0
..
..
..
..
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
accessed 2011-11-25, cited in Submission of the Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) Coalition Report on the
situations of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) persons in the Philippines for the 13th Session of the
UN Universal Periodic Review For the Philippines (May 21 – June 1, 2011)
168
UN WOMEN Mindanao Consultation – Scoping Mission and FGD in Davao City, September 2011. Unpublished
Notes by Eleanor Conda
78 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
1
1
Senators
2
10
1
12
Congressmen
20
188
33
172
Governors
13
65
15
62
Vice9
69
10
67
Governors
Board
93
629
120
607
Members
Mayors
233 1,374
241 1,301
Vice-Mayors
174 1,433
192 1,356
Councilors
2139 11,007
2198 10,467
TOTAL
2,684 14,776
2,810 14,044
Source: House of Representative and Senate
3
32
15
7
9
179
62
71
1
45
18
13
11
173
62
67
2
48
16
10
10
174
60
65
125
623
123
635
120
614
244 1,352
222 1,375
2251 10,881
2,900 14,553
274 1,320
230 1,365
2329 10,797
3,034 14,431
294
1210
245
1260
2314 10103
3,049 13,498
As the 2008 JCGA previously states, the Philippine Government has made significant efforts in
making its governance institutions accessible to women.
There is marked increase in the number of elected women, particularly in the House of
Representatives. The number of women mayors has also consistently increased since 1995. While
on the surface these developments are positive, politics is still a male domain.
The presence of women in electoral politics frequently has more to do with a political dynasty. A
2004 study by the Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism found that 70% of the women in the
House of Representatives in 2001 were members of political clans. This fact suggests that women in
politics may be “benchwarmers” (place holders) for relatives awaiting their turn to run for office—
for example, if the husband, uncle, or father has reached term limitations.
Women party list continue to hold seats in congress and other party list are fielding women
representatives.
The Philippines made some gains when the Supreme Court overturned a decision of the COMELEC
when it denied LADLAD from running for a seat in Congress in the May National Elections. LGBT
Filipinos are now closer to being represented and participating in government through the Ladlad
Party List.
Table 55 - B. Elected Members of Congress, 1998-2010 Election Years
Election Year
Chamber
Positions
Filled
1998
2001
2004
2007
2010
Senate
House of Representatives
Senate
House of Representatives
Senate
House of Representatives
Senate
House of Representatives
Senate
79 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
12
208
13
209
12
210
12
218
12
No. of Elected
Legislators
Women
Men
2
10
20
188
1
12
33
176
3
9
32
178
1
11
45
173
2
10
House of Representatives
Source: Commission on Election
222
48
174
56. Women in the civil service. As of December 2010, the government personnel inventory conducted
by CSC will show that there are 1,409,660 government personnel. An increase of 96,122 based on
2008 figures (1,313,538). Female employees accounted for 58.7 percent (numbering 827,157) while
the number of male employees totaled 582,503 or 41.3 percent of the total government
workforce.169 Table 56 – A presents the distribution of male and female employees by region and
sex.
Table 56 – A. Number of Government Personnel by Region and by Sex: 2010
Region
Male
Female
1
25,922
39,519
2
19,219
23,409
3
38,549
76,442
Total
65,441
42,628
114,991
4A
4B
5
6
7
8
44,138
14,106
23,776
37,253
30,784
24,015
83,124
26,490
50,048
65,493
53,272
45,190
127,262
40,596
73,824
102,746
84,056
69,205
9
10
11
12
NCR
CAR
19,462
19,576
16,064
17,364
222,656
10,956
31,441
35,517
29,328
31,107
193,612
16,318
50,903
55,093
45,392
48,471
416,268
27,274
24,326
2,521
827,157
37,536
7,974
1,409,660
CARAGA
13,210
ARMM
5,453
TOTAL
582,503
Source: CSC 2010 Inventory of Government Personnel
Of the total workforce, 1,266,285 are career personnel, of which 772,027 or 54.8 percent are
women and 489,258 or 34.7 percent are men. The remaining 148,375 personnel, are non-career and
males number at 93,245 or 63 percent while females total 55,130 or 37 percent (Table 45 – B).170
Table 56 – B. Breakdown of government personnel by category of service (2010)
Females
Males
Career
772,027
489,258
Non Career
55,130
93,245
Total
827,157
582,503
1,409,660
Source: CSC 2010 Inventory of Government Personnel, breakdown by World Bank CGA
169
170
http://excell.csc.gov.ph/cscweb/2010IGP_stat.pdf
Ibid.
