Student Learning Objectives:
1. What is life? How can the various levels of organization (atoms to ecosystem) of
livings things be distinguished? What does it mean to be able to transform energy?
What are the generalized practices of reproduction found in most organisms?
Compare and contrast growth from development? Compare and contrast an
irritation from an adaptation?
2. What does it mean to practice homeostasis and contrast a negative with a positive
homeostatic feedback mechanism?
3. What are some of the topics that would fit under the umbrella of biology?
4. How can you distinguish Classical versus Empirical thought patterns?
5. How does Inductive reasoning differ from Deductive reasoning?
6. What are the steps of the scientific method?
7. Cite the historical evidence that supports this process?
8. How does the diversity of organisms on earth offer evidence that the scientific
method works?
9. How can diversity be defined by the trophic levels of organisms found on earth?
10. How can diversity be defined by taxonomic studies?
Introduction
I. Biology
A. Definition
B. What is life? or How can you define life?
1. Highly Organized  Atoms - Molecules - Organelles - Cells - Tissues Organs - Organisms - Populations - Communities - Ecosystem
2. Transform Energy
3. Reproduce
4. Grow & Develop
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5. Irritable & Adaptable
6. Practice Homeostasis
a. Negative Mechanisms
b. Positive Mechanisms
C. Biology Related Topics
II. Scientific Method
A. Why?
1. Thinking Process
2. Classical vs. Empirical Thinking
3. Inductive vs. Deductive Thinking
B. Process
1. Steps (a through i)
2. Experimental Variables
a. Independent
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b. Dependent
c. Control
C. Evidence
1. History
a. Anaxamander
b. Aristotle
c. Carolus von Linnaeus
d. Count Buffon
e. Baron Cuvier
f. Jean Lamark
g. Charles Darwin
2. Diversity
a. Trophic Levels
b. Taxonomy
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Student Learning Objectives:
1. How are the terms chemistry, matter, element, atom, molecule, and energy defined?
2. What are the particles (and their relationship) of an atom? What information does
the atomic and mass number reveal about an atom? What is an isotope or how does
an isotope compare to other atoms of the same type, what is a radioisotope, what
are the particles and energy isotopes release, and what is a half life? How are
isotopes used to detect biological problems or to age biological specimens? How are
the electrons arranged in an atom (What do electron shells, electronegativity, and
valence have to do with an atom?)?
3. What is the definition of a bond and how do the bonds called ionic (What is an ion?),
polar covalent, and non-polar covalent differ in terms of structure, strength, and
biological uses? How do the previous bonds differ from a hydrogen bond?
4. What are the types of reactions that usually take place in biological systems
(Synthesis, Decomposition, and Exchange) and identify factors which affect reaction
rates?
5. Why is water so important to biological systems and what are the properties of water
that make it so special? How is water used by biological systems? How is salt used
biologically (What is a salt?)? What are an acid, a base, pH, and a buffer and how do
they affect the function of biological systems?
6. Why is carbon the choice atom for organic chemistry? What is a functional group and
how do they affect a carbon chain? What is meant by linear molecules versus
polymeric molecules?
7. What are the base atoms and the arrangement of these atoms in a carbohydrate?
What are the special types of carbohydrates and their general and individual uses?
8. What are the base atoms and the arrangement of these atoms in a lipid? What are
the special types of lipids and their uses?
9. What are the base atoms and the arrangement of these atoms in a protein? What
are the special types of proteins and their uses? How do you distinguish between
conformation and denaturation?
10. What are the base atoms and the arrangement of these atoms in a nucleic acid?
What are the special types of nucleic acids and their uses?
Chemistry
I. Introduction
A. Definitions
1. Chemistry
2. Matter
3. Elements
4. Atoms
5. Molecules
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6. Energy
II. Atomic Chemistry
A. Particles
B. Structure
C. Atomic Number & Mass Number
D. Isotopes and Radioisotopes
E. Electron Shells, Electronegativity, & Valence Electrons
III. Molecular Chemistry
A. Definition
B. Chemical Bonds
1. Definition
2. Types
a. Electron Sharing
i. Ionic Bonds
ii. Polar Covalent Bonds
iii. Non-Polar covalent Bonds
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b. Hydrogen Sharing
i. Definition
ii. Characteristics
IV. Chemical Reactions
A. Definition
B. Types
1. Synthesis, Dehydration, or Anabolic
2. Decomposition, Hydrolytic, or Catabolic
3. Exchange reactions (Oxidation-Reduction)
C. Factors affecting reaction rates
1.
