LEARNING STYLES AND STRATEGIES
What sort of a language learner are you?
1.
-
2.
-
What is a learning style?
individuals preferred way of going about a language
consistent, enduring tendencies or preferences within an individual.
Results from:
- Personality (psychological, cognitive make-up)
- Socio-cultural background
- Educational experience
- The individuals perception of strengths and weaknesses
- Personality factors are more significant than other factors
- Some factors can be changed some not – Which do you think can be changed?
What is your learning style?
What is a learning strategy?
mental processes occurring during learning (procedural knowledge)
methods of approaching a task, might differ across individuals
E.g. Ellis (1985) categorization:
- hypothesis formation (simplification, interferencing, making conclusions of the structure
of L2 based on samples of a lg)
- Hypothesis testing (trying out rules and monitoring the interlocutors reaction to check
out the rule)
- Automatization (practicing L2)
3. Learning styles (Brown 1994, Principles of Lg Learning and Teaching, pp.104-113)
- field  set of thoughts, ideas or feelings (abstract or perceptual)
Field dependence
Field independence
Perceiving object of learning as a unified whole Ability to perceive a relevant item or factor in a
but the embedded elements are not clear
field of distracting items (more males than
females but not always)
Socializing, emphatic, self-identity connected
Independent, competing, self-confident
with other people
Better learners at school
Better at drills, analyzing, grammar
Advantages and disadvantages of both types:
Concentration on one item without being distracted (eg. Reading a book in a noisy environment)
Tunnel vision (inability to see relationships among particular subsets of a language system)
-
left-brain vs. right-brain dominance
Ambiguity tolerance  how willing you are to tolerate ideas that run counter to your
structure of knowledge (all the time in a language)
Tolerant of ambiguity
Intolerant of ambiguity
Not bothered by exceptions
Rejecting totally contradictory material (+)
Ok with culture distance
Lack of creativity
Linguistic rules might not be effectively
Dogmatism
integrated
-
1
- Reflectivity vs. impulsivity
Reflectivity/systematic style
Weigh all the considerations of a problem,
carefully ventures a solution
Fewer errors
Requires patience
Impulsivity/intuitive style
Makes several mistakes before arriving at the
correct answer
Might be judged too quickly at school
Usually corrected too harshly
Faster
-
Holistic vs. serialist
Learn through global exposure vs. learn analyzing elements sequentially)
-
Syllabus bound vs. syllabus free
Presentation of data by T required vs. learn from general context outside classroom
-
Introverts vs. extraverts
-
Visual vs. auditory vs. kinesthetic
2
1. Individual differences
a. Age
Discuss:
o When does the abstract thinking and logical memory (remembering general
rules) develop?  12-16
o If humanistic teaching involves using your own experience and takes under
consideration affective factors, which age groups should be taught in this
way?  teens (self-esteem, need for identity)
o Teaching which age group is characterized by using concrete thinking, when
learning should focus on what can be seen and on what is real?  children
o For which age group should you use competitions which do not have a clear
winner and why?  Children
o What is the aim of teaching children a foreign language?  Listening to the
sounds of English and making learning process enjoyable, encouraging to
further effort.
o Which age group can be the best learners (meaning: most passionate and
creative with good attention span and very flexible memory)? What can be
some obstacles making teaching in this age group difficult?
o For which age group is the professionalism and competence of the teacher
especially important?  teens
o At what age can grammar rules be fully comprehended?
o What characterizes adult second language learners? What are some pros and
cons of such situation? (think about: motivation, the role of the teacher,
learning strategies)
b. Motivation
 What motivates you to learn? Think of extrinsic (coming from outside; e.g.
preparing for an exam, financial) and intrinsic (coming from inside; e.g. hobby)
factors.
 How to sustain motivation in the foreign language classroom (think both of the
role of a language teacher and of the student)?
2. Proficiency levels (CEFR) (based on wikipedia.org)
Levels
The Common European Framework divides learners into three broad divisions which can be
divided into six levels:
A Basic User
A1 Breakthrough
A2 Waystage
B Independent User
B1 Threshold
B2 Vantage
C Proficient User
C1 Effective Operational Proficiency
C2 Mastery
3
The CEFR describes what a learner is supposed to be able to do in reading, listening, speaking and
writing at each level, in details:
level
A1
A2
B1
B2
C1
C2
description
Can understand and use familiar everyday expressions and very basic phrases aimed at the
satisfaction of needs of a concrete type. Can introduce him/herself and others and can ask and
answer questions about personal details such as where he/she lives, people he/she knows and
things he/she has. Can interact in a simple way provided the other person talks slowly and
clearly and is prepared to help.
