Essay Structure
Writing an academic essay means fashioning a coherent set of ideas into an argument. Because
essays are essentially linear—they offer one idea at a time—they must present their ideas in the order that
makes most sense to a reader. Successfully structuring an essay means attending to a reader's logic.
The focus of such an essay predicts its structure. It dictates the information readers need to know and
the order in which they need to receive it. Thus your essay's structure is necessarily unique to the main claim
you're making. Although there are guidelines for constructing certain classic essay types (e.g., comparative
analysis), there are no set formulas.
Answering Questions: The Parts of an Essay
A typical essay contains many different kinds of information, often located in specialized parts or
sections. Even short essays perform several different operations: introducing the argument, analyzing data,
raising counter-arguments, concluding. Introductions and conclusions have fixed places, but other parts don't.
Counter-argument, for example, may appear within a paragraph, as a free-standing section, as part of the
beginning, or before the ending. Background material (historical context or biographical information, a summary
of relevant theory or criticism, the definition of a key term) often appears at the beginning of the essay, between
the introduction and the first analytical section, but might also appear near the beginning of the specific section
to which it's relevant.
It's helpful to think of the different essay sections as answering a series of questions your reader might
ask when encountering your thesis. (Readers should have questions. If they don't, your thesis is most likely
simply an observation of fact, not an arguable claim).
"What?" The first question to anticipate from a reader is "what": What evidence shows that the
phenomenon described by your thesis is true? To answer the question you must examine your evidence, thus
demonstrating the truth of your claim. This "what" or "demonstration" section comes early in the essay, often
directly after the introduction. Since you're essentially reporting what you've observed, this is the part you might
have most to say about when you first start writing. But be forewarned: it shouldn't take up much more than a
third (often much less) of your finished essay. If it does, the essay will lack balance and may read as mere
summary or description.
"How?" A reader will also want to know whether the claims of the thesis are true in all cases. The
corresponding question is "how": How does the thesis stand up to the challenge of a counter-argument? How
does the introduction of new material—a new way of looking at the evidence, another set of sources—affect the
claims you're making? Typically, an essay will include at least one "how" section. (Call it "complication" since
you're responding to a reader's complicating questions.) This section usually comes after the "what," but keep in
mind that an essay may complicate its argument several times depending on its length, and that counterargument alone may appear just about anywhere in an essay.
"Why?" Your reader will also want to know what's at stake in your claim: Why does your interpretation
of a phenomenon matter to anyone beside you? This question addresses the larger implications of your thesis.
It allows your readers to understand your essay within a larger context. In answering "why", your essay explains
its own significance. Alhough you might gesture at this question in your introduction, the fullest answer to it
properly belongs at your essay's end. If you leave it out, your readers will experience your essay as
unfinished—or, worse, as pointless or insular.
Mapping an Essay
Structuring your essay according to a reader's logic means examining your thesis and anticipating what
a reader needs to know, and in what sequence, in order to grasp and be convinced by your argument as it
unfolds. The easiest way to do this is to map the essay's ideas via a written narrative. Such an account will give
you a preliminary record of your ideas, and will allow you to remind yourself at every turn of the reader's needs
in understanding your idea.
Essay maps ask you to predict where your reader will expect background information, counterargument, close analysis of a primary source, or a turn to secondary source material. Essay maps are not
concerned with paragraphs so much as with sections of an essay. They anticipate the major argumentative
moves you expect your essay to make. Try making your map like this:
 State your thesis in a sentence or two, then write another sentence saying why it's important to make
that claim. Indicate, in other words, what a reader might learn by exploring the claim with you. Here
you're anticipating your answer to the "why" question that you'll eventually flesh out in your conclusion.
 Begin your next sentence like this: "To be convinced by my claim, the first thing a reader needs to know
is..." Then say why that's the first thing a reader needs to know, and name one or two items of evidence
you think will make the case. This will start you off on answering the "what" question. (Alternately, you
may find that the first thing your reader needs to know is some background information.)
 Begin each of the following sentences like this: "The next thing my reader needs to know is..." Once
again, say why, and name some evidence. Continue until you've mapped out your essay.
Your map should naturally take you through some preliminary answers to the basic questions of what,
how, and why. It is not a contract, though—the order in which the ideas appear is not a rigid one. Essay maps
are flexible; they evolve with your ideas.
Signs of Trouble
A common structural flaw in college essays is the "walk-through" (also labeled "summary" or
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"description"). Walk-through essays follow the structure of their sources rather than establishing their own. Such
essays generally have a descriptive thesis rather than an argumentative one. Be wary of paragraph openers
that lead off with "time" words ("first," "next," "after," "then") or "listing" words ("also," "another," "in addition").
Alhough they don't always signal trouble, these paragraph openers often indicate that an essay's thesis and
structure need work: they suggest that the essay simply reproduces the chronology of the source text (in the
case of time words: first this happens, then that, and afterwards another thing . . . ) or simply lists example after
example ("In addition, the use of color indicates another way that the painting differentiates between good and
evil"). Copyright 2000, Elizabeth Abrams, for the Writing Center at Harvard University.
Overview of the Academic Essay
A clear sense of argument is essential to all forms of academic writing, for writing is thought made
visible. Insights and ideas that occur to us when we encounter the raw material of the world—natural
phenomena like the behavior of genes, or cultural phenomena, like texts, photographs and artifacts—must be
ordered in some way so others can receive them and respond in turn. This give and take is at the heart of the
scholarly enterprise, and makes possible that vast conversation known as civilization. Like all human ventures,
the conventions of the academic essay are both logical and playful. They may vary in expression from discipline
to discipline, but any good essay should show us a mind developing a thesis, supporting that thesis with
evidence, deftly anticipating objections or counter-arguments, and maintaining the momentum of discovery.
Motive and Idea
An essay has to have a purpose or motive; the mere existence of an assignment or deadline is not
sufficient. When you write an essay or research paper, you are never simply transferring information from one
place to another, or showing that you have mastered a certain amount of material. That would be incredibly
boring—and besides, it would be adding to the glut of pointless utterance. Instead, you should be trying to make
the best possible case for an original idea you have arrived at after a period of research. Depending upon the
field, your research may involve reading and rereading a text, performing an experiment, or carefully observing
an object or behavior.
By immersing yourself in the material, you begin to discover patterns and generate insights, guided by a
series of unfolding questions. From a number of possibilities, one idea emerges as the most promising. You try
to make sure it is original and of some importance; there is no point arguing for something already known, trivial,
or widely accepted.
Thesis and Development
The essay's thesis is the main point you are trying to make, using the best evidence you can marshall.
Your thesis will evolve during the course of writing drafts, but everything that happens in your essay is directed
toward establishing its validity. A given assignment may not tell you that you need to come up with a thesis and
defend it, but these are the unspoken requirements of any scholarly paper.
Deciding upon a thesis can generate considerable anxiety. Students may think, "How can I have a new
idea about a subject scholars have spent their whole lives exploring? I just read a few books in the last few
days, and now I'm supposed to be an expert?" But you can be original on different scales. We can't possibly
know everything that has been, or is being, thought or written by everyone in the world—even given the
vastness and speed of the Internet. What is required is a rigorous, good faith effort to establish originality, given
the demands of the assignment and the discipline. It is a good exercise throughout the writing process to stop
periodically and reformulate your thesis as succinctly as possible so someone in another field could understand
its meaning as well as its importance. A thesis can be relatively complex, but you should be able to distill its
essence. This does not mean you have to give the game away right from the start. Guided by a clear
understanding of the point you wish to argue, you can spark your reader's curiosity by first asking questions—
the very questions that may have guided you in your research—and carefully building a case for the validity of
your idea. Or you can start with a provocative observation, inviting your audience to follow your own path of
discovery.
The Tension of Argument
Argument implies tension but not combative fireworks. This tension comes from the fundamental
asymmetry between the one who wishes to persuade and those who must be persuaded. The common ground
they share is reason. Your objective is to make a case so that any reasonable person would be convinced of the
reasonableness of your thesis. The first task, even before you start to write, is gathering and ordering evidence,
classifying it by kind and strength. You might decide to move from the smallest piece of evidence to the most
impressive. Or you might start with the most convincing, then mention other supporting details afterward. You
could hold back a surprising piece of evidence until the very end.
In any case, it is important to review evidence that could be used against your idea and generate
responses to anticipated objections. This is the crucial concept of counter-argument. If nothing can be said
against an idea, it is probably obvious or vacuous. (And if too much can be said against it, it's time for another
thesis.) By not indicating an awareness of possible objections, you might seem to be hiding something, and your
argument will be weaker as a consequence. You should also become familiar with the various fallacies that can
undermine an argument—the "straw man" fallacy, fallacies of causation and of analogy, etc.—and strive to
avoid them.
The Structure of Argument
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The heart of the academic essay is persuasion, and the structure of your argument plays a vital role in
this. To persuade, you must set the stage, provide a context, and decide how to reveal your evidence. Of
course, if you are addressing a community of specialists, some aspects of a shared context can be taken for
granted. But clarity is always a virtue. The essay's objective should be described swiftly, by posing a question
that will lead to your thesis, or making a thesis statement. There is considerable flexibility about when and
where this happens, but within the first page or two, we should know where we are going, even if some
welcome suspense is preserved. In the body of the paper, merely listing evidence without any discernible logic
of presentation is a common mistake. What might suffice in conversation is too informal for an essay. If the point
being made is lost in a welter of specifics, the argument falters.
The most common argumentative structure in English prose is deductive: starting off with a
generalization or assertion, and then providing support for it. This pattern can be used to order a paragraph as
well as an entire essay. Another possible structure is inductive: facts, instances or observations can be
reviewed, and the conclusion to be drawn from them follows. There is no blueprint for a successful essay; the
best ones show us a focused mind making sense of some manageable aspect of the world, a mind where
insightfulness, reason, and clarity are joined.
Copyright 1998, Kathy Duffin, for the Writing Center at Harvard University
Essay Structure
Introduction
This module introduces you to the process of essay writing - from analysing the question through to the final
redrafting and editing. This diagram summarises the process. Click on each of the stages to find out more. Don't
forget that the first place to start is at the essay question itself.
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The Question
Analysing the question is the most crucial part of the
essay writing process. Here are the steps to follow:
1. Set time frames for specific tasks
2.Read the essay question carefully
3. Underline the key words and check their meaning
4. Highlight the action words
5. Mindmap the essay question
6. Establish a structure
7. Reread the essay question.
Example
Here is an example of where a student has used a mindmap to analyse an essay question "Aboriginal poverty
can only be understood in the light of institutionalised racism" Discuss.
Information Gathering
According to the time you have allocated for this task,
follow the following steps:
1. Access a variety of resources
2. Read effectively and make clear notes
3. Record details to include in references
Planning
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The planning stage of the process involves buiilding on
the mindmap you created when you analysed the
question. Here are the key steps:
1. Mindmap your research
2. Refine your essay structure
3. Re-read the essay question
Writing
You should have allocated a large amount of time for this
part of the process and it should occur well before the due
date.
1. Use your mindmap and essay plan.
2. Expand each idea into a paragraph.
3. Arrange the paragraphs logically.
4. Write the introduction and conclusion last.
Editing
The time allocated to this final stage in the process is
often the difference between a pass and a distinction; or
a pass and a fail. If possible the editing should occur in
the week prior to the due date.
