CHAPTER 4
Exposure, Attention, and Perception
CHAPTER SUMMARY
This chapter considers the topics of exposure, attention, and perception. It notes that in order for a
marketing stimulus to have an impact, consumers must be exposed to it, allocate some attention to it, and
perceive it. Perception and attention are mutually reinforcing processes. A basic level of attention is
needed to perceive a stimulus. Once perceived, further attentional resources can be used to process
stimuli at higher levels of processing.
Exposure occurs when the consumer is presented with a marketing stimulus. Marketers are now
attempting a wide variety of tactics to increase stimulus exposure, particularly since consumers’ exposure
to marketing stimuli is selective. These efforts are important as consumers now engage in behaviors that
interfere with exposure like zipping (fast forwarding through a videotaped program), zapping (switching
channels during commercials), and flipping (switching channels even when there is no commercial).
Among those efforts that marketers are, using is road blocking—placing the same ads on multiple
channels simultaneously.
Attention occurs when the stimulus makes a conscious impression on the consumer or the consumer
allocates processing capacity to it. The key aspect of attention is that it is selective, divided, and limited.
Because it is limited, consumers may be distracted by other stimuli. Moreover, even though it is limited,
consumers have some capacity to process information at a preattentive level (provided these stimuli are
compatible with the principle of contralateral conduction). Given that the marketing environment is so
cluttered, it is important for marketers to capture consumers’ attention. Making a stimulus (a) selfrelevant, (b) pleasant, (c) surprising, or (d) easy to process enhances its attention-getting properties.
Alternatively, the problem of habituation suggests that familiar stimuli can lose their attention-getting
power.
If exposure and attention are sufficient, the stimulus may reach one or more sensory registers and be
perceived through one of the five senses. Processing of stimuli depends on the sense being used. Visual
stimuli are influenced by the important factors of: (a) size; (b) color (including hue, saturation, and
lightness); and (c) brightness and contrast. Hearing is influenced by intensity and music. Taste
perceptions are also critical for certain products, yet because tastes may vary across cultures, marketers
use taste tests to improve marketing strategy. In addition, the chapter considers how smell and touch may
influence the marketing strategy for certain products.
The chapter then discusses the concept of sensory thresholds. The absolute threshold is the lowest point
at which an individual can experience a sensation, while the differential threshold is the minimal
difference that can be detected between two stimuli (the just noticeable difference). For a marketing
stimulus to be perceived, it must be above the absolute threshold. The differential threshold is important
when marketers do not want consumers to either notice a difference between two stimuli (e.g., a price
increase) or want consumers to notice the difference (e.g., product improvements). The chapter also
considers that consumers do appear to have some abilities to perceive things that are just outside their
conscious level of awareness (subliminal perception).
Perceptual organization occurs when consumers organize a set of stimuli into a coherent perception.
Gestalt principles of figure and ground, closure, and grouping facilitate this process of organization.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I.
II.
Exposure
A. Exposure reflects the process by which the consumer comes into physical contact with a
stimulus.
B. Marketing Implications
1. Selection of media
a) Is the main process by which marketers reach consumers?
b) Includes broadcast, print, ad specialties, events
C. Factors Influencing Exposure
1. Position of an ad within a medium
a) Placing an ad within a medium can influence exposure
b) Beginning vs. middle of commercial break in television
c) Front vs. back or inside covers in a magazine
2. Distribution and shelf placement
a) Where a product can be found in the marketplace
b) Shelf placement within the retailer’s store
Attention
A. Characteristics of Attention
1. Attention refers to the process by which an individual devotes mental activity to a
stimulus.
2. Attention is selective; thus, consumers need to be led to allocate resources to a given
stimulus (e.g., a brand) or they may direct their attention elsewhere.
3. Attention can be divided among multiple stimuli.
4. Attention is limited and can be directed to only a few places.
B. Marketing Implications
1. Personally, relevant stimuli are more likely to attract attention because they have
potential consequences for our lives.
a) The incorporation of more self-relevant needs, values, and goals into a stimulus
(marketing communication) increases the likelihood that the stimulus will be
perceived.
b) Appeals that emerge from individuals perceived as similar to one’s self are more
likely to be attended to.
c) Appeals that contain dramatic presentations are more likely to attract attention
because they draw the consumer into the action.
2. Pleasant Stimuli
a) Visual attractiveness increases the likelihood of a stimulus (e.g., advertisement)
being noticed.
b) Familiar, pleasant, or nostalgic music can all be used to attract attention.
c) Providing a pleasurable experience through humor can draw consumers into an ad.
3. Surprising Stimuli
a) Stimuli that are new are more likely to attract attention.
b) Novel formats and messages can attract attention.
c) Consumers do not always like novel presentations.
d) Placing a message in an unexpected place (e.g., on the ground, in the air) can draw
attention.
e) Puzzles or other exercises that engage the consumer attract attention because they
require resolution on the part of the consumer.
4.