Can understand sentences and frequently used expressions related to areas of most immediate
relevance (e.g. very basic personal and family information, shopping, local geography,
employment). Can communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring a simple and direct
exchange of information on familiar and routine matters. Can describe in simple terms aspects
of his/her background, immediate environment and matters in areas of immediate need.
Can understand the main points of clear standard input on familiar matters regularly
encountered in work, school, leisure, etc. Can deal with most situations likely to arise whilst
travelling in an area where the language is spoken. Can produce simple connected text on
topics which are familiar or of personal interest. Can describe experiences and events, dreams,
hopes & ambitions and briefly give reasons and explanations for opinions and plans.
Can understand the main ideas of complex text on both concrete and abstract topics, including
technical discussions in his/her field of specialization. Can interact with a degree of fluency
and spontaneity that makes regular interaction with native speakers quite possible without
strain for either party. Can produce clear, detailed text on a wide range of subjects and explain
a viewpoint on a topical issue giving the advantages and disadvantages of various options.
Can understand a wide range of demanding, longer texts, and recognize implicit meaning. Can
express him/herself fluently and spontaneously without much obvious searching for
expressions. Can use language flexibly and effectively for social, academic and professional
purposes. Can produce clear, well-structured, detailed text on complex subjects, showing
controlled use of organizational patterns, connectors and cohesive devices.
Can understand with ease virtually everything heard or read. Can summarize information from
different spoken and written sources, reconstructing arguments and accounts in a coherent
presentation. Can express him/herself spontaneously, very fluently and precisely,
differentiating finer shades of meaning even in more complex situations.
These descriptors can apply to any of the languages spoken in Europe, and there are translations in
many languages.
4
Use in language testing
The ALTE (Association of Language Testers in Europe) "Can Do" project developed a simplified
set of 400+ descriptors for language examinations which relate to the Common Reference Levels.
These descriptors are in the form of "can-do statements", each saying more simply what a learner
can do at every level. There are four sections: general, social/ tourist, work and study. The ALTE
project also gave its own names to the CEF levels: "Breakthrough level" - "Level 5".
The ALTE was founded by the University of Cambridge in conjunction with the University of
Salamanca so the first exams to be related to their "Can-Do" statements were the Cambridge EFL
exams. However, today many more examining boards link their exams to the system. Below is a
table of some examinations as an example.
London
CEFR
Goethe-Institut and/or
ALTE level
Tests of
level
TELC exams *)
English
Level 5
C2
Level 5
Level 4
C1
Level 4
Zentrale
Oberstufenprüfung,
kleines Dt.
Sprachdiplom
Zentrale
Mittelstufenprüfung,
Prüfung
Wirtschaftsdeutsch
Zertifikat Deutsch Plus
*), Zertifikat Deutsch
für den Beruf *)
Level 3
B2
Level 3
Level 2
B1
Level 2
Zertifikat Deutsch *)
Level 1
A2
Level 1
Start Deutsch 2 *)
Breakthrough
A1
level
Level A1 Start Deutsch 1 *)
CIEP /
Alliance
française
diplomas
UNIcert
(different
languages)
Cambridge
exam
DALF C2 /
CPE
DHEF
UNIcert IV
DALF C1 /
CAE
DSLCF
UNIcert III
DELF B2 /
Diplôme de FCE
Langue
DELF B1 /
PET
CEFP 2
DELF A2 /
KET
CEFP 1
DELF A1
-
UNIcert II
UNIcert I
-
5
LEARNING STYLES  SUGGESTIONS FOR FITTING EXERCISES
READING
WRITING
LISTENING
SPEAKING
VISUAL
AUDITORY
KINAESTHETIC
6
LEARNING STYLES  SUGGESTIONS FOR FITTING EXERCISES
AUDITORY
KINAESTHETIC
READING
WRITING
LISTENING
SPEAKING
VISUAL
Discuss 1:
o When does the abstract thinking and logical memory (remembering general rules) develop?
o If humanistic teaching involves using your own experience and takes under consideration affective
factors, which age groups should be taught in this way?
o Teaching which age group is characterized by using concrete thinking, when learning should focus on
what can be seen and on what is real?
o For which age group should you use competitions which do not have a clear winner and why?
o What is the aim of teaching children a foreign language?
o Which age group can be the best learners (meaning: most passionate and creative with good attention
span and very flexible memory)? What can be some obstacles making teaching in this age group
difficult?
o For which age group is the professionalism and competence of the teacher especially important?
o At what age can grammar rules be fully comprehended?
o What characterizes adult second language learners? What are some pros and cons of such situation?