2.
3.
4.
V. Inorganic Molecules
A. Water
1. Properties
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
2. Uses
a.
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b.
B. Salts
1. Properties
2. Uses
C. Acids, Bases, pH scale, and Buffers
1. Definitions & Effects
a. Acid
b. Base
c. pH Scale
d. Buffer
VI. Organic Molecules
A. Why carbon?
1. Properties of Carbon
2. Functional Groups
3. Linear vs. Monomer vs. Polymer
B. Carbohydrate
1. Atoms
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2. Arrangement of Atoms
3. Types
a. Monosaccharide
b. Disaccharide
c. Polysaccharide
4. Biological Uses
C. Lipids
1. Atoms
2. Arrangement of Atoms
3. Types
a. Neutral Fats
b. Phospholipids
c. Steroids
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4. Biological Uses
D. Proteins
1. Atoms
2. Arrangement of Atoms
3. Types
4. Biological Uses
E. Nucleic Acids
1. Atoms
2. Arrangement of Atoms
3. Types (Comparisons)
a. Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid
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b. Ribose Nucleic Acid
4. Biological Uses
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Student Learning Objectives:
1. What contributions did the following people: Galileo, van Leeuwenhoek, & Hooke
make to the development of the field of cytology and what did Schwann & Schleiden,
Pasteur, and Virchow say about the cell theory?
2. What tools are used by a cytologist (types of microscopes (advantage vs.
disadvantage of each type) and stains) to understand and study cell function and
structure?
3. How can you distinguish a prokaryotic cell from a eukaryotic cell (think characteristics
and size)?
4. What are the molecules and the arrangement of these molecules in a cell membrane?
5. What are the requirements for passive transport to occur across a cell membrane and
how do the mechanisms (simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis) differ in
getting molecules across a membrane?
6. What are the requirements and mechanisms for active transport across a cell
membrane and what is the difference between molecular, exocytosis, endocytosis,
and cell mediated transport in terms of bulk transport into or out of a cell?
7. What is the consistency and chemical make-up of the cell’s cytosol (cytoplasm or
protoplasm)?
8. What is structure and function for each of the following eukaryotic membrane bound
organelles: nucleus, ribosome, endoplasmic reticulum (rough and smooth), Golgi
apparatus, lysosome, peroxisome, mitochondria, chloroplast, and vacuoles?
9. What is structure and function for each of the following eukaryotic non-membrane
bound organelles: cytoskeleton, ribosomes, and centrioles?
10. How do the following cell specializations aid in cellular function: microvilli, cilia,
flagella, and cell wall?
11. What is the function of plasmodesmata in plant cells versus tight, adhesions, and gap
junctions in animal cells and what is meant by extra-cellular versus intracellular
matrix and how do cells interact with this matrix? What is this matrix inside of multicelled organisms?
Cytology
I. Introduction
A. Definition
B. History
1. Microscope
a. Galileo Galilei
b. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
c. Robert Hooke
2. Cell Theory
a. Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann
i.
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ii.
b. Rudolf Virchow and Louis Pasteur
iii.
II. Cytological Tools
A. Microscopes
1. Light
a. Function
b. Types
i. Bright Field
ii. Dark Field
iii. Phase Contrast
iv. Confocal
2. Electron
a. Function
b. Types
i. Transmission (TEM)
ii. Scanning (SEM)
iii. Environmental (TEM/SEM)
B. Stains
1. Vital
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2. Antibody
III. Basic Cellular Design
A. Strategies
1. Prokaryotes
a. Size Limits
b. Characteristics
2. Eukaryotes
a. Animal
b. Plant
B. Parts
1. Cell Membrane
a. Molecular Structure (Phospholipids, Proteins, Cholesterol, and
Carbohydrates)
b. Functions
i. Membrane Protein Functions
ii. Passive Transport
Requirements
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Mechanisms = Simple Diffusion, Osmosis, or Facilitated Diffusion
iii. Active Transport
Requirements
Mechanisms = Molecular, Bulk (Endocytosis vs. Exocytosis and Cell Mediated)
2. Cytosol (Protoplasm, Cytoplasm)  Cell Sap
a. Consistency
b. Molecular Make-up
3. Organelles
a. Membrane Bound (i. through v.)
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b. Non-membrane bound (i. through iii.)