1. Check that all parts of the question have been answered
2. Check the structure is there a clear beginning, middle and end?
3. Check that each paragraph is linked.
4. Check that the conclusion fulfils the promise you made in the introduction.
5. Check grammar and spelling.
6. Reference using the required format.
Redrafting Checklist
1. Have I answered the question?
2. Have I done sufficient research to enable me to carefully answer the question?
3. Do I have an introduction that states what I believe the question to mean, the position I am working
towards and the areas that will be covered in the essay?
4. Does the body include all parts of the question?
5. Have I constructed each paragraph of the body so that it contains several sentences of evidence to
back up the topic sentence which begins the paragraph?
6. Does the conclusion restate your attitude to the topic and refer the reader back to the topic?
7. Check the length. More than 10% over/under word length may be unacceptable.
8. Check title page. It should include your name, course, lecturer, topic, length, due date and anything else
your lecturer requires.
9. Have I cited sources for ideas and direct quotations using the method required by your lecturer?
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10. Does my essay satisfy lecturers's requirements?
For example:
o writing on one side of the page
o large margins
11. Is my writing correct at the surface level of:
o spelling?
o punctuation?
o grammar, including one idea per paragraph
o is it legible? (It is useful to ask a friend to check on these aspects! They see things we don't
see! Otherwise try reading the essay aloud).
12. Is the reference list accurately and correctly set out according to the lecturer's requirements?
Assessment Criteria
Your total mark for the essay will be determined by assigning marks for various aspects independently. The
number of marks assinged to each aspect will be approximately as follows:
Answering the question
30%
Writing style (clarity and organisation)
20%
Analysis of issues
20%
Understanding and interpretation of literature
20%
Bibliography (finding appropriate references)
10%
Total marks assigned to essay
100%
Sample Essays
The following sample essays may be downloaded. They have been graded as either Distinctions or High
Distinctions and contain comments from lecturers or tutors. Some of the samples also contain assessment
criteria and marking schedules. Please note that these sample essays have been written for different subjects
and the requirements and assessment criteria vary substantially.
Interpersonal Communication (Effective Writing EL1010)
D
Captain Cook Discovered Australia (Effective Writing EL1010)
D
Developed and Developing Countries (Society, Space & the Environment TG1090)
D
Language Defined (Language and Literacies in Education ED1421)
HD
My Brilliant Career (Australian Literature EL2020)
D
Psychology -at the Intersection of Biology and Culture (Introduction to Psychology PY1001)
HD
Subject: Effective Writing (EL1010)
Topic: “Interpersonal Communication”.
Grade Awarded: Distinction.
Lecturer’s Comments: Where you have not used the primary source you should indicate this e.g. Phillips in
Francis 1992.
AREA
CRITERIA
COMMENTS
INTRODUCTION (10)
 Subject matter and direction Clear focus
clearly shown and defined.
 Clear link to question
CONTENT - BASIC (10)

CONTENT - REACTION (10)


CRITICAL ANALYSIS (10)


PRESENTATION (10)



Evidence of basic
reading/data/understanding
s appropriate to topic.
Evidence of personal
reactions to basic ideas.
Depth analysis of major
ideas
Evidence of wider reading
and critical analysis.
Contributions and
conclusions drawn.
Correct grammar,
punctuation and spelling.
Acceptable and consistent
referencing format.
Reference list up to date
and relevant.
Base reading well understood.
Clear definitions consistently
used.
Very little personal reaction on
example 3.
Excellent reading beyond the
base set. Not a lot of critique
through culture introduced.
Well written with useful
headings and coherent
argument.
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

Originality, format and style.
Development of a logical
thesis clearly linked to the
question asked.
(Note: This sample is provided in the exact form it was submitted and corrections and comments made in the
text by the lecturer are not included.)
To function effectively in today’s society people must communicate with one another. Yet for some
individuals communication experiences are so unrewarding that they either consciously or unconsciously avoid
situations where communication is required. (McCroskey & Richmond, 1979) The term ‘communication
apprehension’ was coined by James McCroskey (1976a) and is defined as “an individual’s level of fear or
anxiety associated with either real or anticipated communication with another person or persons” (McCroskey,
1984). In the last two decades communication apprehension and related constructs, such as reticence and
unwillingness to communicate, have received extensive research and theoretical attention by scholars in
communication and psychology. In 1984, Payne and Richmond listed over 1000 entries in a bibliography of
publications and papers in this area (Payne & Richmond, 1984). Overwhelmingly the underlying theme of the
articles has been the negative effects that these constructs can have on academic and social success. It has
been forwarded that two out of ten people suffer some form of communication apprehension (CA). The focus of
this paper is on communication apprehension as a construct and on how it affects the behaviour and lifestyle of
an individual.
Although constructs such as CA, communication reticence, and unwillingness-to-communicate have
often been treated in literature as interchangeable, (McCroskey, 1982) particularly in earlier work, some
researchers have found the need to distinguish between them. Reticence was originally thought of in relation to
CA, particularly in connection with stage fright, and anxiety was identified as the causative agent that produced
the characteristic behavior patterns. (McCroskey, 1977b; McCroskey, 1982). However during the 1970’s the
constructs of reticence and CA evolved and changed to become quite disparate. According to McCroskey
(1982) the contemporary view is that reticent people are those who do not communicate competently. Phillips
(1984) further states that reticent people “avoid communication because they believe they will lose more by
talking than remaining silent” (p.52). So while the construct of reticence was initially the same as CA, reticence
is now perceived as a concept that represents a broad range of communicative incompetence while CA relates
to communicative incompetence that stems from anxiety or fear. (McCroskey, 1982).
The unwillingness-to-communicate construct, which was introduced by Burgoon (1976, as cited in
McCroskey, 1982) focuses on the individual's unwillingness to communicate with others. This construct was an
attempt to look beyond the concepts of CA and reticence (as it was perceived at the time) and along with fear
and anxiety, considers low self-esteem, introversion, anomia1 and alienation. “Thus this construct can be
viewed as intermediary between CA and the contemporary view of reticence. More simply, reticence is
concerned with people who do not communicate effectively; unwillingness-to-communicate is concerned with
one of the reasons that people may not do so (i.e., they do not want to); and, [although it is highly associated
with ineffective communication], CA is concerned with one of the reasons that people may be unwilling-tocommunicate”. (McCroskey, 1982, p.4).
Types of Communication Apprehension
A person may be apprehensive in one situation but not in another. Additionally, as communication does
not confine itself to just talk, a person may, for example, be apprehensive about communicating by engaging in
talk but feel quite comfortable about writing. McCroskey & Richmond (1987) identify four types of
communication apprehension: traitlike, context-based, receiver-based, and situational. Traitlike CA concerns
mainly oral communication and refers to a relatively stable and enduring predisposition of an individual towards
experiencing fear and/or anxiety across a wide range of communication contexts. Context-based refers to a
relatively enduring, personality-type CA that an individual experiences in a specific context. For example a
person may experience high levels of CA when speaking in groups but be not in dyadic interactions or when
speaking to others who are from a different cultural group. Receiver-based CA depends on the person or type
of person or group that is involved in the communication. For example, being fearful or anxious when
communicating with the boss or with strangers but not with friends (McCroskey & Richmond, 1987). Situational
CA depends upon changes in the environment in which communication takes place.
Causes of Communication Apprehension
Causes of Traitlike CA. When we consider the aetiology of human behaviour generally two primary
explanations are hereditary and the environment. In other words, we can either be born with certain
characteristics or we can acquire them through learning. While no specific “CA gene” has ever been identified,
as a result of studies on infants and twins, most writers today agree that there may be a hereditary component.
(McCroskey, 1982; McCroskey, 1984). It is argued that children are born with certain personality predispositions
or tendencies which affects how they will react to environmental stimuli. However, although heredity may have
an impact on traitlike CA most researchers propose that the patterns of reinforcement that an individual
1
Anomia refers to difficulty in finding (remembering) the appropriate word to describe an object, action, or attribute.
(Carlson, 1994)
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experiences in the environment are the dominant components. (McCroskey, 1982; McCroskey, 1984). The
notion is that children make attempts at communication and if they are positively reinforced they will be
encouraged to communicate more but if they are negatively reinforced the child will communicate less.
Causes of Situational CA. While many different elements have been forwarded as causes of situational
CA some of the main ones are novelty, formality, subordinate status, conspicuousness, unfamiliarity,
dissimilarity, the degree of attention from others, evaluation and prior history (McCroskey, 1984). When an
individual is presented with a novel situation (ie: one that is unfamiliar or occurs infrequently such as an
interview) concerns such as how to behave can result in anxiety. Formal situations tend to be more restrictive
with more rigid behaviour rules and CA increases because of the narrower confines. Similarly, CA can result
when a person is in a subordinate position because the person with the higher status defines the boundaries of
acceptable behaviour. Generally, the more conspicuous a person feels, or the more unfamiliar the situation, the
more CA is likely to be experienced. Likewise people often feel less apprehensive with others who are most like
themselves. Sometimes, however, an individual will be more apprehensive with similar peers because they
become more concerned with how they will be evaluated by them and the feeling of being evaluated in any
situation often leads to anxiety. Studies have shown that the majority of people are most comfortable with a
moderate degree of attention. (McCroskey, 1984) When individuals are ignored or stared at the level of CA
often rises. The level of CA also often rises where a prior history of failure increases the likelihood of failure
again. (McCroskey, 1984). Clearly, some of these causal elements stem from reticence due to inexperience
and/or communicative incompetence within certain contexts, while others are the result of learning or conformity
to social norms and expectations.
Effects of Communication Apprehension
It has been argued that “learning proceeds best when [an] organism is in a state of tension” (Phillips,
nd, as cited in Devito, 1985, p.325) so it should be noted that while the effects of CA for the individual generally
tends to be negative CA is not always detrimental. Low levels of fear can energise us to try harder and learn
more. However, as CA is heightened, feelings of discomfort tend to increase and the willingness to
communicate declines (McCroskey & Richmond, 1987). Hence, “high CA is seen as a potential inhibitor of the
development of both communication competence and communication skill and as a direct precursor of negative
communication affect. Low CA, on the other hand, is seen as a facilitator of the development of communication
competence and communication skill and as a precursor of positive communication affect”. (McCroskey, 1982,
p.21). Studies have shown high CA can impact on a person’s behavior, relationships, the perceptions of others,
occupational choice and employment opportunities and education. (McCroskey, 1976b; McCroskey &
Richmond, 1979; McCroskey & Richmond, 1987; Richmond, 1984)
Behaviour. Many studies have shown that the behaviours of people with high CA actually discourage
interaction (McCroskey, 1976b). When approached, mannerisms such as averting eyes, staring into drinks,
appearing generally anxious, aloof and unfriendly are all typical (Richmond, 1984). In this way high
communication apprehensive’s attempt to avoid communication. When avoidance is not possible they will
contribute far fewer ideas, make less relevant comments and agree with the ideas of others more often.