Easy to Process Stimuli
a) Prominent stimuli, such as full-page ads and loud commercials, are easy to process
because they stand out from the environment; ease of finding such stimuli increases
their chance of being attended to.
b) Concrete stimuli that are more detailed and specific are easier to understand, thus
they are more likely to be processed.
c) Messages that stand out from competing information draw attention to themselves,
making them easier to locate and thus more likely to be processed.
III. Perception
A. Perception occurs when stimuli are registered by one of the five senses.
B. Perceiving Through Vision
1.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
Size attracts attention
a) Consumers tend to buy products in packages that appear taller.
2. Color can determine whether we see a stimulus and can be described by three
dimensions.
3. Brighter and higher contrast colors are more likely to activate sensory receptors and thus
be perceived.
Perceiving Through Hearing
1. Loud music or stark noises can increase the probability that a stimulus will be perceived.
2. These stimuli can also influence behavior (e.g., faster music in a restaurant encourages
faster eating, allowing greater turnover and higher sales).
3. Music can affect moods. Bad moods might affect how we feel about products and
consumption experiences.
Perceiving Through Taste
1. Taste preferences change over time and vary across cultures.
2. Taste tests help marketers formulate stimuli appropriate to the consumer.
Perceiving Through Smell
1. Sensitivity to smell varies across individuals and groups.
a) Women are more sensitive than men are.
b) Younger consumers are more sensitive than older ones.
2. Smells can affect physiological responses and moods.
3. Exposure can be enhanced with smell as in the use of scratch-and-sniff advertisements
(e.g., for perfumes).
4. Smells can attract customers to locations when shopping.
5. Pleasant smelling environments can have a positive effect on shopping behavior (e.g.,
evaluation of a brand).
Perceiving Through Touch
1. Touch can affect physiological responses and moods.
a) Consumers who are touched by a salesperson are more likely to evaluate both the
store and salesperson positively.
2. Some products are liked because of the way they feel.
a) Skin care products, baby products, clothing fabrics
When Do We Perceive Stimuli?
1. Absolute thresholds are the lowest point at which an individual can detect a difference
between “something” and “nothing.”
a) Marketers must cross the absolute threshold before their communication or product
is noticed.
2. Differential threshold refers to the minimal difference that can be detected between two
stimuli.
a) It is often called the “just noticeable difference.”
b) Its properties are outlined by Weber’s law: The greater the initial stimulus, the
greater the additional intensity needed for the second stimulus to be perceived as
different.
c) Marketers must present differences that are large enough for consumers to notice
(as in comparing new attributes in a product to the old attributes) or keep them
small enough to be missed (as with price increases).
QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW
1.
What is attention, and what are three key characteristics?
Attention is the way in which one allocates part of their mental activity to a stimulus. It is
limited in its capacity, it is selective and it can be spread to different activities at the same time.
Attention also varies depending on what is going on in the consumers’ life. For instance, if a
consumer is looking for a car and has decided on a Toyota Camry he/she will likely notice more
Toyota Camry’s on the road then he/she would normally.
2.
What is perception, and what methods do we use to perceive stimuli?
3.
Differentiate between the absolute threshold and the differential threshold, and explain how these
concepts relate to Weber’s Law.
The absolute threshold is the minimum amount of stimulus necessary to perceive it while the
differential threshold is the amount of stimulus needed to perceive a difference. Weber’s law
states that the stronger the initial stimulus, the greater the additional intensity needed for the
second stimulus to be perceived as different. In short, it is easier to detect a difference between
an object weighing 10 lbs. and one weighing 20 lbs. (10 lb. difference) than it is to detect a
difference between an object weighing 100 lbs. and one weighing 110 lbs. (still a 10 lb.
difference).
4.
What role does attention play in advertising strategy?
Attention both affects what we perceive and is used to process something after we have
perceived it. Marketers can capture attention by making an ad (a) personally relevant, (b)
pleasant, (c) surprising, and (4) easy to process.
A stimulus will be personally relevant if it appeals to consumer needs, values, and goals, and if
it includes drama, rhetorical questions, or sources that are similar to the audience. A stimulus
will be pleasant if it incorporates attractive visuals, music, or humor and will be surprising if it
incorporates novelty (a stimulus that is new and unique) or unexpectedness (a stimulus that is
different from what the consumer expects). Finally, a stimulus will be easy to process if it is
prominent, concrete, or in contrast to the surrounding stimuli.
5.
What part does just noticeable differences (j.n.d.) play in consumers’ perceptions of a product?
Just noticeable difference (j.n.d.) is the intensity difference needed between two stimuli before
they are perceived to be different. Marketers must consider this effect as they position
products. If the difference in the focal attribute (price, size, quantity, warranty, etc.) will be
interpreted positively by consumers, marketers must ensure that the intensity is great enough for
consumers to perceive it. If the difference will be interpreted negatively, marketers must ensure
that the intensity is below the i.e. threshold.