80 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
2012
Government career personnel number 1,261,285 or 89.5 percent of the overall government
workforce. Of this, women outnumber the men by 61 percent as against 38.7 percent respectively.
Non career personnel total 148,375, where a reverse in terms of distribution will show 63 percent in
favor of men and women account for only 37 percent (Table 57 – C).171
Table 56 – C. Number of Government Personnel by Region, by Category of Service and by Sex: 2010
CAREER
NON-CAREER172
REGION
TOTAL
Male
Female
Male
Female
1
21,814
36,899
4,108
2,620
65,441
2
14,415
21,400
4,804
2,009
42,628
3
30,832
71,364
7,717
5,078
114,991
4A
31,504
76,510
12,634
6,614
127,262
4B
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
NCR
CAR
CARAGA
12,169
20,175
30,947
22,900
19,690
16,793
25,403
48,136
61,506
49,428
42,721
30,116
1,937
3,601
6,306
7,884
4,325
2,669
1,087
1,912
3,987
3,844
2,469
1,325
40,596
73,824
102,746
84,056
69,205
50,903
15,833
13,045
14,335
201,986
9,164
10,461
33,718
27,911
29,291
177,579
15,328
22,888
3,743
3,019
3,029
20,670
1,792
2,749
1,799
1,417
1,816
16,033
990
1,438
55,093
45,392
48,471
416,268
27,274
37,536
2,258
93,245
148,375
692
55,130
7,974
ARMM
TOTAL
3,195
1,829
489,258
772,027
1,261,285
Source: CSC 2010 Inventory of Government Personnel
1,409,660
Table 56 – D show that women dominate the second level posts at the LGUs, SUCs, NGAs and
GOCCs, with the exception of LWDs where the men outnumber women by 117. Even so, men
dominate the first and third level posts for all government agencies.173
Table 56 – D. Distribution of female and male employees by type of government agency and by level of position
Agency
First Level
Second Level
Third Level
TOTAL
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
LGUs
82,863 78,580 161,443
35,743
61,090
96,833
331
257
588
258,864
LWDs
6,442
1,722
8,164
1,655
1,538
3,193
28
5
33
11,390
SUCs
7,732
4,618
12,350
12,731
19,916
32,647
70
58
128
45,125
NGAs
12,768 10,101
22,869 255,530 528,917 784,447 44,239 36,566 80,805
888,121
171
Ibid.
Consist of coterminous, elective, casual and contractual employees.
173
http://excell.csc.gov.ph/cscweb/2010IGP_stat.pdf
172
81 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
GOCCs
5,878
2,233
8,111
16,036
20,764
36,800
7,212
5,662 12,874
57,785
Source: PCW - TSD, data reflects the sum of Tables 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 of the 2010 Inventory of Government
Personnel
A total of 148,375 or 10.5% of the total government staff complement are non career posts. LGUs
account for the most number of non-career personnel at 72% of the total non-career workforce and
of this, 36 percent are women. The 2010 figures will show that parity have been reached for non
career positions in the SUCs at 50-50% for both women and men. For the rest of the agencies, men
dominate coterminous positions (Table 57 – E).174
Table 56 – E. Distribution of female and male employees in the non-career service by type of government agency and classification of
position
Coterminous
Casual
Contractual
Elective
TOTAL
Male Female Total
Male
Female
Total
Male Female
Total
Male
Female Total
LGUs
6,343 3,572
9,915
36,033 22,971
59,004
9,867 8,035
17,902
15,891
4,149
20,040 106,861
LWDs
37
21
58
1,095
270
1,365
653
109
762
0
0
0
2,185
SUCs
69
69
138
1,094
964
2,058
1,753 1,875
3,628
50
52
102
5,926
NGAs
2,959 2,781
5,740
7,763
4,377
12,140
3,762 3,006
6,768
248
70
318
24,966
GOCCs
707
624
1,331
3,070
1,205
4,275
1,845 977
2,822
6
3
9
8,437
Source: PCW - TSD, data reflects the sum of Tables 16, 17, 18, 19 and 20 of the 2010 Inventory of Government Personnel
57. Women in the judiciary. The judiciary is male dominated, though this dominance is slowly easing. A
significant breakthrough in 2012 is the appointment of the first woman Chief Justice of the Supreme
Court, following the impeachment of the Supreme Court Chief Justice. Another woman was
appointed as the Secretary of the Department of Justice.