(McCroskey, 1976b; McCroskey & Richmond, 1987; Richmond, 1984). Compared to low communication
apprehensive’s, in small groups high communication apprehensive’s also tend to use more pauses and
rhetorical interrogatives (such as “you know”) in speech; exhibit more tension; and participate less (McCroskey,
1976b; Richmond, 1984). High communication apprehensive people also tend to physically locate themselves
where they are less likely to have interaction (McCroskey, 1976a; McCroskey, 1976b). In rooms they choose
seats that are to the sides and rear and avoid influential seats and, in wider society, choose housing that is
more remote from centres of interaction. (McCroskey, 1976a; McCroskey, 1976b)
Relationships. As the behavioural response of CA is to avoid and\or discourage interaction with others
it is not surprising that CA has been linked to feelings of loneliness, isolation, low self esteem and the ability to
discuss personal problems (Daly & Stafford, 1984; McCroskey, Daly, Richmond & Falcione, 1977; McCroskey &
Richmond, 1987; Richmond, 1984; Scott & Rockwell, 1997). High communication apprehensive individuals have
difficulty in forming and maintaining close relationships and when they are formed will try to ‘hang on to the
relationship for dear life’ (Richmond, 1984). Compared to low communication apprehensive’s, they interact less
with peer strangers, have fewer friends, are less likely to accept blind dates, are more likely to engage in
exclusive dating, are more devastated on relationship breakups and have more difficulty in re-establishing new
relationships (McCroskey, 1976b; McCroskey & Sheahan, 1978; Richmond, 1984). Characteristically, compared
to low communication apprehensive people, high communication apprehensive’s are perceived to be less
socially attractive and less attractive by members of the opposite sex, less likely to be opinion leaders or
leaders in a group and less successful in the social environment. (McCroskey, 1976b; McCroskey, Richmond,
Daly & Cox, 1975)
Occupational Choice and Employment Opportunities. For the communicative apprehensive individual
prospects of employment, retention and advancement are all significantly lowered. (Richmond, 1984). High
communication apprehensive’s are less likely to receive job interviews, be offered employment, or retain their
positions than are other people (McCroskey & Richmond, 1979). Research indicates that high communication
apprehensive people tend to self select jobs with low communication requirements even though they may offer
less status and lower incomes; have less desire for advancement; are less satisfied with their jobs and their
supervisors; and find it more difficult to establish good relationships with co-workers than do low communication
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apprehensive people (McCroskey, 1976b; McCroskey & Richmond, 1979). They are also perceived as being
less productive, less competent and needing more training than low communication apprehensive people
(McCroskey & Richmond, 1979).
Education. High CA has been found to have a significant impact on an individual’s learning and
education (McCroskey, 1977a; McCroskey & Daly, 1976). Students who are highly apprehensive tend to score
lower on standardised achievement tests, have lower Grade Point Averages and benefit less from personalised
instruction than low communication apprehensive students (McCroskey, 1977a; McCroskey & Daly, 1976).
Literature has suggested that CA can even affect language acquisition (Asker, 1995). High communication
apprehensive students will try to avoid classes which involve communication; have a higher school drop out rate
and experience lower teacher expectations than others (McCroskey & Daly, 1976). McCroskey (1976a) has
suggested that communication apprehension “may be the single most pervasive handicap confronting children
in our schools and citizens in our society” (p.3).
Culture
While communication exists in all cultures and subcultures communication norms and expectations may
be vastly diverse as a function of culture. For instance, in the United States and many other western nations
oral communication is highly valued with positive social evaluation while silence is often perceived as
representing high CA. In other cultures, however, silence may be an integral part of the communication process.
In Apache culture, for example, strangers who come together in an environment such as work may remain silent
for several days and young Apache women are explicitly taught that silence is a sign of modesty (Devito, 1985).
In Papua New Guinea individuals learn to remain silent in the presence of an elder as a sign of respect (Francis,
1992). They believe that overriding the talk of an elder may endanger key relationships and networks within the
whole group. Thus, one’s communication norms and competencies are culture-bound. Unfortunately, the
majority of the studies in communication have been carried out in the United States and have rarely made
allowance for the differences in communication styles between cultures. “Consequently remaining silent is
considered a problem and silent cultures are interpreted as representing a high prevalence of communication
apprehension.” (McCroskey & Sallinen-Kuparinen, 1991, p.56).
However, CA may still play a part when different cultural groups come together. When individuals find
themselves in situations where their culture or sub-culture is in the minority they are said to be ‘culturally
divergent’ (McCroskey & Richmond, 1990). To be effective communicators in another culture the onus is
generally on the culturally divergent individual to adjust to the communicative norms of the dominant group.
Culturally divergent individuals may be likened to people who have deficit communication skills. Because they
do not have effective communication skills, they tend to be much less willing to communicate at all for fear of
failure and possible negative consequences. This may be particularly so when speaking a second language. For
example, one study found that 43 % of Puerto Rican students experienced CA when speaking their second
language, English, compared to only 11% when they were speaking their native language, Spanish
(McCroskey, Gudykunst & Nishida, 1985). Therefore, the difference between the culturally divergent person
and the skill-deficit one is that a culturally divergent individual may have excellent communication skills in their
own culture and within the confines of their own culture CA may not be a problem (McCroskey & Richmond,
1990; McCroskey & Richmond, 1987).
The conclusion that we can draw from the research and studies that have been conducted so far is that
communication is an ongoing process that involves constant changes within the people involved and their
environment. When communicating with others, individuals are influenced and affected by many variables and
CA may be the result of any number of different causes. The degree of CA that an individual experiences can
vary depending on their personality and the context of situation. Nonetheless, the notion that high levels of CA
negatively affects an individual’s success both academically and socially appears to be supported by the
research.
9
References:
Asker, B. (1995). Identifying orally reticent students. Aston University: Dept of Languages & European
Studies. (Online). Available: sol.aston.ac.uk/lsu/sub8ba.html [1 Jan 1998]
Daly, J.A. & Stafford, L. (1984). Correlates and consequences of social-communicative anxiety. In J.C.
McCroskey & J.A. Daly (Eds.). Avoiding communication: shyness, reticence, and communication
apprehension. (pp. 125-143). London: Sage Publications Inc.
DeVito, J.A. (1985). Human communication: the basic course. (3rd edn) Sydney: Harper & Row Publishers.
Francis, D. I. (1992). Why didn’t you say that? Papua New Guinean nationals’ participation in decision-making
in a tertiary education institution. PHD Thesis. Townsville: James Cook University.
McCroskey, J.C. (1976a). The effects of communication apprehension on nonverbal behavior. Communication
quarterly, 24, 39-44.
McCroskey, J.C. (1976b). The problems of communication apprehension in the classroom. Florida speech
communication journal, 4, 1-12. Available: www.as.wvu.edu/%7Ejmccrosk/66.htm [26 Jan 1998].
McCroskey, J.C. (1977a). Classroom consequences of communication apprehension. Communication
education, 26, 27-33.
McCroskey, J.C. (1977b). Oral communication apprehension: a summary of recent theory and research.
Human communication research, 4, 78-96.
McCroskey, J.C. (1982). Oral communication apprehension: a reconceptualization. Communication yearbook,
6,136-170. Available: www.as.wvu.edu/%7Ejmccrosk/101.htm [26 Jan 1998].
McCroskey, J.C. (1984). The communication apprehension perspective. In J.C. McCroskey & J.A. Daly
(Eds.). Avoiding communication: shyness, reticence, and communication apprehension. (pp. 13-38).
London: Sage Publications Inc.
McCroskey, J.C., & Daly, J.A. (1976). Teachers’ expectations of the communication apprehensive child in the
elementary school. Human communication research, 3(1), 67-72.
McCroskey, J. C., Daly, J.A., Richmond, V.P., & Falcione, R.L. (1977). Studies of the relationship between
communication apprehension and self-esteem. Human communication research, 3(3), 269-277.
McCroskey, J.M., Gudykunst, W.B., & Nishida, T. (1985). Communication apprehension among Japanese
students in native and second language. Communication research reports, 2, 11-15.
McCroskey, J.C. & Richmond, V.P. (1979). The impact of communication apprehension on individuals in
organizations. Communication quarterly, 27, 55-61.
McCroskey, J.C. & Richmond, V.P. (1987). Willingness to communicate. In J.C. McCroskey & J.A. Daly
(Eds.), Personality and interpersonal communication. (pp.129-156). London: Sage Publications Inc.
McCroskey, J. C. & Richmond, V.P. (1990). Willingness to Communicate: Differing Cultural Perspectives.
Southern communication journal 1990, 56, 1, fall, 72-77.
McCroskey, J.C., Richmond, V.P., Daly, J.A, & Cox, B.G. (1975). The effects of communication apprehension
on interpersonal attraction. Human communication research, 2(1), 51-65.
McCroskey, J.C. & Sallinen-Kuparinen, A..
(1991).
Willingness to Communicate, Communication
Apprehension, Introversion, and Self-Reported Communication Competence: Finnish and American
Comparisons. Communication research reports, Vol. 8, June, 55-64.
McCroskey, J.C. & Sheahan, M.E. (1978). Communication apprehension, social preference, and social
behavior in a college environment. Communication quarterly, 26, 41-45.
Payne, S.K. & Richmond, V.P. (1984). A bibliography of related research and theory. In J.C. McCroskey &
J.A. Daly (Eds.). Avoiding communication: shyness, reticence, and communication apprehension. (pp.
247-294). London: Sage Publications Inc.
Phillips, G.M. (1984). A Perspective on Social Withdrawal. In J.C. McCroskey & J.A. Daly (Eds.). Avoiding
communication: shyness, reticence, and communication apprehension. (pp. 51-66). London: Sage
Publications Inc.
Richmond, V.P. (1984). Implication of Quietness: Some Facts and Speculations. In J.C. McCroskey & J.A.
Daly (Eds.). Avoiding communication: shyness, reticence, and communication apprehension. (pp. 145155). London: Sage Publications Inc.
Scott, C.R. & Rockwell, S.C. (1997). The effect of communication, writing, and technology apprehension on
likelihood to use new communication technologies. Communication education, 46, 44-62.
Subject: Effective Writing (EL1010)
Topic: “Captain James Cook discovered Australia”. Discuss
Grade Awarded: Distinction.
Lecturer’s Comments: A thoughtful, well-structured essay. The introduction is perhaps a little long in
comparison with the overall length of the essay.
(Note: This sample is provided in the exact form it was submitted and corrections and comments made in the
text by the lecturer are not included. A Reference List was submitted by the student but this has not been
included in the sample.)
They came in to the little town
A semi-naked band subdued and silent,
All that remained of their tribe.
They came here to the place of their old bora ground
10
Where now the many white men hurry about like ants.
Notice of estate agent reads: 'Rubbish May be Tipped Here.'
Now it half covers the traces of the old bora ring.
They sit and are confused, they cannot say their thoughts:
'We are as strangers here now, but the white tribe are the strangers.'
(from 'We are Going', Noonuccal 193).
This passage from the poem We are Going (by Oodgeroo Noonuccal) gives an illustration of how the
Aborigines would have felt with the invasion by Europeans, of the land which they occupied for 1000s of years.
The arrival of the Europeans 'created a confrontation between two societies with radically different ways of
living' (Berzins 19). The two cultures disagreed or had misunderstandings because they held different concepts
and ideas about life, particularly about the land. The Europeans considered Australia to be 'terra nullius' or
unoccupied land, despite encountering the natives. Explorers saw no fences or borders which in their culture
would symbolise some sort of ownership over the earth, therefore they regarded Australia to be land for the
taking. However, Aborigines believed that the land itself was communal property and that a large piece of
country should not belong to any individual - the land belonged to the whole tribe (Ward 13). Yet no endeavour
was made by Europeans to "understand or accommodate Aboriginal value systems" (Nile 49). Moreover, while
the Aborigines were presumably the first to occupy Australia, they received little acknowledgment for their find
or connection with the land. Captain James Cook on the other hand, receives much acclaim for discovering 'The
Great South Land', although Aborigines, Asians and other European explorers stumbled upon it before him.
However, one cannot disregard the fact that Cook's was a 'discovery' and quite an important one at that, for he
literally put Australia on the map. Yet the term 'discovered' or 'discovery' according to the Macquarie Dictionary,
refers to acquiring knowledge of, learning of or finding out, for the first time. Therefore, Cook did not 'discover'
Australia in the true sense of the word, but rather he uncovered and revealed the potential of 'The Great South
Land' to the rest of the world.
