Map of China
Timeline of Chinese Dynasties and Other Key Events
ca. 2100-1600 BCE
Xia (Hsia) Dynasty
ca. 1600-1050 BCE
Shang Dynasty
Capitals: near present-day Zhengzhou and
Anyang
Capitals: Hao (near present-day Xi'an) and
ca. 1046-256 BCE
Zhou (Chou) Dynasty
Luoyang
Western Zhou (ca. 1046-771 BCE)
Spring and Autumn Period
Eastern Zhou (ca. 771-256 BCE)
(770-ca. 475 BCE)
Confucius (ca. 551-479 BCE)
Warring States Period
(ca. 475-221 BCE)
221-206 BCE
Qin (Ch'in) Dynasty
Capital: Chang'an, present-day Xi'an
Qin Shihuangdi dies, 210 BCE
206 BCE-220 CE
Han Dynasty
Western/Former Han (206 BCE-9 CE)
Capital: Chang'an
Confucianism officially established as basis
for Chinese state by Han Wudi (r. 141-86
BCE)
Eastern/Later Han (25-220 CE)
Capital: Luoyang
Period of disunity and instability following
220-589 CE
Six Dynasties Period
the fall of the Han; Buddhism introduced to
China
Three Kingdoms (220-265 CE)
Cao Wei, Shu Han, Dong Wu
2
Jin Dynasty (265-420 CE)
Period of the Northern and Southern
Dynasties (386-589 CE)
581-618 CE
Sui Dynasty
Capital: Chang'an
618-906 CE
Tang (T'ang) Dynasty
Capitals: Chang'an and Luoyang
907-960 CE
Five Dynasties Period
960-1279
Song (Sung) Dynasty
Northern Song (960-1127)
Capital: Bianjing (present-day Kaifeng)
Southern Song (1127-1279)
Capital: Lin'an (present-day Hangzhou)
The reign of the Mongol empire; Capital:
1279-1368
Yuan Dynasty
Dadu (present-day Beijing)
Re-establishment of rule by Han ruling
1368-1644
Ming Dynasty
house; Capitals: Nanjing and Beijing
1644-1912
Qing (Ch'ing) Dynasty
Reign of the Manchus; Capital: Beijing
1912-1949
Republic Period
Capitals: Beijing, Wuhan, and Nanjing
People's Republic of China
Capital: Beijing
1949-present
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Annotated Chronological Outline of Chinese History
10,000-2,000 BCE
Neolithic Cultures
ca. 2100-1600 BCE
Xia (Hsia) Dynasty
ca. 1600-1050 BCE
Shang Dynasty
One of the Three Dynasties, or San Dai (Xia, Shang, and Zhou), thought to mark the
beginning of Chinese civilization: characterized by its writing system, practice of
divination, walled cities, bronze technology, and use of horse-drawn chariots.
ca. 1046-256 BCE
Zhou (Chou) Dynasty: Western Zhou (ca. 1046-771 BCE), Eastern Zhou (771-256 BCE)
A hierarchical political and social system with the Zhou royal house at its apex: power
was bestowed upon aristocratic families as lords of their domains or principalities.
Although often compared to European "feudalism," what actually gave the system
cohesion was a hierarchical order of ancestral cults. The system eventually broke down
into a competition for power between rival semi-autonomous states in what became
known as the Spring and Autumn period (ca. 770-475 BCE) and the Warring States (ca.
475-221 BCE) period. It was during these tumultuous times that Confucius (551-479
BCE) lived.
221-206 BCE
Qin (Ch'in) Dynasty
Created a unitary state by imposing a centralized administration and by standardizing the
writing script, weights and measures. Known for its harsh methods of rule, including the
suppression of dissenting thought.
206 BCE-220 CE
Han Dynasty: Western/Former Han (206 BCE-9 CE) and Eastern/Later Han (25-220 CE)
Modified and consolidated the foundation of the imperial order. Confucianism was
established as orthodoxy and open civil service examinations were introduced. Han
power reached Korea and Vietnam. Records of the Historian, which became the model
for subsequent official histories, was completed.