For the period 2007 to 2010, male judges outnumber the female judges at the regional trial courts,
metropolitan trial courts, municipal trial courts-in-cities, municipal trial courts, municipal circuit trial
courts, shariá district courts and shariá circuit courts.
The 2011 Annual Report of the Supreme Court still show unequal distribution of female and male
judges. These figures hardly changed since the JCGA of 2008 (Table 57 – A).
Table 57-A. Justices/Judges in the Judiciary by Sex as of December 31, 2011
Courts
Female
Male
Total
Incumbent
Judges
Supreme Court
Court of Appeals
Sandiganbayan
Court of Tax Appeals
Regional Trial Court
Metropolitan Trial Court
Municipal Trial Court in Cities
Municipal Trial Court
Municipal Circuit Trial Court
174
3
23
2
5
254
32
72
117
110
20%
36%
14%
56%
33%
52%
43%
42%
37%
12
41
12
4
511
29
95
159
191
Ibid.
82 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
80%
64%
86%
44%
67%
48%
57%
58%
63%
15
64
14
9
765
61
167
276
301
Total
Number of
Vacancies
0
5
1
0
206
34
48
108
171
Total
Number
of Judicial
Positions
15
69
15
9
971
95
215
384
472
Shari’a District Court
Shari’a Circuit Court
GRAND TOTAL
0
3
621
0
10%
37%
0
26
1,080
0
90%
63%
0
29
1,701
5
22
600
5
51
2,301
Source: 2011 Annual Report, Supreme Court
58. Structures for gender equality and women’s empowerment. PCW is the country’s oversight agency
for gender equality and women empowerment. With the passage of RA 9710 MCW, PCW is poised
to strengthen its partnership with the CHR as the mandated Gender Ombud of the country. It is
expected that this partnership will usher the improvement of systems for ensuring women’s rights
and gender equality as required by MCW and CEDAW.
At the national level, women sectoral representation is recognized in the NAPC and this structure is
also evident in the RDC where a committee on GEWE is created. Even if this committee is
represented by government agencies’ representatives, usually gender focal persons from DSWD,
DOH, DepEd, DOLE, in some regions, a number of women’s NGOs also participate in the committee.
Inter-agency committees have also been created at the meso level where women NGOs and CSOs
are given wider space to participate such as the RIACAT, to monitor progress in halting trafficking of
women and girls, the regional VAWC committee, and the committee for the protection of children.
The formation of local sectoral representation for women has been a common practice for some
LGUs in the country and local legislative councils assigns a committee on the welfare of women and
children and family. This committee is usually chaired by an elected council member and by
tradition is assigned to a woman council member.
The GAD Focal Point Systems have been created by NGAs with the broad mandate to mainstream
gender equality and women empowerment actions in the agencies’ programmes and projects. In
2011, PCW issued Memorandum Circular No. 2011-01 to further strengthening of the GAD Focal
Point System. Its primary task is to prepare GAD plans and budgets and conduct consultations
among women and men internally (within the agency) and with its external clients (constituents).
The GAD focal points are also expected to institute a GAD capability-building and advocacy programs
to promote gender awareness and participation of officials and staff in gender mainstreaming
efforts.
83 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
CHAPTER 4
Directions for Policy
This final Chapter will focus on policy and gender mainstreaming recommendations in the light of recent
progress and challenges to gender equality.
59. Laws to end all forms of discrimination need to be passed and revise discriminatory provision
consistent with CEDAW. Four (4) versions of the Anti Discrimination Bill has been filed in the House
and Senate; two (2) versions in the lower house are authored by Bayan Muna and Akbayan, and two
(2) versions in the Senate, authored by Sen. Miriam Defensor Santiago and Sen. Ramon Revilla Jr.