As far as archaeologists know, the Australian Aborigines were the first people to inhabit Australia. In
fact, the ancestors of the indigenous Australians were the first human beings to cross oceanic depths between
continents (Ward 1). Anthropologists speculate that the first human occupants in Australia were of the
'Australoid' race (Ward 6). It is thought that these first pioneering explorers entered Australia at least 50 000
B.P., that is, before the present (time), as archaeologists say (Ward 1). In 1989 archaeologists excavated two
ancient Aboriginal campsites at the foot of the western escarpment of the Arnhem Land plateau. From these
excavations it was established (through the use of thermo-luminescent and radio carbon dating) that men and
women had first occupied the sites between 60.000 and 50.000 B.P. (Ward 1). The first indication of the culture,
beliefs and way of life of these people occurred when archaeologists found the skeleton of a cremated woman
at Lake Mungo in New South Wales. Evidence also suggests that there was continuous human occupation from
at least 32.750 to 24.000 B.P. in this area (Ward 1). Yet 'for all but the last two hundred years, the Australian
Aborigines were almost completely isolated from contact with other people' (Nile 32). However, the first people
that the Aborigines may have encountered were the Asians.
The Asians or perhaps more precisely, the Buginese, are thought to have fished in Australian waters
and possibly had some sort of contact with the Aborigines, before Europeans arrived (Clark 1). Yet many have
ignored the fact that the Buginese may have had contact or knowledge of Australia, before Europeans
encountered the continent. It is recognised that the Buginese were arriving at the north coast from the Celebes
to gather trepang - a sea-slug used by the Chinese for soup and as an aphrodisiac. However, they did not
appear to be interested in gaining or invading the land. Perhaps the Buginese were as unimpressed by what
they saw of the land as the Dutch and other explorers were afterwards (Clark 1).
In fact, the Europeans were the last to 'discover' Australia. Many Europeans speculated that there had
to be a great unknown southern land - terra australis incognita - to balance the landmasses of the northern part
of the world. In 1606, Spanish explorer Luis Vaez de Torres was the first to confirm that Australia and New
Guinea were separate landmasses, when he sailed through the strait between New Guinea and Cape York
Peninsula (Nile 98). However, the first European to land in Australia was a Dutchman named Dirk Hartog who
arrived accidentally on the west coast while on his way from the Netherlands to Batavia. He left a pewter plate
inscribed with the name of his ship and its officers on the shore (Nile 100). Another great discovery of Australia
was made by Abel Tasman - also a Dutch explorer. Tasman discovered the island which now carries his name,
Tasmania in 1642 (Clark 12). Yet perhaps the most important discovery made by a European was by Captain
James Cook. In 1770, Cook did what no other European had done officially - he placed the British flag on
Australia and claimed it for Britain. He also chartered the entire east coast (while the Dutch mapped the west).
In fact, he confirmed that what the Dutch called 'New Holland' was indeed 'The Great South Land' (Nile 105). In
addition, he confirmed that apart from Australia and Antarctica, no other southern continent existed (Nile 103).
Thus he completed the jigsaw of the south. While Cook's discovery was beneficial in some aspects, it was
detrimental in others. Since European colonization and settlement the traditional pattern of the lives of the
Aborigines has been massively disrupted and changed.
Therefore, from the view of the Australian Aborigines, it may be a mute point to suggest that Captain
James Cook or any other European discovered Australia. In addition, while Cook's discovery was extremely
significant, one must take into account that Europeans were quite confidant that a south land existed and it was
simply a matter of time before it was found. Therefore, Captain Cook did not 'discover', but merely uncovered a
11
land which was already known in the minds of the Europeans. However, it is important to accredit all explorers
of 'The Great South Land' and to recognise the contribution of the original inhabitants and their history with the
land, as they all helped in the shaping of Australia.
Subject: Society, Space and the Environment (TG1090)
Topic: "Compare and contrast the differences in population characteristics between developed and developing
countries."
Grade Awarded: Distinction.
Tutor’s Comments: Your essay shows good command of academic referencing and contains useful,
interesting, illustrative material. It is way over the word length. I think you could easily have made it shorter by
some editing - I've edited some parts for you to eliminate the padding. You need to focus on making your writing
more succinct, and ensuring that you always make your meaning clear. Use of sub-headings may help. You
have analysed some of the differences and presented a reasonably coherent line of argument.
Marking Schedule:
CRITERION
MAJOR POINTS
POSSIBLE MARK
YOUR MARK
Relevance to topic
Answers question
10
7.5
Contains relevant detail
Analysis
Development of issues
10
7
Readability &
Grammar, sentence
10
7.5
expression
construction.
Ability to communicate
main points effectively.
Correct spelling
Punctuation
Organisation & structure Introduction
10
7
Conclusion
Paragraphs
Referencing
Correct referencing
5
4
style
Proper list of references
Has the literature on the
topic been mentioned?
Illustrative material
Relevance of maps,
5
3.5
tables of data and
diagrams
Correct conventions on
maps
Proper titles & sources
on maps etc
(Note: This sample is provided in the exact form it was submitted and corrections and comments made in the
text by the lecturer are not included. Tables, maps and diagrams have not been included in the sample.)
Comparing and contrasting population characteristics of developed and developing countries give
valuable insights into social, political and economic processes of countries. All numerical data given in this
essay are in tables 1. and 2., and is correlated from the CIA (Central
Intelligence Agency) website (ODCI, 1998). It is important to point out that countries that were picked were
chosen at random, and they are only but a few representative countries. To be able to compare and contrast
population characteristics, it is first necessary to define particular terms. The population characteristics to be
examined are only but a few indicators of how a countries population is. The population characteristics that are
going to be looked at in this essay are population growth, crude birth rates, crude death rates, life expectancies
at birth and infant mortality rates. However at this point it is important to note that space limitations of this essay
preclude me from touching on other population characteristics and other countries.
Before defining any population characteristics, it is important to define what a developed and
developing country is.
A developed country is a country that had undergone development or industrialisation.
A developing country can also be called less-developed or undeveloped, and is a country that is
undergoing development, and is in the early stages of developing an industrial economy (Bernard, 1997).
Developed countries include all regions of Europe, North America, Australia, New Zealand and Japan.
Developing countries include all regions of Africa, Asia (excluding Japan), Latin America, the Caribbean,
and regions of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia (UNDP, 1997).
Population growth rate is the average annual percent change in the population resulting from a surplus
of births over death and the balance of migrants entering and leaving a country (CIA,1999).
Crude birth rate is a measure of how many people are born in an area or a country over a particular
period of time. It is often referred in terms of the number of live births per year per 1000 people in the population
(McKenzie and Williams, 1996, p.vii).
12
Crude death rate is a measure of the number of people who have died within an area or a country over
a certain time period. Expressed in terms of deaths per year per 1000 people (McKenzie and Williams, 1996,
p.vii).
Life expectancy at birth is the average number of years a newborn infant can expect to live under
current mortality levels (PRB, 1998).
Infant mortality rate is the annual number of deaths of infants under the age of one year per 1000 live births
(Jacobsen, 1996, p.39).
Total population numbers of countries, provide overviews of the variations of populations around the
globe. The most probable future population projection is that in 2050, the worlds population will be somewhere
between 7.7 to 11.1 billion, with the most likely figure to be 9.4 billion (UNFPA, 1997). This projection becomes
evidently clearer when China today is supporting the highest population in the world with an astounding number
of 1,236.9. However when China’s population growth rate is compared to a developed country with a relatively
low population like New Zealand, we see that the population growth rate in China is less than New Zealands
population growth rate. With China having such an alarmingly high population, it is not surprising that if the
population growth is not kept in check, China will have major problems in relation to its available resources. As
agrees by Canon and Jenkins (1990, p.102), China’s population is too large and growing too rapidly. To combat
this problem however, China’s government has infringed stringent family planning programs, like the 1980’s
one-child policy program (Baker and Chapman, 1992, p.127). It would appear that this policy is the key to
explaining why China’s population growth rate is so low, comparable to figures of developed countries. This
comparison however, is not uniform throughout the rest of the developing countries. When observing
Afghanistan’s population growth rate of 4.21%, and Canada’s rate of 1.09%, the drastic difference in the figures
can be seen. This comparison would lead to the assumption that population growth rates are generally higher in
developing countries (figure 1. and 2.).
In an overall comparison of figures relating to crude birth rates, developing countries are by far
supporting the greater numbers in births in comparison to that of developed countries (figure 3.). For example,
Uganda and Afghanistan have considerable higher crude birth rates (49.21 and 42.37 respectively), when
compared to that of a developed country like New Zealand which has the highest birth rate of 14.89 among the
chosen developed countries or even that of Ireland with a rate of 13.49. There are many factors that appear to
be closely related to crude birth rate figures. For example, the majority religion in Uganda is Roman Catholicism,
whereas in Afghanistan it is Islam (ODCI,1998). Unwin (1994, p.100) writes that some governments are
resistant to reductions in birth, notable those countries being Islamic and Catholic. As suggested in Fellmann
(1995, p.95) these religions forbid the use of artificial birth control, and or abortions. Findlay (1987, p.35) also
points out that Islamic countries continue to favour large families to this day. These cultural, religious and
societal factors inadvertently lead to higher birth rates among countries. However, low birth rates that are
characteristic of developed countries may also be attributed to certain factors, like financial/economic stability,
or restrictions in family sizes (fellmann, 1995, p.95).
When figures of death rates are compared between developed and developing countries, numbers are
surprisingly similar. A majority of undeveloped countries appear to have the same numbers of those of
developed countries. Death rates for developing and developed countries range from 6.19 in Iran to 18.95 in
Uganda, and 6.89 in Australia to 10.78 in Sweden (figure 4.). As Caldwell (1990, p.45) suggests, death rates in
developed countries started declining after the industrial revolution. Being economically more stable allowed
countries like the United Kingdom to improve hospital facilities. It also allowed for treatment of drinking water
and sewage. The industrial revolution occurred in a time when there was also a scientific revolution, which
allowed for safer medical procedures, this era also saw an influx of safer drugs, antibiotics and new vaccines.
As Caldwell (1990, p.45) points out, material and scientific improvements seemed to be the main factors for
bringing death rates to lower numbers. The reason for a majority of developing countries now seeing lower
death rates, is most definitely attributed to the introduction of western medical practices, better health services,
improvements in diets, cleaner drinking water and an overall better standard of living (Findlay, 1987, p.15).
However when the figures are thoroughly examined, it is noticeable that Afghanistan, Uganda and Kenya have
the highest death rates out of any of the other chosen countries. Reasons for this may be because for example,
Afghanistan is incessantly in a civil war (Baker and Chapman, 1992, p.50), and Africa is plagued with the AIDS
virus (Kennedy, 1993, p.27). Perhaps there is just simply a continuation of diseases linked to malnutrition,
sewage and polluted water supplies (Findlay, 1987, p.16). It has also been suggested by some demographers,
that certain infectious diseases are endemic in some tropical climates, therefore the always being higher death
rates in some parts of the world (Findlay, 1987, p.15).