C. Cellular Specializations
1. Microvilli
2. Cilia
3. Flagella
4. Intercellular Junctions
a. Plants = Plasmodesmata
b. Animals = Tight, Adhesion, and Gap Junctions
D. Extracellular Matrix and Interactions
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Student Learning Objectives:
1. What science did Boltzman, Einstein, Rutherford, and Bohr study?
2. Be able to explain and write the overall balanced equation for the bioenergetics of
life?
3. What are oxidative/reduction reactions (What is the force Luke?)?
4. How would you explain potential vs. kinetic energy forms?
5. What are the two laws of thermodynamics and how do they apply to biological
systems?
6. What do the terms exergonic and endergonic have to do with chemical reactions and
how do they apply to biological systems?
7. What is the structure of ATP and explain an ATP-Energy coupled reaction in terms of
reactivity?
8. How is ATP formed (direct or substrate level vs. oxidative phosphorylation) and how
do enzymes work within cells (use terms like activation energy, active site,
cofactor/coenzyme site, and enzyme/substrate complex)?
9. How are enzymes regulated in their function?
10. What effect would heat or pH have on an enzymes function?
11. How does competitive and non-competitive inhibition affect an enzymes function?
12. What is the role of NAD+, FAD+, and NADP+ in energy transfers?
Bioenergetics
I. Introduction
A. Definition
B. History
1. Ludwig Boltzman
2. Albert Einstein
3. Ernest Rutherford & Neils Bohr
C. Energy Flow
1. 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy  C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
2. Oxidation/Reduction Reactions
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D. Energy Forms
1. Potential
vs.
2. Kinetic
E. Laws of Thermodynamics
1. First Law deals with transformation (quantity)
2. Second Law deals with order (quality)
F. Predicting Reaction Direction
1. Exergonic
2. Endergonic
G. ATP
1. Structure
2. ATP Cycling
H. ATP Coupling
1. How?
2. Energy Flow
I. Making ATP
1. Direct (or Substrate Level) Phosphorylation (SLP)
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2. Oxidative (with O2) Phosphorylation (OP)
J. Enzymes
1. Structure
2. Function
3. Regulation
K. Electron Carriers
1. NAD+ (Nicotinamide Adenine Di-nucleotide)
2. FAD+ (Flavanine Adenine Di-nucleotide)
3. NADP+ (Nicotinamide Adenine Di-nucleotide Phosphate)
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Student Learning Objectives:
1. What did van Helmont, Priestly, Ingenhaus, de Saussure, and Van Neil add to the
understanding of the photosynthesis puzzle?
2. What is the summary reaction and the main goal of photosynthesis?
3. What are the properties of light and the types of pigment molecules used by plants to
harvest light energy?
4. How do plant pigments “capture” light energy?
5. Why do these pigments fluoresce when isolated from a plant chloroplast?
6. Where do the light dependent reactions take place, the steps involved, and the
outcomes for the molecules produced?
7. Where to the light independent reactions take place, the steps involved, and
outcomes for the molecules produced?
8. What is photorespiration?
9. What is the strategy of a C3 plant to deal with semi arid conditions?
10. What is the strategy of a C4 plant to deal with semi arid conditions?
11. What is the strategy of a CAM plant to deal with semi arid conditions?
Energy Capturing Pathways (Photosynthesis)
I. Introduction
A. History
1. Jan van Helmont
2. Joseph Priestly
3. Jan Ingenhaus
4. Nicholas de Saussure
5. Corneilius (C.B.) Van Neil
B. Photosynthesis Overview & Autotrophs
C. Background Information
1. Photosynthetic Structures
2. Light Properties
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3. Pigments
a. Chlorphylls
b. Xanthophylls
c. Carotenoids
II. Light Dependent Reactions
A. Where Located? (Why do isolated chlorophylls glow red in the dark.)
B. Steps (electron excitation, electron transport, & ATP + NADPH + H+)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
C. Outcomes
1.
2.
III. Light Independent Reactions
A. Where Located
B. Steps (adding CO2 and rearranging)
1.
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2.
3.
4.
5.
C. Outcomes
1.
IV. Photosynthetic Issues & Strategies
A. Photorespiration
B. C3 Plants
C. C4 Plants
D. CAM Plants (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism)
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Student Learning Objectives:
1. What did Lavoisier, Wohler & von Leibig, Pasteur, Buchner, Szent-Györgyi, and Krebs
have to say about Energy Releasing Pathways (ERP)?