Pending versions of the Anti-Prostitution Bill in the House and Senate targets the demand side of
prostitution by criminalizing those who exploit and engage in prostitution and human trafficking.
This bill would have a far-reaching impact in the protection of women from violence.
There is also a push for the passage of Gender Balance Bill.
The Philippines ratified the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against
Women (CEDAW) in 1981. There are discriminatory provisions in some laws that are currently
enforced viz CEDAW and RA 9710 that needs to be reviewed; being a State Party to CEDAW, the
government, should initiate revisions on:
a) Family Code of the Philippines
(i) Article 14: on the provision on giving preference to the father’s consent to the marriage
of children between the ages of 18 and 21;
(ii) Articles 96 and 124: on the provision on giving preference to the husband’s decision, in
case of disagreement with the wife, on the administration and enjoyment of community
and conjugal properties;
(iii) Article 211: on the provision of giving preference to the husband’s decision, in case of
disagreement with the wife, over the persons of their common children;
(iv) Article 225: on the provision on giving preference to the husband’s decision, in case of
disagreement with the wife, on the exercise of legal guardianship over the property of
unemancipated common child;
(v) Article 55, No.1: on the requirement for repeated physical abuse and grossly abusive
conduct as a ground for legal separation.
b) Revised Penal Code
(i) Articles 333 and 334: on adultery and concubinage;
(ii) Article 202: on the definition of vagrants and prostitution;
(iii) Article 351: on premature marriages; and
(iv) Article 247: on death inflicted under exceptional circumstances;
c) Rules of Court - Rule 131 Section 3 (jj), on disputable presumptions.
d) Code of Muslim Personal Laws;
e) RA 8353, on removal of criminal liability of rapist when victim marries him.
f) R.A. 10158, or the revision of Article 202 of the Revised Penal Code will continue to criminalize
women and girls in prostitutes (unlike male prostitutes and vagrants), while men who
participate in their exploitation are not held liable for prosecution.
84 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
60. Accelerate the implementation of RA 9710 (MCW) through the Women’s EDGE Plan 2013 – 2016.
The implementation of RA 9710 remains a challenge for PCW and CHR. In particular, majority of the
MCW provisions are yet to be mainstreamed in agencies and LGUs plans and budgets.
The expanded oversight role of PCW and CHR as gender ombud will require upgrading of
institutional capacities in terms of budget, human resource, management systems and M & E. The
ODA GAD support efforts towards addressing deficiencies in capacities and the UN will squarely
address the need to strengthen capacities of PCW and CHR as indicated in the UNDAF 2012-2018
Outcome Area 3.6.
Under the leadership of PCW, the Women’s EDGE Plan 2013 – 2016 have been formulated and is
expected to be the gender equality guiding plan for the Philippine Development Plan 2011 - 2016.
The plan goals are anchored on the CEDAW and RA 9710 (MCW) and its implementation is expected
to drive gender mainstreaming in the NGAs and LGUs. However, capacities of national and local GAD
focal points must be built in order for the targets to be mainstreamed in GAD plans and budgets as
well as in the regular agency and LGU plans.
I. Endowments
The challenge faced by the Philippines in human development manifest in the un-equal access of
women and men to basic endowment and opportunities specifically education and health, basic services
and even basic needs. Access by girls and boys and women and men to education- basic, secondary and
tertiary- show positive correlations in employment and incomes (economic opportunities) and
participation in development (agency). Boys and girls dropping out of school early will most likely
become child laborers (where girls are most likely to be home based unpaid workers). Juvenile
delinquency has been associated among boys’ who are not in school. And girls who are not in school will
most likely marry or get pregnant early and have more children. High maternal mortality rates indicate
women’s and girl’s poor awareness and access to basic and reproductive health care. Low health seeking
behavior among men and boys also indicate poor awareness and lack of access to health care. Data and
analysis would how that the unequal access to education and health contribute to population growth,
rise of informal settlements, food insecurity, maternal mortality, teen age pregnancy, high prevalence
rate of STI and HIV transmission, violence against women and children, leaving no resources towards
more strategic endowments such as social protection that will benefit the most vulnerable and
marginalized women and men such as those with disabilities, rural poor, urban poor, IP groups and
Moro communities. The present conditions of inequalities surrounding education and health, other
basic services and basic needs such as food, have become major obstacles and constraints in allowing
women and men, girls and boys, to live healthy and productive lives. Addressing the gaps in education
and health is therefore strategic to increase economic opportunities and agency of women and men.