Life expectancies at birth between developed and undeveloped countries are quite different from each
other. From the chosen countries, the life expectancy at birth ranges from 42.6 in Uganda to the highest figure
of 69.59 in china, whereas developed countries range from the lowest figure being 76.13 in the USA to 80 in
Japan (figure 5.). As opposed to crude death rates Unwin (1994, p.102) indicates that life expectancies at birth
are better indicators of the true-life chances of a countries population. Clean water, good food supplies,
availability of medical treatments, and environmental pollution influence a country’s life expectancy rate. Some
undeveloped countries suffer from periodic catastrophes, famines and wars. Better standards of economic living
all play a major role in life expectancy rates. Countries with better economies can afford vaccination programs,
better housing facilities, education, and better food supplies (Unwin, 1994, p.102). These factors have a major
13
role in delaying early deaths. All developed countries enjoy longer life expectancies, the Japanese population
being the longest-lived people on earth (Baker and Chapman, 1992, p.195). From the correlation of this data, it
is evident that populations of developed countries enjoy longer life spans attributed to overall better standards of
living.
When infant mortality rates of developed and less-developed countries is examined, the differences are
frighteningly opposite. The rate ranges from 45.46 in China to a shocking 143.63 in Afghanistan, whereas for
developed countries, infant mortality ranges from 3,93 in Sweden to 6.04 in Ireland. Figure 6. shows under 5
years child survival rates. There are positively no similarities in this area. Reasons for such high numbers in
infant mortality greatly vary. Wilson (1981, p.44) states that factors such as maternal nutrition levels, pre-natal,
post-natal medical care, water and food quality, hygiene, and living standards all effect infant mortality
rates.(figure 7.). As agreed by Findlay (1987, p.18), importance given to maternal education is critical, as
improvements in medical technology is not enough. Caldwell (1990, p.47) points out that child mortality declines
with each additional year of a mother’s education. Therefore even a couple of years of schooling has an impact
on mortality rates. Caldwell (1990, p.49) also points out that cultural attitudes and practices effect child mortality
rates. By this statement, it is meant that there is a preference in some countries of sons over daughters. This
preference is estimated to almost certainly keep child mortality higher than what it might normally be. It has
however been argues by Simpson (1994, p.28), that the decreasing infant mortality rates are effecting the
increasing numbers of children. Simpson (1994, p.28) suggests that this might imbalance social systems of
countries, where the wider society might be unable to handle a huge influx of this younger dependant section of
the society. It is also suggested that systems might start to fail from the pressures of enlarging younger
populations.
In conclusion, developed countries overall showed similar numbers, whereas developing countries were
quite varied. Ranges in figures for developed countries were smaller than that of less-developed places. Crude
birth rates between the two types of countries were quite dissimilar, figures being comparatively lower in
industrialised countries. Crude death rates were however surprisingly similar, and leads to the assumption that
modern advances contribute greatly for death rates to decline. Life expectancies at birth were again different
from each other, showing that developed countries overall enjoyed longer life spans in present day conditions.
Likewise, infant mortality rates were extremely different, and showed no similarities whatsoever. From the
correlation of all the data, it is obvious as to why growth rates are higher in most developing countries as
opposed to more established countries. These differences in population characteristics between developed and
developing countries have been occurring for many years, and although figures correlated over the years are
showing a slow evening out of numbers, it is not likely to be for many more years to come until great similarities
are noticed between the two types of countries.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
- Baker, K.M. and Chapman, G.P., The Changing Geography of Asia. London, England, Routledge, 1992.
- Bernard, J.R.L.(ed), The Macquarie Dictionary. 3rd edition, Australia, Macquarie Library Pty Ltd., 1997.
- Caldwell, J.C., ‘Cultural and Social Factors Influencing Mortality Levels in Developing Countries’, in Preston,
S.H.(ed), World Population: Approaching the year 2000. California, USA, Sage Publications Inc., 1990, pp.4459.
- Canon, T. and Jenkins, A., The Geography of Contemporary China. London, England, Routledge, 1990.
- CIA, 1999. World Factbook 1998: Notes and Definitions. Can be accessed on line at:
http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/notes.html, date accessed 15/03/99.
- Fellmann, J., et al., Human Geography. Landscapes of Human Activities. 4th edition, Dubuque, USA, Wm. C.
Brown Communications, 1995.
- Findlay, A.M. and Findlay, A.M., Population and Development in the Third World. New York, USA, Metheun
and Co Ltd., 1987.
- Jacobsen, J.E., Population Growth. Sausalito, USA, University Science Books, 1996.
- Kennedy, P., Preparing for the 21st Century. London, England, Harper Collins, 1993.
- McKenzie, F. and Williams, L.S., Understanding Australia’s Population. Canberra, Australia, Australian
Government Publishing Services, 1996.
- ODCI, 1998. World Factbook 1998. Country Listings. Can be accessed on line at:
http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html, date accessed 15/03/99.
- PRB, 1998. Population Reference Bureau: Glossary of Population Terms. Can be accessed on line at:
http://www.prb.org/news/glossary, date accessed 15/03/99.
- Simpson, E., The Developing World. 2nd edition, Essex, England, Longman Group UK, 1994
- UNDP, 1997. United Nations Urban and Rural Areas. Can be accessed on line at:
http://www.undp.org/popin/wdtrends/ura/hurapwld.htm, date accessed 6/03/99.
- UNFPA, 1997. State of World Population 1997: Box 1. Can be accessed on line at:
http://web.unfpa.org/swp97e/box1.html, date accessed 6/03/99.
- Unwin, T., Atlas of World Development. West Sussex, England, John Wiley and Sons Ltd., 1994
- Wilson, M.G.A., Population and Change. Australia, Sorrett Publishing, 1981
Subject: Language and Literacies in Education (ED1421)
Topic: “Language defined: Learning to use language and issues of profound importance to teachers”
Grade Awarded: High Distinction
14
Lecturer’s Comments: This is a superb paper. It is concise, articulate, to the point and yet considered. I have
noted some points in the text that you might consider. Well done.
Criteria Sheet:
CRITERIA
RATING
LOW
HIGH
Language Defined - Theoretical Rationale
√
Personal Experience Linked to Content & Topic
√
Demonstrated Understanding of Theory
√
Language Theory Related to Teaching Implications
√
Written Coherence and Logical Progression
√
Observance of Academic Writing Conventions
√
(Note: Corrections and comments made in the text of this essay are not included in this sample)
Language, roughly, can be defined as communicating with others. Language is more than speech and
writing, it is the making and sharing of meaning with ourselves and others (Emmitt and Pollock, 1997, p.19). For
that meaning to be shared the language signs and symbols are selected and used according to rules. These
rules have been developed and agreed upon by the language users and must be learned by new language
users (Emmitt and Pollock, 1997, p.11). The rules of language come from our every day lives, and from the
environment in which we live. I will attempt to explain further how I learned language using examples of primary
discourse, secondary discourse and literacy.
Our first contact with language is our primary discourse. Of the three theories of how language is
learned according to Lightbown & Spada (1993, pp.23-30), I would like to consider the third, which is the
interactionist theory. Interactionist theory states that language develops as a result of the environment in which
children live and their interactions with others. For example I was one of five children brought up in a small
country town in a Catholic family. My father was a wharfie and my mother a house wife - she never ever went
out to work. Much of my childhood was spent with cousins on their farm, or at home with my brother and sisters.
We had very few books in our house and no television. We played in the paddocks, climbed trees, swung on
rope swings, played in the creek, caught tadpoles in the swamp, played cops and robbers, and cowboys and
Indians. I did not go to playgroup nor did I go to pre-school. Mum decided I did not need them because I had
enough to keep me occupied. So most of my early language learning was done with close family. Mum had the
power of control over what I learnt up until school age, because she was the one who chose my companions.
By choosing my playmates until I went to school, mum controlled my language acquisition. This pre-school
acquisition of language will be basic to my primary discourse as a teacher. I would like to consider one aspect of
this primary discourse which is, because of my Catholic background, how will I relate to particular children? For
example I was taught to be humble, you do not 'big note yourself', you do not brag about your achievements. If
you are good at something let other people find out, you do not need to tell them. I have to acknowledge as a
teacher that not all the students I will teach will be Catholic, some children will have been encouraged to be
positive about their achievements. It is important to recognise that children come to school with ideas,
experiences and expectations that are different to mine. For instance there will be children that will have had the
opportunity to travel, experience different cultures, and to interact with a variety of language users (Allen, 1998,
p.8).
Secondary discourse is what has been added to a primary discourse. The older I get the more layered
my discourse becomes. I add to my discourse by walking, talking, 'thinking, feeling, valuing, acting, interacting,
dressing, gesturing, moving; and being - places, activities, institutions, objects, tools, language and other
symbols' (Gee, 1997, p.2). Discourses are not taught, they are acquired (Gee. 1990, p.21). I did not learn a
student discourse or a sporting discourse, I acquired them by being a student and by being involved in sports. I
added to my primary discourse when I commenced school in a Catholic primary school in a small country town
in Victoria. I had to learn that there was a time and a place for everything: school was the place to wear a
uniform and stay clean. We were expected to be more lady like, which meant being quiet and not as boisterous
or free. Then I moved to the city where I rarely got to run free even after school. There were no more trees to
climb: no more playing in the dirt: no more leaches and tadpoles in the creeks and swamps. Secondary school
was not as strict. I went to a public high school and found more power to choose my friends. My after school
activities were focused on sport and my friends were like-minded. Consequently I wore "sports" clothes - loose
fitting clothes, like tracksuits, that allowed freedom of movement. I realise that I am who I am because of where I
have been and who I have interacted with. As a teacher I will need to understand that even though my students
are all in the same room they all arrived there in different ways. Thus their discourses will be various. As a
teacher it will be imperative for me to take time to obtain background information on my students. As Norton
(1980, p.61) suggests, I will have to ask myself: "What language competencies do the children already
possess? What language skills must be emphasized to improve oral communication? What are the children's
interests? Can these interests be used to motivate language?" Which children have been exposed to books at
home will be vital.
Language is reading as well as talking and discourse. As I mentioned earlier, there were not many
books in my house. I only ever saw my parents read the daily newspaper. Being the fourth child in a family of
five children my mother did not have time to read me bedtime stories. My older sisters may have read me
15
stories while playing "school", but most of my language learning was based on social interactions rather than
books. According to Heath (1996, p.97), the ways of taking and making meaning from books and relating that
meaning to the 'real world' is not naturally acquired but learned. He says 'Few parents are fully conscious of
what bedtime storyreading means as preparation for the kinds of learning and displays of knowledge expected
in school' (p.99). A great deal of language learning at school is based on questions and answers from books.
The children who have not been exposed to that kind of interaction with texts at home find it difficult to do it at
school. At school children are expected to be able to answer questions about a story generally when the story is
finished, anticipate what comes next or retell the story in their own words. Those who have had experience with
this at home are soon labeled competent and those who have not are soon labeled incompetent. As a teacher I
will need to be sensitive to all the children's background in reading and devise activities to meet their separate
needs. I believe just because children are unable to answer questions relating to a story does not mean they are
incompetent language users. I need to be able to encourage the use of language in all its forms.
'Isn't it amazing that we can send rockets to the moon, fly non stop around the earth, transplant human
organs, create artificial snow storms and cruise under the north pole, yet the language we have known and used
for centuries defies complete explanation' (DeHaven, 1988, p.4). Because language is individual it is learned
from many interactions within our environment and it is ever changing. As a teacher this must be uppermost in
my thoughts.
References
Allen, J. (1998). Sociology of education. Katoomba: Social Science Press.
DeHaven, E. (1988). 3rd ed. Teaching and learning language arts. USA: Harper Collins Publishers.
Emmitt, M., & Pollock, J. (1997). 2nd ed. Language and learning. South Melbourne: Oxford University Press.