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220-589 CE
"Period of Disunity" or Six Dynasties Period
The empire was fragmented. The North was dominated by invaders from the borderland
and the steppes. The South was ruled by successive "Chinese" dynasties. Buddhism
spread.
581-618 CE
Sui Dynasty
China reunified.
618-906
Tang (T'ang) Dynasty
A time of cosmopolitanism and cultural flowering occurred. This period was the height of
Buddhist influence in China until its repression around 845. Active territorial expansion
until defeated by the Arabs at Talas in 751.
960-1279
Song (Sung) Dynasty: Northern Song (960-1127) and Southern Song (1127-1279)
An era of significant economic and social changes: the monetization of the economy;
growth in commerce and maritime trade; urban expansion and technological innovations.
The examination system for bureaucratic recruitment of neo-Confucianism was to provide
the intellectual underpinning for the political and social order of the late imperial period.
1279-1368
Yuan Dynasty
Founded by the Mongols as part of their conquest of much of the world. Beijing was
made the capital. Dramas, such as the famous Story of the Western Wing, flourished.
1368-1644
Ming Dynasty
The first Ming emperor, Hongwu, laid the basis of an authoritarian political culture.
Despite early expansion, it was an inward-looking state with an emphasis on its agrarian
base. Gradual burgeoning of the commercial sector; important changes in the economy
and social relations in the latter part of the dynasty; also a vibrant literary scene as
represented by publication of the novel Journey to the West.
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1644-1912
Qing (Ch'ing) Dynasty
A Manchu dynasty. Continued the economic developments of the late Ming, leading to
prosperity but also complacency and a dramatic increase in population. The acclaimed
novel Dream of the Red Chamber was written in this period. Strains on the polity were
intensified by a rapid incorporation of substantial new territories. Its authoritarian structure
was subsequently unable to meet the military and cultural challenge of an expansive
West.
1912-1949
Republic Period
Weak central government following the collapse of the dynastic system in 1911-12;
Western influence was shown by the promotion of "science" and "democracy" during the
New Culture Movement. The attempt of the Nationalist government (est. 1928) to bring
the entire country under its control was thwarted by both domestic revolts and the
Japanese occupation (1937-45). The Nationalists fled to Taiwan after defeat by the
Communists.
1949-present
People's Republic of China
Communist government. The drive for remaking society ended in disasters such as the
Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution. Economic reform and political
retrenchment since around 1978.
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"The Dynasties Song"
This "dynasties song," sung to the tune of "Frère Jacques,"
can help students remember the major Chinese dynasties in chronological order.
Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han
Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han
Sui, Tang, Song
Sui, Tang, Song
Yuan, Ming, Qing, Republic
Yuan, Ming, Qing, Republic
Mao Zedong
Mao Zedong
Notes on Pronunciation
Zhou is pronounced “Joe”
Qin is pronounced “chin”
Sui is pronounced “sway”
Qing is pronounced
Historical Notes
The Yuan Dynasty was also the Mongol Dynasty in China
The Qing Dynasty was also the Manchu Dynasty in China
The word Republic in the song signified the period when China was known as the Republic of China
The word Mao Zedong is the name of the Communist leader of China who began the period of Communist
rule of China. China would be known as the People’s Republic of China from this point forward.