61. Addressing barriers that impede the attainment of MDG targets. The Philippines Midterm Progress
Report on the MDG point to “a low probability of achieving the targets for universal primary
education, improving maternal mortality, and increasing access to reproductive health care by
2015.” This same issues has been pointed out in the 2008 Joint Country Gender Assessment175 and
175
Paradox and Promise in the Philippines, A Joint Country Gender Assessment (2008) by Asian Development Bank,
Canadian International Development Agency, European Commission, National Commission on the Role of Filipino
Women, United Nations Children’s Fund, United Nations Development Fund for Women, United Nations
85 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : F I N A L D R A F T
current data (2011) would show very little progress towards the 2015 target. The lack of budget,
lack of capacities and lack of political will appear to be major barriers in achieving the targets for
universal primary education, improving maternal mortality, and increasing access to reproductive
health care.
62. Addressing underperformance in educational outcomes for boys. Improving enrolment and
survival rates of girls and boys in terms of education across all levels should remain at the top of
concerns that need to be urgently addressed by government. Consistent underperformance in
educational outcomes for boys results in high juvenile delinquency and perpetuation of inequalities
and wrong notions of masculinities that can lead to violence in the future and could potentially
affect women and girl children. There are still more boys dropping out of school because of lack of
interest as well as the need to work. 176 A review of the curriculum and classroom/school practices in
the context of boys’ lack of interest and the factors surrounding the need to work, should lead to
innovative solutions such as expanding the social role of schools and enriching the learning/teaching
rubric to capture and/or regain child interest while providing options to protect poorest boys and
girls from child labor, exploitation and abuse.
63. Urgent implementation of the RH Bill. The immediate implementation of the reproductive
health (RH) law is absolutely critical for the Philippines. With rising maternal mortality, teenage
pregnancy and HIV and STI transmission, the RH law as it was designed would empower women to
make all-important choices for themselves and for their families. The Aquino administration should
continue unwavering support and monitoring of the implementation of the reproductive health and
responsible parenthood law as it is a crucial element in the pursuit of inclusive development.
64. Making housing, shelter and secure tenure projects affordable to women. The country’s housing
and shelter agencies will benefit by knowing and internalizing the gender equality dimensions of
housing and security of tenure. A rigorous gender analysis needs to be done to know the extent of
women exclusion and/or involvement in terms of decision making, influence, and benefits of
housing and secure tenure programmes.
The PDP 2011-2012 recognizes the need for investing in mass and socialized housing and increase
the number of housing loans and strengthening of HGC through equity infusion from the
government to establish a stronger guaranty system that will encourage the funding of socialized
and low-cost housing projects by the private sector and housing developers.
Funds for housing can be secured and sustained, only if there is a viable system of guarantees for
both the government and private financial institutions that cater to the funding requirements of
housing production and end-user financing. The HGC can guaranty loans granted by financial
institutions and developers for housing up to 20 times its net worth. What is clear is that socialized
and low-cost housing projects will benefit more women as they are usually affordable. The challenge
is how to design loan packages that are accessible to women’s incomes and guarantees for women
availing housing finance.
Population Fund
176
National Situationer of Girl Children in the Philippines 2012 (Because I Am A Girl, PLAN International, WAGI).
2012. Page 23.
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65. Expanding social protection. The PDP 2011 – 2016, concludes that the benefits of existing social
protection programs are compromised by weak targeting systems resulting in high leakage to the
nonpoor, undercoverage of the poor, low program impact and wastage of scarce resources. Existing
social protection programs are inadequate in terms of coverage. While partnership with
nongovernment organizations (NGOs) and other stakeholders have succeeded in making social
services accessible to the poor, NGOs tend to flock to selected advocacies like children’s causes,
leaving behind other sectors, such as the disabled and elderly, wanting.177
The Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Programm is a step in the right direction as it not only addresses
practical but strategic gender needs as well. Further work is needed, however, to consolidate social
protection programs and complement these with the CCT. The bigger challenge is the expansion of
the CCT to make it the core program in the convergence of social protection initiatives to ensure
sustainability of beneficiaries’ gains.178
Indigenous Peoples (IPs) living in highly fragile and vulnerable ecosystems, people in the Cordillera
highlands and in Mindanao Island, are among the poorest in the country and this brings to mind
another important dimension of social protection which is property ownership and inheritance rights
of women- this is particularly significant for rural women and IP women.