Gee, J. (1990). Social linguistics and literacies: ideology in discourses. The Folwer Press.
Gee, J. (1997). A discourse approach to language and literacy. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Heath, S. (1986). What no bedtime story means: Narrative skills at home and school, Across cultures. In B.
B. Schieffelin & E. Ochs (eds). Cambridge: University Press.
Ligthbown, P., & Spada, N. (1993). How languages are learned. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Norton, D. (1980). 2nd ed. The effective teaching of language arts. Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co.
Gayle Kyle.
Luke, A. (1988). Functional literacy in the classroom. Australian Journal of Reading, 11 (1), 3-10.
Smith, A. (1998). Boys in an integrated, inclusive curriculum. In P. Gilbert (ed.), Masculinity redefined. (pp.
34-57). Townsville: James Cook University Press.
Smith, A. (1993). Writing for education students. Sydney: Allen and Unwin.
Subject: Australian Literature (EL2020)
Topic: Give a detailed analysis of a key scene or passage from “My Brilliant Career” by Miles Franklin.
Grade Awarded: Distinction
Lecturer’s Comments: A lovely essay, interesting ideas, competently and clearly written.
(Note: Corrections and comments made in the text of this essay are not included in this sample)
The focus and essence of My Brilliant Career by Miles Franklin is centred on the relationships and
interactions of Sybylla Melvyn (the key character of the novel), towards other characters. The ways in which she
reacts to different people and why she reacts in a particular manner, are perhaps more crucial and intriguing to
the reader, than any distinct event throughout the novel. Sybylla's logic and thinking about herself, others and
life, have been moulded by her very influential relationships with her mother and father. Her view on life and the
roles of men and women has also been influenced by literature she has read. Moreover, her affinity with her
parents in childhood and as a young woman has plainly made its mark on her further relationships, especially
with men.
The most prominent male relationship Sybylla encounters is with her lover, Harold Beecham. Sybylla's
relationship with Harold as described in Chapter 20 illustrates the influences of her parents and literature. In
Chapter 20, Sybylla hits Harold across the face with a riding whip, when he tries to kiss her. Yet Harold
Beecham appears to be the perfect figure and the perfect man and indeed, Sybylla loves him, although she
does not like to admit this. For example, her "train of thought was interrupted by our host, who appeared in the
doorway, clad from sole to neck in white" (Franklin 137).
He is her knight in shining amour, but even so she strikes him. To Sybylla, Harold always appears
somewhat 'forbidden'. Perhaps subconsciously, he is the materialised embodiment of her father, Richard
Melvyn. In her extreme childhood Sybylla's father is a heroic figure to her. She holds on to the memory of
ironically burning her hand on her father's pipe (male object/phallic symbol) at the age of three and her father
coming to the rescue. In her childhood she is quite proud of her father as he owned successful properties and
was Sandra Vasta reasonably wealthy. He had a clear focus on life. However, as her father's wealth and status
dwindles and he becomes alcoholic, Sybylla is lost and is inevitably always searching for the heroic father figure
which is now absent in her life, and that she so desperately needs for guidance, as she becomes a young
woman. This she finds in Harold Beecham. Therefore, Sybylla cannot bring herself to become close or intimate
with Harold as there is the feeling of verging on the edge of incest. When he gets too close for comfort, she
retaliates by hitting him.
Sybylla's relationship or view of herself also comes out in Chapter 20. Throughout the novel, she has a
superficial view of herself, constantly looking at herself as she imagines others see her. She has low self-
16
esteem and endlessly insists that she is ugly. Sybylla likes to compare herself to other women. In the beginning
of Chapter 20, she compares herself to Miss Derrick, whom everyone comments on as being beautiful. Sybylla
is already somewhat jealous of Miss Derrick as she (Derrick) spent most of that day with Harold Beecham
(previous chapter). This also confirms that she has feelings for Harold. Sybylla says of Miss Derrick "She was a
big handsome woman" (Franklin 136). Then she reflects on herself "Beside her, I in my crushed white muslin
dress was as overshadowed as a little white handkerchief would be in comparison to a gorgeous shawl heavily
wrought in silks and velvet" (Franklin 136-137). Sybylla analyses Miss Derrick's physical features closely, and
comes to the conclusion that she is "one of the most insipid-looking people I had set eyes upon" (Franklin 137).
This shows her evident jealously in that she does not believe herself to be as beautiful as this woman. It also
shows that she has more deeply set feelings for Harold Beecham than she likes to admit. Therefore, she tries
to convince herself that there is nothing outstanding about Miss Derrick, to raise her self-esteem, and men are
merely infatuated with her. Sybylla is acutely self-conscious and this situation makes her more paranoid about
her appearance. Later, after Harold's proposal, she clearly Sandra Vasta shows her shortage of confidence by
saying "I had no charms to recommend me-none of the virtues which men demand of the woman they wish to
make their wife. To begin with, I was small, I was erratic and unorthodox, I was nothing but a tomboy-and,
cardinal disqualification, I was ugly" (Franklin 143).
These are typical teenage type traits and most teenagers feel self-conscious and imperfect about
themselves at some stage. Yet Sybylla's apparent lack of self-confidence may have been partly evoked by her
mothers influence. Sybylla and her mother (Lucy Melvyn) don't have an extremely loving relationship, as
mothers and daughters usually share. Her mother often tells her she is 'plain' and incapable of doing anything,
or of becoming anything, rather than give her appropriate guidance.
Lastly, Sybylla's beliefs on the roles of males and females, especially in love and courtship are a result
of a romanticised view of love which has stemmed from her reading of popular romance novels. For example,
when first arriving at Caddagat, she finds and is delighted to read a Marie Corelli novel and George du Maurier's
Trilby. More importantly though, is the literary influence over Sybylla in Chapter 20, when Harold Beecham
makes his proposal. Here it is unmistakably evident that she is reverting back to her preconceived ideas of how
males and females should act in accordance with romance novels. For instance, Harold employs a
stereotypical, white Australian male attitude, quite different from the conventional romance novel hero Sybylla
would expect. As a consequence, she is surprised and completely taken aback by his approach. He says "I
want to strike a bargain with you" (Franklin 139) and then later:
'It is no use of me making a long yarn about nothing. I'm sure you know what I want to say better than I
do myself. You always are wonderfully smart at seeing through a fellow. Tell me, will it be yes or no?' Sandra
Vasta.
This was an experience in love. He did not turn red or white, or yellow or green, nor did he tremble or
stammer, or cry or laugh, or become fierce or passionate, or tender or anything but just himself, as I had always
known him. He displayed no more emotion than had he been inviting me to a picnic. This was not as I had
pictured a man would tell his love, or as I had read of it, heard of it, or wished it should be. A curious feelingdisappointment, perhaps-stole over me. His matter-of-fact coolness flabbergasted me.(Franklin 139-140).
Sybylla reacts as a heroine from a Victorian romance novel would by saying "Is this not rather sudden?
You have given me no intimation of your intentions" (Franklin 140). Perhaps still disturbed by his manner, this is
partly the reason why she hits Harold afterwards.
Sybylla Melvyn is simply a confused adolescent, with all the problems and feelings of a young woman
growing up. She has a large amount of emotional turmoil in her mind and is doing what she can to adjust to her
ever changing environment. Sybylla is paranoid and neurotic and her values, beliefs and ideals have been
easily influenced by her childhood relationship with her parents. As a consequence, her actions reflect these
influences, which are deeply etched in her mind. By examining her relationship with Harold Beecham we are
able to understand that her attitude towards his affections are a result of both her parents influence and her
reading material.
Subject: Introduction to Psychology (PY1001)
Topic: Psychology lies at the intersection of biology and culture (Westen, 1996). Critically discuss what Westen
means here, illustrating your argument by reference to the way different psychologists might choose to study
any one of the following: a) personality, b) intelligence, c) attachment, or d) aggression.
Grade Awarded: High Distinction.
Lecturer’s Comments: This is a very competent essay. You presented many examples to illustrate your
agreement with Westen's statement, using the topic of aggression. Your flow and discussion was exemplary.
However, your treatment of some of the examples may have been a tad brief. Overall, an excellent essay.
Essay Feedback Sheet:
(Qualitative feedback - not used to calculate final marks)
CRITERIA
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Satisfactory Good
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√
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√
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√
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(Note: This sample is provided in the exact form it was submitted and corrections and comments made in the
text by the lecturer are not included.)
Fundamental questions relating to the nature and behaviour of people used to be in the hands of the
philosophers. However about 100 years ago, a more systematic and scientific approach to such issues was
taken and in 1879 the first laboratory dedicated to experimental psychology was founded by Wilhelm Wundt and
modern psychology was born. The scientific search to explain what factors contribute to human behaviours had
begun, with some arguing that behaviour is the result of biological (genetic or hereditary) factors and others
arguing that behaviour is the result of cultural, or environmental, influences (Zimbardo, 1992). Thus, the
continuing nature/nurture debate. According to Westen (1996), psychology is “the systematic study of mental
processes and behaviour” and lies “at the intersection of biology and culture”. This paper looks at some of the
differing perspectives psychologists have chosen to study aggression in humans.
One of the earliest personality theorists was Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), a Viennese physician, who
drew attention to the irrational side of human behaviour. Freud believed that aggression was a basic human
instinct, or drive, that intensified if not released. He suggested that violent impulses could be either channelled
into harmless activity (through for example violent sports) or vented by being a spectator to such activities
(Zimbardo, 1992). But Freud’s theories were not based on any sound scientific research and others have
argued from a Social Learning approach.
A Social Learning theory espouses the notion that aggression is a learned behaviour acquired through
modelling. Early support for this theory comes from a classic laboratory study by Albert Bandura (Bandura, Ross
& Ross, 1961,1963; Westen, 1996). Bandura observed the reaction of 3-5 year old children to watching
aggressive adult behaviour towards a large toy ‘bobo’ doll. When the adult left the room the children modelled
the behaviour by also acting aggressively toward the bobo doll. However, when the adult’s behaviour was
followed by a severe reprimand the children did not abuse the doll. Therefore, it is suggested that children learn
the consequences of their actions through the vicarious conditioning process. (Bandura, Ross & Ross,
1961,1963; Westen, 1996). Bandura concluded that children learn aggressive behaviour by modelling the
behaviour of others and that, without any punishment consequences, viewing violence encourages more
violence.
Since Bandura’s study a large body of research has further suggested that aggression is increased
through exposure to violence both directly and indirectly. For example children from abusive homes have been
shown to be more aggressive than children from non-abusive homes (George and Main, 1979; Reid and Taplin
,1976). In one study of school children Reidy (1977) found that abused and neglected children were considered
to have more behaviour problems in school than other children. A longitudinal study by Moskowitz and
Schwartzman (1989) showed that high levels of aggression in children was predictive of aggressive behaviour
and psychiatric problems in adolescence and adulthood. In a study of convicted serial rapists, more than 50%
reported being physically abused as children and 76% had either been subjected to sexual abuse or had
observed sexual abuse scenes as a child or an adolescent (Westen, 1996). These studies extend Bandura’s
observations of how aggressive behaviour can be learned. However, other cultural influences have also been
studied.
The effect of violence on television has often been related to aggressive behaviour. Leonard Eron’s
(1982,1987) research with children of about 8 years old examined the relationship between the two variables:
(a) the subjects television viewing habits and how much they each thought it represented reality; and (b) their
aggressive dispositions (as ranked by themselves and their peers). The results showed that those children
who watched the most violence were deemed to be the most aggressive. Interestingly, they were also the same
children who considered the television violence the most life-like. Children who were alerted to the lack of
realism showed a decline in their aggressive behaviour over the ensuing months. Follow-ups on the subjects at
ages 19 and 30 showed that those who were rated highly in the initial stage continued to be the more
aggressive as they grew older. Three further studies aimed at ascertaining whether exposure to violent
television promotes aggression in children have provided convincing arguments that this is the case. (Liebert
and Baron, 1972; Parke, Berkowitz, Leyens, West and Sebastian, 1977; Stein and Friedrich, 1972).