2. Describe the cellular cite, the steps, and the outcomes for the ERP called glycolysis?
3. Describe the steps and the outcomes of the transport step of the ERP?
4. Describe the cellular cite, the steps, and the outcomes for the ERP called the Krebs
cycle?
5. Describe the cellular cite, the steps, and the outcomes for the ERP called electron
transport shuttle, chain, or system?
6. If oxygen is not present, what is the strategy of yeast in terms of ERP?
7. If oxygen is not present, what is the strategy of animals in terms of ERP?
8. How are lipids and proteins involved in the energy releasing pathways to show the
versatility of cellular respiration, but what are the problems?
Energy Releasing Pathways (Cellular Respiration)
I. Introduction
A. History
1. Antoine Lavoisier
2. Friedrich Wohler & Justus von Leibig
3. Louis Pasteur
4. Eduard Buchner
5. Albert Szent-Gyorgyi
6. Hans Krebs
B. Aerobic Respiration Pathways
1. Glycolysis
a. Where located?
b. Steps
i. Investment
ii. Splitting
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iii. Harvest
c. Outcomes
i.
ii.
iii.
2. Transport to Mitochondria
a. Where located?
b. Steps
i. Splitting
ii. Adding
c. Outcomes
i.
ii.
iii.
3. Kreb’s Cycle
a. Where located?
b. Steps
i. Destroying
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ii. Rearranging
c. Outcomes
i.
ii.
iii.
4. Electron Transport Chain (System or Shuttle)
a. Where located?
b. Steps
i. Build Up
ii. Harvest
c. Outcomes
i.
ii.
iii.
5. Summary of Aerobic Respiration
C. Anaerobic Respiration  Alternative Pathways
1. Fermentation
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2. Lactic Acid shuttle
D. Versatility or How to use other molecules in aerobic respiration?
1. Pathways
2. Problems & Issues
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Student Learning Objectives:
1. What contributions did Brown, Fleming, and Strausburger & Weismann make
towards the understanding of cell division?
2. What two strategies of “reproduction” do prokaryote cells exhibit?
3. What asexual reproductive strategies do eukaryotic cells express in the animal, plant,
fungi, and protistan kingdoms?
4. What sexual reproductive strategies do eukaryotic cells express in the animal, plant,
fungi, and protistan kingdoms?
5. What is the cell cycle and how is it divided in terms of time frames to represent the
stages of a cell's life span?
6. How can external influences (identify some?) affect the cell cycle?
7. How can internal influences (identify some?) affect the cell cycle?
8. How are times of the cell cycle altered by cancerous growth of cells?
9. What is the definition and phases (What happens in each phase?) of the process of
mitosis?
10. What is the definition of cytokinesis and how does this process differ between plants
and animals?
11. What are the definition, the phases, and the events of the process of meiosis?
12. How does mitosis differ from meiosis?
13. How does the process of meiosis, gamete formation, and mating lead to genetic
variation?
14. What are some of the problems that occur with this process (both whole and partial
chromosome problems)?
Cell Reproduction
I. Introduction
A. History
1. Robert Brown
2. Walther Flemming
3. August Weismann & Eduard Strasburger
II. Strategies
A. Prokaryotes
1. Binary Fission
2. Endospore Formation
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B. Eukaryotes
1. Asexual by mitosis (Compare animals, plants, fungi, and protistans)
Advantages versus Disadvantages
a. Animals
i. Fission
ii. Budding
iii. Fragmentation
b. Plants
i. Runners
ii. Spore formation
iii. Budding
c. Fungi
i. Like plants
d. Protistans
i. Weird
2. Sexual by meiosis (Compare animals, plants, fungi, and protistans)
Advantages versus Disadvantages
a. Plants = alternation of generations
b. Fungi
c. Protistans
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d. Animals (Think advantage vs. disadvantage)
i. Parthenogenesis
ii. Hermaphroditic (Simultaneous vs. Sequential)