In Mindanao, the Moro struggle for ancestral domain as carried out by the MNLF and MILF179 has
caused the displacement of nearly two million people from 2000 and 2006180. The recent siege of
Lahad Datu in Sabah, Malaysia by the Royal Army of the Sultanate of Sulu also caused the
displacement of many families. Most IDPs in Mindanao, especially in the ARMM181 are Muslim
women and children who suffer from the lack of food aid and medicines, blockades, insensitive and
inadequate service delivery.182 Local Government Units (LGUs) in ARMM have relatively weak
capacity for the protection of women victims183. It is in this context that social protection for moro
women and women in conflict situations in the ARMM becomes an important component for peace
frameworks.
Also, a review of gender-differentiated access to pension and other insurance mechanisms and the
conditional cash transfer mechanisms should be done in the context of national and local legislation
to determine appropriate mechanisms for social protection that will impact positively on the lives of
women and children.
66. Investing in pro-poor and gender responsive infrastructure. The government has devoted
considerable resources to deliver social services to those lacking access to health care and
education. However, poor households in isolated areas have difficulty in going to health centers and
177
ADB, 2009. Cited in the Philippine Development Plan 2011 – 2016. Page 245.
Ibid.
179
Moro National Liberation Front and Moro Islamic Liberation Front
180
Armed conflicts include clashes between the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP), the Moro Islamic Liberation
Front, The Moro National Liberation Front, and the New People’s Army
181
ARMM - Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao
182
UN WOMEN. 2010. Presentation of Atty. Laisa Masuhod Alamia, Program Manager, Nisa Ul-Huqq Fi
Bangsamoro, Consultation on the Maguindanao Province Gender and Development Code, Sardonyx Hotel,
Cotabato City. September 27, 2010.
183
http://www.pcco.org.ph/downloadables/GEForum07/3_LGSPA%20Gender%20Initiatives%20CIDA%20Forum%2
0final.pdf
178
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schools, even when services are offered for free or at highly subsidized rates. Clearly, poor
infrastructure provision, aside from being a hindrance to investment and business activity, also
prevents women and girls physical access to basic services.
II. Economic Opportunities
Given the data and analysis on labor force participation rates and average daily basic pay, men are still
at an advantage over women in terms of economic gains from formal employment. Gender gap is also
pronounced in access to productive resources, specifically land ownership, favoring the men. The other
indicators of employment tend to favor women in terms of number (participation) such as overseas
employment and participation in the informal economy and MSMEs. However, analysis of the data and
its implications to equal economic opportunities would show that women OFWs are confined to low
paying jobs such as in the services and manufacturing sector compared to men who dominate the
professional and technical categories where pay are higher. Further, women OFWs also face inequalities
in overseas employment that has been characterized by trafficking, work related harassment and sexual
abuse. Women in the informal economy, over and above low wages, also face vulnerabilities in terms of
job insecurity and lack of or absence of social protection. These vulnerabilities add up to social costs for
women and children. The challenge to promote equal economic opportunities in the Philippines is to
shift focus towards providing more opportunities for women and keeping them in the labor force during
their productive years, ensure employment of women OFW upon their return, and increase productivity
of women who dominate the informal economy and MSMEs. Labour policies will have to be reviewed in
relation to decent work principles, the RA 9710 and RA 10354 to encourage more women to participate
in the labour force alongside gender sensitive men. The review of labour policies and revisions of laws
should also take into consideration the already positive education outcomes for women in the country.
67. Accounting women’s contribution to the economy. The PDP 2011-2016 states that Filipino women
are relatively advanced in comparison to women in other developing countries in the areas of
education, profession, politics and legislation. However, women and girls contribution to economic
development is not yet accounted in current economic analyses/frameworks and the effect of
improved economic development has not been analyzed in terms of its impacts on women and girls
and gender equality and changes in the informal structures such on the traditional roles of women
and men. GAD mainstreaming should consider institutionalizing the practice of analyzing gender
equality impacts and how these affect differently among women and men (benefits) as well as how
development processes harnesses the contribution of women and men (influence), as a reference to
policy making at the national and local levels and basis for development planning.