Nevertheless, some critics have challenged the research methods and conclusions reached. After examining
most of the studies linking violence on television with aggression Jonathan Freedman (1994) asserts that
although some relationship may exist the correlation co-efficient is minimal and there is no evidence to suggest
that watching violence on television causes aggression.
Though culture has been found to be an important influence in aggressive behaviour many argue for the
evolutionary (hereditary) perspective. Founded on his observations of aggressive behaviour in animals,
ethologist Konrad Lorenz (1903-1989) supports Freud’s theory of aggression as a basic instinct which builds up
and must be channelled into less damaging forms through the process of catharsis. Lorenz has the support of
18
Contemporary Evolutionary Psychologists2 and Sociobiologists in taking the Darwinist view that humans have
evolved an inherited mechanism whereby the fittest pass on their genes to the next generation. This view sees
aggression as a necessary factor for survival but, where animals have developed inhibitory mechanisms that
serve to limit aggressive behavior (eg: a wolf or a dog will roll over and submit to defeat if losing a fight),
humans have learned to over-ride their natural inhibiting mechanism because of their ability to distance
themselves from the conflict (eg killing from a distance). Lorenz has referred to the atom bomb as an ‘intelligent’
expression of the aggressive instinct. However, in the absence of supporting evidence, many researchers are
critical of this view and argue that even if aggression is innate in animals, it does not necessarily follow that
aggression is innate in humans. (Glassman, 1995; Goldstein, 1994; Karli, 1991; Westen, 1996; Zimbardo,
1992)
Although rejecting the notion that human aggression is merely an instinct that is built into the human
behavioural structure, social and physiological psychologists do accept that there is a significant biological or
genetic component to aggression. Twin studies have shown higher correlations between aggressiveness for
monozygotic (identical) twins (.40) than for dizygotic (fraternal) twins (.04) (Goldstein, 1994; Rushton, Fulker,
Neale, Nias & Eysenck 1986). Goldsmith’s (1983) twin studies concluded that 48% of hostile and aggressive
behavior can be attributed to inherited personality traits. The notion that aggression can be attributed directly to
genetics is reinforced by the recent studies of Dutch scientists Brunner, Nelen, Breakefield, Ropers, VanOost
(1993) who have linked impulsive violence with a point mutation in the monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene. In
fact, some geneticists feel that the findings of Brunner et al (1993) are so convincing that they’ve declared that
the nature-nurture debate is now over by arguing that “children’s behavioural individuality is a product of
children’s unique genes” (Rose, 1995, p.626).
Another way that biological theorists have studied aggression is by considering the roles of particular
regions of the brain. Resulting research has shown that the structures of the limbic system—hypothalamus,
amygdala, hippocampus—have an effect on aggressive behavior in both animals and humans (Glassman,
1995; Zimbardo, 1992). Electrical stimulation of the hypothalamus in normally docile cats have caused them to
hiss and snarl and comparable behavior has been observed in rhesus monkeys. When the hippocampus of a
human epilepsy patient was stimulated he became extremely angry and aggressive.
An otherwise
mild-mannered, passive woman reacted in a similar manner when her amygdala was electrically stimulated
during surgery. On the other hand, where the amygdala has been destroyed or removed in animals they have
become extremely docile and neurosurgeons who have conducted amygdalectomies on extremely violent
people have claimed that aggressive behavior in their patients has been reduced by up to 92 percent.
(Goldstein, 1994; Westen, 1996).
The plasma levels of the sexual hormone (testosterone) has often been associated with aggressive
behaviour in men (Goldstein, 1994; Kimble, 1988). Males generally display more aggressive behaviour than
women and the higher levels of testosterone found in men is seen to be responsible. A study of prison inmates
found that men who had committed the most violent crimes also had the highest testosterone levels (Goldstein,
1994). Studies on animals have shown that castration can result in a decreased level of aggression while
testosterone injections can increase aggressiveness (Kimble, 1988). However, it is not clear whether the higher
levels of testosterone is responsible for higher levels of aggression or the other way round.
Another approach that researchers have taken in studying aggression is to consider the effects of pain
and aversive stimuli.
Various studies suggest that pain can trigger aggressive behavior (Moyer, 1976).
However, because many of these studies have involved animals, Leonard Berkowitz (1983) concentrated his
research on humans. He concluded that aggressive behaviour can be triggered by painful or unpleasant
(aversive) experiences. It is therefore easy to view aggression as simply an inbuilt biological mechanism which
results in a reflexive response as a means to end the pain. However, Berkowitz has not supported this notion,
alternatively suggesting that aggressive responses are cognitive deliberations. In two further studies responses
to aversive experience (such as picking on, scapegoating, and insults) has been linked to cultural norms and
expectations (Cohen, Nisbett, Bowdle & Schwartz, 1996; Merten, 1994).
As we have seen, there are many different approaches to the study of aggression in humans and there
are other perspectives that have not been touched upon in this paper. When considering the debate it becomes
clear how complex aggression is, and that no single perspective appears sufficient. Aggressive behaviour
seems to be influenced by biology, the environment, evolution and perhaps many other factors. Therefore, if we
approach the nature\nurture debate from an holistic stance, the mental processes and behaviours of humans
can be seen as the product of both nature and nurture, of genetic endowment (biology) and experience
(culture). Biology and culture are inextricably entwined, or as Westen (1996 p.3) phrased it, psychology lies “at
the intersection of biology and culture”.
References:
- Bandura, A., Ross, D. & Ross, S. (1961). Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models.
Journal of abnormal and social psychology, 63, 575-582.
2
Contemporary Evolutionary Psychologists hold to the view of an inherited mechanism but reject the view that
aggression is an instinct that builds up and requires venting. (Westen, 1996)
19
- Bandura, A., Ross, D. & Ross, S. (1963). Vicarious reinforcement and initiative learning. Journal of abnormal
and social psychology, 67, 601-607.
- Berkowitz, L. (1983). Aversively stimulated aggression. American psychologist, 38, 1135-1144.
- Brunner, H.G., Nelen, M., Breakefield, X.O., Ropers, H.H., & VanOost, B.A. (1993). Abnormal behavior
associated with a point mutation in the structural gene for monoamine oxidase A. Science, 262, 578-580.
- Cohen, D., Nisbett, R.E., Bowdle, B.F., & Schwartz, N. (1996). Insult, aggression, and the southern culture of
honor: an “Experimental Ethnography”. Journal of personality and social psychology, 70(5), 945-960.
- Eron, L.D. (1982). Parent-child interaction, television violence and aggression of children. American
psychologist, 42, 435-442.
- Eron, L.D. (1987). The development of aggressive behavior from the perspective of developing behaviorism.
American Psychologist, 42, 99-103.
- Freedman, J. (1994). Viewing television violence does not make people more aggressive. Hofstra Law
Review, 22, 879-884.
- George, C., & Main, M. (1979). Social interactions of young abused children: approach avoidance and
aggression. Child Development 50, 306-318.
- Glassman, W.E. (1995). Approaches to psychology: second edition. Open University Press: Buckingham.
- Goldsmith, H.H. (1983). Genetic influences on personality from infancy to adulthood. Child Development, 54,
331-335.
- Goldstein, E. (1994). Psychology. Brooks/Cole Publishing Company: Belmont.
- Karli, P. (1991). Animal and human aggression. Oxford University Press: New York.
- Kimble, D.P. (1988). Biological psychology. Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc: New York.
- Liebert, R. & Barron, R. (1972). Some immediate effects of televised violence on children’s behavior.
Developmental psychology, 6, 469-475.
- Merten, D. (1994). The cultural context of aggression: the transition to junior high school. Anthropology and
education quarterly, 25(1), 29-43.
- Moskowitz, D. & Schwartzman, A. (1989). Life paths of aggressive and withdrawn children. In M. Buss, N.
Cantor. (Eds). Personality psychology: recent trends and emerging directions. Springer-Verlag: New York.
- Moyer, K.E. (1976). The psychobiology of aggression. Harper and Row: New York.
- Parke, R., Berkowitz, L., Leyens, J., West, S. & Sebastian, R. (1977). Some effects of violent and nonviolent
movies on the behavior of juvenile delinquents. In L. Berkowitz. (Ed.) Advances in experimental social
psychology. Academic Press: New York.
- Reid, J.B. & Taplin P.S. (1976). A social interactional approach to the treatment of abusive families. Presented
at the Annual Meeting American Psychological Association: Washington DC.
- Reidy T.J. (1977). The aggressive characteristics of abused and neglected children. Journal of clinical
psychology 33, 1140-1145.
- Rose, R. (1995). Genes and human behavior. Annual review of psychology 46, 625-654.
- Rushton, J.P., Fulker, D.W., Neale, M.C, Nias, D., Eysenck, K.B. & Eysenck, H.K. (1986). Altruism and
aggression: the heritability of individual differences. Journal of personality and social psychology, 50, 11921198.
- Stein, A.H. & Friedrich, L.K. (1972). Television content and young children’s behavior. In Murray, J.P.,
Rubinstein, E.A. and Comstock, G.A. (Eds) Television and social behavior, Vol. 2: Television and social
learning. US Government Printing Office: Washington, D.C.
- Westen, D. (1996). Psychology: mind, brain and culture. John Wiley and Sons Inc: Brisbane.
- Zimbardo, P. (1992). Psychology and life, thirteenth edition. Harper Collins Publishers: New York.
ESSAYS
Parts of an
Essay
How to Write an
Essay
Introduction
Supporting Paragraphs
Summary Paragraph
Prewriting Essays
Writing Essays
Editing Essays
Publishing Essays
20
Kinds of Essays
Definition
Classification
Description
Compare and Contrast
Sequence
Choice
Explanation
Evaluation
Introduction Paragraph
What is an introduction paragraph?
The introduction paragraph is the first paragraph of your essay.
What does it do?
It introduces the main idea of your essay. A good opening paragraph captures the interest of your reader and
tells why your topic is important.
How do I write one?
1. Write the thesis statement. The main idea of the essay is stated in a single sentence called the thesis
statement. You must limit your entire essay to the topic you have introduced in your thesis statement.
2. Provide some background information about your topic. You can use interesting facts, quotations, or
definitions of important terms you will use later in the essay.
Example:
Hockey has been a part of life in Canada for over 120 years. It has evolved into an extremely popular
sport watched and played by millions of Canadians. The game has gone through several changes since
hockey was first played in Canada.
Supporting Paragraphs
What are supporting paragraphs?
Supporting paragraphs make up the main body of your essay.
What do they do?
They develop the main idea of your essay.
How do I write them?
1. List the points that develop the main idea of your essay.
2. Place each supporting point in its own paragraph.
3. Develop each supporting point with facts, details, and examples.
To connect your supporting paragraphs, you should use special transition words. Transition words link your
paragraphs together and make your essay easier to read. Use them at the beginning and end of your
paragraphs.
Examples of transition words that can help you to link your paragraphs together:
For counter examples
For listing different points
However
First
Even though
Second
On the other hand
Third
Nevertheless
For additional ideas
Another
In addition to
Related to
Furthermore
Also
To show cause and effect
Therefore
Thus
As a result of
Consequently
Like all good paragraphs, each supporting paragraph should have a topic sentence, supporting sentences, and
a summary sentence.