iii. Monoecious vs. Dioecious
iv. Monogamy vs. Polygamy
III. Cell Cycle
A. Definition
B. Stages
1. G1 (G0)
2. S
3. G2
4. M/C
C. Controls
1. External
a. Hormones
b. Contact Inhibition
2. Internal
a. Biological Clock
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b. Apoptosis
D. Cancer
1. Classification
a. Benign
b. Malignant
c. Metastatic
2. Prevention?
IV. Mitosis
A. Definition
B. Phases
1. Interphase
2. Prophase
3. Metaphase
4. Anaphase
5. Telophase
V. Cytokinesis
A. Definition
B. Strategies  Plants versus Animals and Why differences?
1. Plants
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a. Cell Plate
2. Animals
a. Cleavage Furrow
VI. Meiosis
A. Definition
B. Phases
1. Meiosis I
2. Meiosis II
VII. Comparison of Mitosis vs. Meiosis
VIII. Genetic Variation from Meiosis
A. Independent Assortment
B. Random Fertilization
C. Crossing Over
IX. Problems
A. Whole Chromosome
1. Non-disjunction Anaphase I of meiosis I
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2. Non-disjunction Anaphase II of meiosis II
B. Parts of Chromosomes
1. Occur when?
2. Types
a. Deletions
b. Duplications
c. Translocations
d. Inversions
3. Good or Bad
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Student Learning Objectives:
1. What was the prevailing explanation for generational inheritance before Gregor
Mendel?
2. How did G. Mendel happen upon his principles of genetic recombination? What was
his experimental design?
3. What do the terms trait, characteristic, gene, allele, homozygote, heterozygote,
dominance, recessive, mono-hybrid, di-hybrid, and testcross have to do with
genetics?
4. What would the phenotypic and genotypic ratios be from a mono-hybrid
heterozygous cross (or mating)?
5. How would the phenotypic and genotypic ratios change, if you made a cross between
a mono-hybrid heterozygous individual and either a homozygous dominant or a
homozygous recessive individual?
6. What would the phenotypic ratio be from a di-hybrid heterozygous cross? How
about a di-hybrid homozygous crossed with a heterozygous?
7. What principles of Genetics did Mendel develop based on his pea plant experiments?
8. How would you explain incomplete dominance, co-dominance, multiple allelic
expressions, gene penetrance, and the gene interactions of pleitrophy, polygenetic,
and epistasis?
9. What were the advantages to Mr. Morgan in using Drosophila melangastor (fruit fly)
in genetic experiments? What technique did Morgan’s lab pioneer and what did they
show or prove with this technique?
10. What is meant by the phrase sex linkage? How about linkage groups? How did
Morgan’s protégé, Sturtevant, use the data of linkage groups to explain inheritance?
11. How are the techniques of amniocentesis assays (cellular and chemical), karyotyping,
chorionic villi sampling, fetal tissue sampling, and pedigree generation useful in
diagnosing genetic disorders?
Genetics
I. Mendelian Genetics
A. Introduction
1. History
a. Charles Darwin & Alfred Wallace
b. Gregor Mendel & Felix Unger
B. Experimental Design
1. Monohybrid (one trait) Cross
a. Definition
b. Terms
i. Self vs. Cross Fertilize
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ii. Traits vs. Characteristics
c. Process
i. Predicting Outcomes
ii. Principle
d. Terms
i. Genes vs. Alleles
ii. Homozygous vs. Heterozygous
iii. Dominance vs. Recessive
iv. Genotype vs. Phenotype
e. Testcross
2. Dihybrid (two traits) Cross
a. Definition
b. Process
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i. Outcomes
ii. Principle
II. Variations on Mendel’s Themes
A. Incomplete Dominance (vs. Complete Dominance)
B. Co-dominance
C. Multiple Alleles
D. Penetrance
E. Gene Interactions
1. Pleitrophy
2. Polygenic
3. Epistasis
III. Classical Genetics
A. History
1. William Bateson & Reginald Punnet
2. Thomas Morgan
a. Drosophila melangastor (fruit fly), recombination
b. Karyotyping, linkage groups, & sex linkage
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3. Alfred Sturtevant
a. Mapping
V. Detection of Genetic Problems
A. Karyotyping
B. Amniocentesis (Cellular vs. Chemical)
C. Ultrasound
D. Chorionic Villi Sampling (Cellular vs. Chemical)
E. Fetal Tissue Sampling
F. Pedigrees
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Student Learning Objectives:
1. What were the contributions of Meischer, Griffith, Chagraff, Luria et. al., Franklin, and
Watson & Crick to the understanding of DNA technology and molecular structure?
2. What is the definition of DNA replication? How do the rules of directionality (3’ to 5”
or 3’ to 5’) and semi-conservative replication apply to DNA replication?
3. Who are the key enzyme players and their roles in DNA replication?
4. Describe the process of DNA replication?
5. Describe the “CENTRAL DOGMA” of molecular biology.
6. What is meant by a “triplet code” and what are the “special” or “specific” codes
found in DNA?