68. Addressing women economic disadvantages and discrimination at the workplace. As pointed out
by an ILO study184, there is a serious need to analyze and address barriers that impact on gender
differences in employment patterns of women compared to men (i.e. labour force participation
rates, employment, unemployment and underemployment rates, types of jobs and occupations
available, work status, etc.); gender-based discrimination in the terms and conditions of women’s
work which refers to hours of work, wages, maternity or paternity benefits, occupational health and
safety, opportunities for training, career promotion, recruitment and other employment practices;
and, gender differences in participation in labour market governance which refers to the availability
184
Lazo, Lucita. 2008. A gender perspective in labour market governance. ILO Asia-Pacific Working Paper Series.
Subregional Office for South-East Asia and the Pacific
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of social space for women to have a voice in policy making on the management of the labour
market185.
The need to enact and amend certain laws and/or legal provisions to address discriminatory acts to
women in labor and employment is now very much needed. The failure of existing legislation186 to
recognize real differences between sectors and groups, which fall short to international standard of
“equal pay for work of equal value”, should be resolved. Women who are concentrated in industrial
sectors suffering low daily wage are by this reason, further disadvantaged compared to their male
counterparts (Celis, Magsombol and Sobritchea 2012; page 92). The 2012 GLMS notes that decent
wage cannot be achieved through mere standardization of salaries or straightforward merit
promotion plans as what is the current platform in the Philippines. Salary standardization lacks the
competency or adequacy to determine decent wage highlighting the need to draft a more
comprehensive job evaluation scheme that cuts across industries and sectors. Furthermore, the
Salary Standardization Law, establishing Minimum Wages, and the Wage Rationalization Act (RA
6727) need to be reviewed so that the work of women is appropriately analyzed and evaluation
methods that are objective and free from gender bias are applied.
Also, according to the 2012 GLMS, current increasing trend of casual labor is seriously
disadvantaging women. Data shows an increase in the share of casual workers, and a decline in the
share of permanent workers, indicating a decline in work security and a reduction in wages. This is a
growing trend in the Philippines which needs to be further examined because it seriously exploits
women’s labour, especially young women. This could be partially addressed through legislation.
The 2012 GLMS also recommends addressing the issues of workers in the informal economy. While
proper laws and mechanisms are being put into place to transition workers from the informal to
formal employment, workers in the informal economy should not be deemed as outside of the
protection of labor laws. The right to labor should be recognized in workers engaged even in
unregistered businesses and will entail policy change to ensure their right to social protection in
terms of coverage in basic social services (SSS, Pag-ibig Fund, Philhealth), right to training and
development, the right to file complaints against abuses and recognizing and acknowledging the
contributions and potential for growth is essential to boost productivity as well as confidence of
workers in the informal economy.
69. Reducing vulnerabilities of women OFWs. The need to review the government’s stand and DOLE’s
policy track regarding the deployment of OFWs in vulnerable employment and in countries with high
violations of women’s rights has been a persistent call made by GEWE advocates and labour
migration watch groups. Overseas migration is a gendered phenomenon in the Philippines. Jobs
available to women OFWs in the global market are high in care work, particularly domestic work
where they are often vulnerable to abuses. The capacity of OWWA to implement gender responsive
return and reintegration programmes for returning women and men workers need to be addressed
immediately.
70. Gender responsive tax reforms. The Philippines may benefit in reducing income taxes on women
and increase, by less, income taxes on men in a way that holds total tax revenue constant. The
185
186
Ibid.
Article 135 (a) of the Labor Code and Republic Act 6758, as discussed in Part IV of this report.
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debate in the EU, where this policy has been proposed, argues that this policy would simultaneously
reduce overall tax distortions and increase women’s participation in the labour force, thus achieving
the goals of quotas and affirmative action but in a more efficient way. While quotas impose
quantitative constraints that prevent agents from equalizing costs and benefits at the margin,
gender-based taxation changes relative prices but let agents free to optimize at the margin (Alesina,
Ichino, & Karabarbounis, 2007).