(think about: motivation, the role of the teacher, learning strategies)
Discuss 2:
 What motivates you to learn? Think of extrinsic (coming from outside; e.g. preparing for an exam,
financial) and intrinsic (coming from inside; e.g. hobby) factors.
 How to sustain motivation in the foreign language classroom (think both of the role of a language
teacher and of the student)?
Discuss 3:
 Think of your students/or students you are observing now. Is it possible to identify their preferred
learning style? Do you think that it might be easier to learn a foreign language for people displaying one
or other learning style?
 To what extent and in what ways can the teacher accommodate the variety of learning styles which may
be present among members of one class?
7
Discuss 1:
o When does the abstract thinking and logical memory (remembering general rules) develop?
o If humanistic teaching involves using your own experience and takes under consideration affective
factors, which age groups should be taught in this way?
o Teaching which age group is characterized by using concrete thinking, when learning should focus on
what can be seen and on what is real?
o For which age group should you use competitions which do not have a clear winner and why?
o What is the aim of teaching children a foreign language?
o Which age group can be the best learners (meaning: most passionate and creative with good attention
span and very flexible memory)? What can be some obstacles making teaching in this age group
difficult?
o For which age group is the professionalism and competence of the teacher especially important?
o At what age can grammar rules be fully comprehended?
o What characterizes adult second language learners? What are some pros and cons of such situation?
(think about: motivation, the role of the teacher, learning strategies)
Discuss 2:
 What motivates you to learn? Think of extrinsic (coming from outside; e.g. preparing for an exam,
financial) and intrinsic (coming from inside; e.g. hobby) factors.
 How to sustain motivation in the foreign language classroom (think both of the role of a language
teacher and of the student)?
Discuss 3:
 Think of your students/or students you are observing now. Is it possible to identify their preferred
learning style? Do you think that it might be easier to learn a foreign language for people displaying one
or other learning style?
 To what extent and in what ways can the teacher accommodate the variety of learning styles which may
be present among members of one class?
field  set of thoughts, ideas or feelings (abstract or perceptual)
Field dependence
Field independence
Perceiving object of learning as a unified whole but the
Ability to perceive a relevant item or factor in a field of
embedded elements are not clear
distracting items (more males than females but not
always)
Socializing, emphatic, self-identity connected with other
Independent, competing, self-confident
people
Better learners at school
Better at drills, analyzing, grammar
Ambiguity tolerance  how willing you are to tolerate ideas that run counter to your structure of knowledge (all the time
in a language)
Tolerant of ambiguity
Intolerant of ambiguity
Not bothered by exceptions
Rejecting totally contradictory material (+)
Ok with culture distance
Lack of creativity
Linguistic rules might not be effectively integrated
Dogmatism
Reflectivity vs. impulsivity
Reflectivity/systematic style
Weigh all the considerations of a problem, carefully
ventures a solution
Fewer errors
Requires patience
Impulsivity/intuitive style
Makes several mistakes before arriving at the correct
answer
Might be judged too quickly at school
Usually corrected too harshly
Faster
Holistic vs. serialist
Learn through global exposure vs. learn analyzing elements sequentially
Syllabus bound vs. syllabus free
Presentation of data by the teacher required vs. learn from general context outside classroom
Introverts vs. extraverts
Visual vs. auditory
8
field  set of thoughts, ideas or feelings (abstract or perceptual)
Field dependence
Field independence
Perceiving object of learning as a unified whole but the
Ability to perceive a relevant item or factor in a field of
embedded elements are not clear
distracting items (more males than females but not
always)
Socializing, emphatic, self-identity connected with other
Independent, competing, self-confident
people
Better learners at school
Better at drills, analyzing, grammar
Ambiguity tolerance  how willing you are to tolerate ideas that run counter to your structure of knowledge (all the time
in a language)
Tolerant of ambiguity
Intolerant of ambiguity
Not bothered by exceptions
Rejecting totally contradictory material (+)
Ok with culture distance
Lack of creativity
Linguistic rules might not be effectively integrated
Dogmatism
Reflectivity vs. impulsivity
Reflectivity/systematic style
Weigh all the considerations of a problem, carefully
ventures a solution
Fewer errors
Requires patience
Impulsivity/intuitive style
Makes several mistakes before arriving at the correct
answer
Might be judged too quickly at school
Usually corrected too harshly
Faster
Holistic vs. serialist
Learn through global exposure vs. learn analyzing elements sequentially
Syllabus bound vs. syllabus free
Presentation of data by the teacher required vs. learn from general context outside classroom
Introverts vs. extraverts
Visual vs. auditory
9