7. Why is the DNA genetic codes redundant in the specification for some amino acids in
a protein and yet not for other amino acids?
8. What is the definition of DNA transcription and RNA translation?
9. What is the process (steps) and who are the key players in transcription of DNA?
10. What are the suspected roles of intron and exon sequences within the DNA?
11. What is the process (steps) and who are the key players in translation of RNA?
12. Which are the key organelles involved in protein synthesis for intracellular vs.
extracellular protein?
Molecular Biology
I. Introduction
A. History
1. Johannes Meischer
2. Frederick Griffith
3. Edwin Chagraff
4. Salvador Luria, Max Delbruck, Alfred Hershey & Martha Chase
5. Rosalind Franklin
6. James Watson & Francis Crick
II. DNA Replication
A. Definition and When?
B. Rules
1. Directional
2. Semi-conservative
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C. Process by Enzyme Players
1. DNA Helicase
2. RNA Primase
3. DNA Polymerase III and I
4. DNA Ligase
III. Genetic Code
A. DNA  RNA  Protein (or Product) = Central Dogma
B. Triplet Code (Why?)
C. Specific Codes
1. Start (TAC  AUG)
2. Stops (ATT, ACT, and ATC  UAA, UGA, and UAG respectfully)
3. Special code (ACC  UGG = tryptophan)
IV. Transcription
A. Definition & Players (Transcription Factors and RNA polymerase)
B. Process
1. Initiation
2. Elongation
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3. Termination
4. Modification
V. Translation
A. Definition & Players (mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA)
C. Process
1. Initiation
2. Elongation
3. Termination
4. Modification
C. Organelles (or Pathways for protein)
1. Intracellular
2. Extracellular
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Student Learning Objectives:
1. What were the contributions of Linnaeus, Buffon, Hutton, Cuvier, Lamarck, Malthus,
Lyell, Wallace, and Darwin that helped to shape evolutionary biology?
2. What evidence is gleaned from the fossil record, taxonomic studies, comparative
anatomy, comparative embryology, and comparative molecular biology which
support evolutionary thought?
3. What is the definition of a population and microevolution?
4. How does the Hardy –Weinberg equilibrium address changes in populations? What
are the population criteria used to support the H-W equilibrium?
5. How do mutation, genetic drift, gene flow, and natural selection impact population
dynamics and therefore evolution?
6. How do the stabilizing, directional, and disruptive forces affect population stability?
7. What are the three current ideas or modes used to explain population evolution and
how does each support the extant and extinct evolutionary population data?
8. What are the definitions of a specie and macro-evolution?
9. How do the various Pre-zygotic and Post-zygotic barriers help species differentiate?
10. What are the major trends in macroevolution?
11. What are the modes of speciation and what forces (natural and man-made) can force
a specie into extinction?
Evolutionary Biology
I. Introduction
A. History
1. Carolusl Linnaeus “Binomial Nomenclature”, Taxonomy, early 1700’s
2. Count Buffon, early 1700’s
3. James Hutton, mid 1700’s
4. Georges Cuvier, early 1800’s, Catastrophism
5. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, early 1800’s
6. Thomas Malthus, 1798
7. Charles Lyell, 1830, Uniformitarianism
8. Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace, 1859
B. Evidence
1. Fossil Record
2. Taxonomy/ Diversity  Biogeographical
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3. Comparative Anatomy
4. Comparative Embryology
5. Comparative Molecular Biology
II. Population or Microevolution
A. Definition
B. Process = Potential Changes
1. Godfrey Hardy & Wilhelm Weinberg Equilibrium
2. Mutation
3. Gene Flow
4. Genetic Drift
a. Bottleneck Effect
b. Founder Effect
5. Natural Selection
C. Modes
1. Directional Effects
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2. Stabilizing Effects
3. Disruptive (or Diversifying) Effects
D. Trends
1. Gradualistic
2. Punctuational
3. Mosaic
III. Species or Macroevolution
A. Definition
B. Process
1. Prezygotic Barriers = Isolation
a. Habitat
b. Behavioral
c. Temporal
d. Mechanical
e. Gametic
2. Postzygotic Barriers = Poor Development
a. Viability (Mortality)
b. Fertility (Sterility)
c. Breakdown (F2 Fitness)
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C. Modes
1. Allopatric
2. Sympatric
3. Adaptive Radiation
4. Parapatric
D. Extinction
1. Forces
a. Natural
b. Man-made
Biology& 100 Lecture Notes
Mr. Brumbaugh
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Winter 2015