III. Agency
Data and evidence will show that women representation is in place at the national and local levels.
There is marked increase in the number of elected women, particularly at the Mayoralty posts and in
the House of Representatives. Women’s party list continues to hold seat in congress. Women in the civil
service almost equal in number with the men and hold decision making positions. However, despite the
promising gains for women representation and participation, VAWC is still a persistent issue all over the
country and manifest across economic classes, poor and rich women are victimized, young and old.
VAWC silences women, drowning their voices. This appears to be a major barrier for women and girls to
participate in governance at the local level and make intelligent choices for their own development and
that of their children.
71. Intensify measures to prevent child labor and protect the rights of the girl child. Many girls drop
out of school because of housekeeping responsibility.187 There is a great need to intensify efforts to
prevent girl children from child labor through the urgent implementation of the Kasambahay Law,
and the International Labor Convention 189, on Domestic Work.
72. Intensify measures to stop VAWC and GBV. Current efforts on VAWC, though laudable, do not yet
impact at the community and household levels.188 Empowering women and girls is an important
success indicator in preventing VAWC. Also, current studies189 point to the effectiveness of
programmes addressing men and boys and masculinities which is not yet a standard practice in the
Philippines.
73. Intensify measures to stop violence against children in school. Out of 10,000 child abuse cases
reported by the DSWD in the years between 1998 and 2004, 500-800 cases are committed by
teachers, janitors, bus drivers, and school personnel. Children also experience violence committed
by students, such as bullying, or as participants of gang-related fighting (UNICEF, Plan International,
WAGI, 2012). The baseline study on violence against children in public schools conducted by UNICEF
with Plan International and the Council for the Welfare of Children in 2009, acknowledges the need
to probe on the extent of violence against LGBT children and cited as a recommendation to “look
into gender-based discrimination in schools, particularly as it related to actual or perceived sexual
orientation of a child” as an important area of study (UNICEF, Plan International, WAGI, 2012).
74. Increase women’s political participation. A study conducted 2008-2009 by Paz y Desarrollo (PyD),
in partnership with Enjambra190 and supported by AECID on women’s political participation in seven
selected countries in Asia including the Philippines surfaced several issues that deter women from
participating in politics. Barriers point to limited access to resources, particularly social and political
187
Ibid.
For further validation.
189
Partners for Prevention (UNDP, UN WOMEN, WHO)
190
Enjambra contra la explotación sexual
188
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networks. Absence and lack of capital and financial resources precludes women to run for public
office. Structures and systems of political parties are male-oriented and, as such, are not necessarily
responsive to the needs and situations of women. Women, also, have limited access in decisionmaking within these structures. The study also identified political dynasties, corruption, and violence
as the backdrops of the political environment that deter women from participating in and carrying
out political work (Enjambra contra la explotacion sexual and Paz y Desarrollo, 2009).
The need to impose affirmative action and temporary measures to ensure more women
participation in politics can be carried by imposing quotas in the fielding party list representatives.
Women quota can also be imposed in the election/appointment of officials of political parties and in
the nomination of local and national party candidates.
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PART 2
Thematic Assessments
The second part of the report will contain special studies on the three areas of analyses (human
endowments, economic and voice) and will focus on specific themes: teen age pregnancy, gender in
disaster risk reduction and women and girls with disabilities.
I. Teen Age Pregnancy
To follow.
II. Gender in Disaster Risk Reduction
To follow.
III. Women and Girls with Disabilities
To follow.
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Data Sources
1. Statistics on Filipino Women and Men’s Education 2012, Philippine Commission on Women
(PCW)
2. DOLE BLES, Gender Statistics on Labor and Employment
3. World Bank World Development Indicators
4. Economist Intelligence Unit 2012, World Bank
5. http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats3.htm#asia
6. http://www.dti.gov.ph/dti/index.php?p=321
7. National Demographic Health Survey 2008, NSO
8. Family Health Survey 2011, USAID
9. Family Planning Survey (FPS) 2006, NSO
10. Labor Force Survey, NSO
11. Survey of OFWs 2011, NSO
12. Merged Files of the Family Income and Expenditures Survey and Labor Force Survey, NSO
13. Child Development Index 2010, UNICEF
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