Summary Paragraph
What is a summary paragraph?
The summary paragraph comes at the end of your essay after you have finished developing your ideas. The
summary paragraph is often called a "conclusion."
What does it do?
It summarizes or restates the main idea of the essay. You want to leave the reader with a sense that your essay
is complete.
21
How do I write one?
1. Restate the strongest points of your essay that support your main idea.
2. Conclude your essay by restating the main idea in different words.
3. Give your personal opinion or suggest a plan for action.
Example:
Overall, the changes that occurred in hockey have helped to improve the game. Hockey is faster and
more exciting as a result of changes in the past 120 years. For these reasons, modern hockey is a better
game than hockey in the 1890s.
Prewriting Essays
What is the prewriting stage?
The prewriting stage is when you prepare your ideas for your essay before you begin writing. You will find it
easier to write your essay if you build an outline first, especially when you are writing longer assignments.
Six Prewriting Steps:
1. Think carefully about what you are going to write. Ask yourself: What question am I going to answer in
this paragraph or essay? How can I best answer this question? What is the most important part of my answer?
How can I make an introductory sentence (or thesis statement) from the most important part of my answer?
What facts or ideas can I use to support my introductory sentence? How can I make this paragraph or essay
interesting? Do I need more facts on this topic? Where can I find more facts on this topic?
2. Open your notebook. Write out your answers to the above questions. You do not need to spend a lot of time
doing this; just write enough to help you remember why and how you are going to write your paragraph or
essay.
3. Collect facts related to your paragraph or essay topic. Look for and write down facts that will help you to
answer your question. Timesaving hint: make sure the facts you are writing are related to the exact question you
are going to answer in your paragraph or essay.
4. Write down your own ideas. Ask yourself: What else do I want to say about this topic? Why should people
be interested in this topic? Why is this topic important?
5. Find the main idea of your paragraph or essay. Choose the most important point you are going to present.
If you cannot decide which point is the most important, just choose one point and stick to it throughout your
paragraph or essay.
6. Organize your facts and ideas in a way that develops your main idea. Once you have chosen the most
important point of your paragraph or essay, you must find the best way to tell your reader about it. Look at the
facts you have written. Look at your own ideas on the topic. Decide which facts and ideas will best support the
main idea of your essay. Once you have chosen the facts and ideas you plan to use, ask yourself which order to
put them in the essay. Write down your own note set that you can use to guide yourself as you write your essay.
Writing Essays
What is the writing stage?
The writing stage is when you turn your ideas into sentences.
Five Writing Steps:
1. For the introduction, write the thesis statement and give some background information.
2. Develop each supporting paragraph and make sure to follow the correct paragraph format.
3. Write clear and simple sentences to express your meaning.
4. Focus on the main idea of your essay.
5. Use a dictionary to help you find additional words to express your meaning.
Editing Essays
What is the editing stage?
The editing stage is when you check your essay for mistakes and correct them.
Editing Steps:
Grammar and Spelling
1. Check your spelling.
2. Check your grammar.
3. Read your essay again.
4. Make sure each sentence has a subject.
5. Make sure your subjects and verbs agree with each other.
6. Check the verb tenses of each sentence.
7. Make sure that each sentence makes sense.
Style and Organization
1. Make sure your essay has an introduction, supporting paragraphs, and a summary paragraph.
2. Check that you have a thesis statement that identifies the main idea of the essay.
3. Check that all your paragraphs follow the proper paragraph format.
4. See if your essay is interesting.
Publishing Essays
What is the publishing stage?
The publishing stage is when you produce a final copy of your essay to hand in.
Publishing Steps:
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1. Make a paper copy of your essay.
2. Show your work to your teacher, tutor, or parents.
3. Ask them for hints on how to improve your writing.
Definition Essay
When you are writing a definition essay, you take a term or an idea and write about what it is. Often, definitions
are combined with classification or other forms of organization in the essay. You need to give a careful definition
of the key term before going on to discuss different types or examples.
Example question:
Write an essay defining energy resources and discuss the different types.
Introduction:
Define the key term energy resources.
Supporting paragraphs: 1. Define one type of energy resources: renewable resources.
2. Define another type of energy resources: non-renewable resources.
Summary paragraph:
Summarize energy resources.
Classification Essay
In a classification essay, you separate things or ideas into specific categories and discuss each of them. You
organize the essay by defining each classification and by giving examples of each type.
Example question:
Write an essay discussing the three types of government in Canada.
Introduction:
Give background information about government in Canada.
Supporting paragraphs: 1. Define and describe federal government.
2. Define and describe provincial governments.
3. Define and describe municipal governments.
Summary paragraph:
Summarize government in Canada.
Description Essay
In a description essay, you write about what a person, place, or thing is like. You organize the essay by
describing different parts or aspects of the main subject.
Write an essay describing the polar bear.
Example question:
Introduce what a polar bear is.
Introduction:
Supporting paragraphs:
1. Describe where the polar bear lives.
2. Describe the body of the polar bear.
3. Describe what the polar eats.
Summary paragraph:
Summarize what a polar bear is.
Compare and Contrast Essay
In a compare and contrast essay, you write about the similarities and differences between two or more people,
places, or things. You can organize the essay by writing about one subject first and then comparing it with the
second subject. A more effective way is to organize the essay by comparing each subject by category.
Example:
Write an essay comparing the weather in
Vancouver and Halifax.
Introduction:
Supporting
paragraphs:
Introduce weather in the cities of Vancouver
and Halifax.
1. Compare weather in spring and summer
for both
cities. State how they are similar or different.
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2. Compare weather in fall and winter for both
cities. State how they are similar or different.
Summary
paragraph:
Summarize the similarities and differences.
Sequence Essay
In a sequence essay, you are writing to describe a series of events or a process in some sort of order. Usually,
this order is based on time. You organize the essay by writing about each step of the process in the order it
occurred.
Example question:
Write an essay outlining the stages of the salmon life cycle.
Introduction:
Describe what a salmon is like.
Supporting paragraphs:
1. Describe young salmon.
2. Describe adult salmon.
3. Describe what salmon do before they die.
Summary paragraph:
Summarize the main steps of the salmon life cycle.
Choice Essay
In a choice essay, you need to choose which object, idea, or action that you prefer. You organize the essay by
describing each option and then giving your opinion.
Example question:
Write an essay choosing between hockey in the 1890s and hockey
today.
Introduction:
Introduce the game of hockey.
Supporting
paragraphs:
1. Describe hockey in the 1890s.
2. Describe hockey today.
3. State which form of hockey you prefer and why.
Summary paragraph:
Summarize the game of hockey.
Explanation Essay
In an explanation essay, you explain how or why something happens or has happened. You need to explain
different causes and effects. You should organize the essay by explaining each individual cause or effect.
Example question:
Write an essay explaining why so many Europeans moved
to Canada during the early nineteenth century.
Introduction:
Give background information on European immigration during this
time.
Supporting
paragraphs:
1. Explain first reason: poor economy in Europe.
2. Explain second reason: better living conditions in Canada.
Summary paragraph:
Summarize main reasons.
Evaluation Essay
In an evaluation essay, you make judgments about people, ideas, and possible actions. You make your
evaluation based on certain criteria that you develop. Organize the essay by discussing the criteria you used to
make your judgment.
Example question:
Write an essay evaluating the importance
of the House of Commons.
Introduction:
Give your judgment on whether the House
of Commons is important.
Supporting
paragraphs:
1. Explain first criteria: meeting place for
government
2. Explain second criteria: represent
Canadians
3. Explain third criteria: make laws for
Canada
Summary
Conclude with an overall judgment about
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paragraph:
the House of Commons
Rhetorical purpose. For a discussion of the differences between narrative and exposition see
http://www.writingproject.org/downloads/csw/OP06.pdf
ESSAY: ARGUMENTATIVE
An argumentative essay is a selection of writing designed to defend a position or thesis.
The purpose of the argumentative essay is to convince the reader through reason, logic and illustration that a
stated position, view, theory or premise is true or false. Structurally the argumentative essay follows the thesis,
point development, conclusion pattern of the formal essay. The audience must be clearly understood by the
writer as he develops arguments, anticipates rebuttals, defends conclusions which that audience is likely to
present or need in order to be convinced. Thought may be either inductive (moving from the specific to the
general) or deductive (moving from a generalization to specific application). The language will be precise,
organized, denotative. Where effective, exposition will provide the needed explanation or analysis in order to
make a point. While persuasion appeals to emotion and personal involvement, the tone of argumentation is
factual, removed, precise, logical. The impact of an argumentative essay is to convince logically and rationally
that a viewpoint is true or false, right or wrong.
ESSAY: DESCRIPTIVE
The descriptive essay focuses on the use of a descriptive style develop the chosen topic.
The purpose of the descriptive essay is to use description to support ideas about a subject. The audience is
determined by the subject matter of the essay. The structure of this essay blends the conventions of the essay
(introduction, development, conclusion) with those of descriptive writing. The language is built around a
descriptive style which uses vivid language, figurative devices, emotive vocabulary, sensory imagery to appeal
to the audience. The description is not limited to people, places or things, but may make clear abstract thought,
establish the power of a feeling. The development of ideas on a topic remains the dominant throat of this writing,
and the descriptive style is the dominant technique used. The voice of the writer will show sensitivity and
creative appreciation of the manner in which description will enhance the development of the chosen topic. The
voice may be objective or impressionistic communicating the observer’s feelings. In the descriptive essay the
tone will be strongly individualistic as the personality of the writer is brought to bear on the chosen topic. The
impact of the descriptive essay is its appeal to the reader’s senses and feelings.
ESSAY: NARRATIVE
The informal narrative essay focuses on the use of a narrative style to develop the chosen topic.
The purpose of the narrative essay is to communicate a significant experience in order to enlighten and perhaps
persuade the reader. The audience is determined by the subject matter of the essay. The structure of this essay
blends the conventions of the essay (introduction, development, conclusion) with those of a narrative. It has
elements of story, but its thrust is to relate an idea or thesis, explicitly or implicitly, as opposed to developing
character or plot in a pure narrative. A strong sense of sequencing is retained to establish a point in time, and
the consequences of that experience. Chronology may be altered for dramatic or emotional impact. The
language may be formal to informal and even colloquial. It is strongly expressive, using striking images, vivid
storytelling. The voice of the writer is strongly individualistic as it uses those narrative activities to present
his/her audience with thoughts about a chosen topic. The impact is determined by how effectively the narration
elucidates the chosen thesis for the reader.
ESSAY: PERSUASIVE
A persuasive essay is a selection of writing designed to change the reader's mind.
The purpose of the persuasive essay is to convince the reader through a strong voice, the writer's conviction,
vivid example and illustration to support the stated position taken by the writer. Structurally the persuasive
essay respects the organization of the formal essay with greater freedom being taken in the use of supporting
material and the impact of voice. The audience will shape the voice and tone of the writer, as it is the writer's
intent to influence that group of readers. The voice of the writer is intentionally slanted, but must retain its
credibility or integrity by avoiding generalization, fallacious reasoning, exaggeration. The language of a
persuasive essay appeals to emotion more than to reason. Because of the predominance of the writer's voice,
persuasion may be more emotional, the language more informal and even colloquial. The tone is fundamentally
one of appealing to the reader to accept a thesis. The impact of a persuasive essay is to change or to confirm
the reader's thinking about an issue or subject with a strong appeal to the emotions, by using examples and
illustration, and by citing experience.
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