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Chinese Dynasties
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Xia Dynasty About 1994 BCE - 1766 BCE
Shang Dynasty 1766 BCE - 1027 BCE
Zhou Dynasty 1122 BCE -256 BCE
Qin Dynasty 221 BCE - 206 BCE
Early Han Dynasty 206 BCE - 9 AD
Xin Dynasty 9 AD - 24 AD
Later Han Dynasty 25 AD - 220 AD
Three Kingdoms - Period of Disunion 220 AD - 280 AD
Sui Dynasty 589 AD - 618 AD
Tang Dynasty 618 AD - 907 AD
Sung Dynasty 969 AD - 1279 AD
Yuan Dyansty 1279 AD - 1368 AD
Ming Dynasty 1368 AD - 1644 AD
Manchu or Qing Dynasty 1644 AD - 1912 AD
Events Outside of China at the Same Time
Outside
Dynasty
Egypt
Neolithic/Shang
Assyria
Zhou
Greece
Qin
Roman Empire
Han
Dark Ages
Three Kingdoms
Jin
Sui
Charlemagne
Tang
Five Dynasties
Feudalism
Song
in Europe
Yuan
Renaissance
Ming
Industrial
Qing
Revolution
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The Xia Dynasty
About 1994 BCE - 1766 BCE
The Xia dynasty has been called the first dynasty. The Xia dynasty was said to have
ended only when a Xia ruler mistreated his people and was overthrown by his people.
However, there isn't any archaeological record to prove this story; the Shang dynasty is
the first dynasty to be documented with reliable historical evidence.
The Shang Dynasty
1766 BCE - 1027 BCE
The Shang dynasty ruled parts of northern and central China. Its capital city was located
at Anyang near the border of Henan from about 1384 BCE. This dynasty was based on
agriculture; millet, wheat, and barley were the primary crops grown. In addition to the
crops, silkworms, pigs, dogs, sheep, and oxen were raised. Aside from their agricultural
prowess, the Shang dynasty was also advanced in metallurgy. Bronze ships, weapons,
and tools were found from that era.
The Shang dyansty was an aristocrastic society, with a king ruling over the military
nobility. Territorial rulers were appointed by him in return for their support in his military
campaigns. Underneath the aristocratic class was the priest class. The priests kept the
records of the government and were also in charge of religion. The religion in the time of
the Shang dynasty was based on ancestor worship and a worship of many gods; the main
god was known as Shang Ti, the Lord on High.
The fall of the Shang dynasty was much like that of the Xia dynasty, the last king was a
cruel tyrant. Instead of the people overthrowing the king, he was killed by a king from a
rival kingdom, the Chou kingdom. The Chou dynasty was part of the Shang kingdom; its
civilization was a combination of the Shang culture and that of non-Chinese civilizations.
The Zhou Dynasty
1122 BCE - 256 BCE
The Chinese civilization expanded during the time of the Zhou dynasty. The massive size
that the dynasty covered was too much for the Zhou leaders to handle due to the poor
means of communication. Because of this, the leaders decided to appoint people to
oversee each of the territories. The territories started off as walled off cities. The leader of
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each of the territories were the lords, each receiving the title through inheritance. Next in
the hierarchy were the fighting men, followed by the peasants and the domestic slaves.
Soon, these territories became more independent, eventually breaking away from the
main Zhou dynasty leaders.
The Zhou society was based on agricultural production. During that time, the land of the
lords was divided among the peasants to grow crops. They were divided up into three by
three squares, with the eight outer squares being worked on by the peasants. The center
tract of land was worked on by all eight of the peasants for the lord. The extent of this
type of land distibution was unclear, but the later dynasties believed that this was the
most equitable way of dealing with land distribution and use.
The religious practice of the Zhou empire reflected their hierarchical way of life. The
Zhou kings believed that they were given a mandate from heaven to rule. The kings
prayed and sacrificed to Shang Ti, the Lord on High, now called T'ien (Heaven), and to
their ancestors. The lords of the territories prayed to the local nature gods and to the gods
of agriculture in addition to their ancestors. If any sacrifices or prayers were missed, great
ill was predicted to fall on the territory or kingdom of the neglectful leader.
Eastern Zhou
In 770 BCE, the Zhou kings lost control of the territories they had delegated to their
lords. These territories, along with non-Chinese forces, rebelled and defeated the original
Zhou capital. The Zhou then formed a new capital farther East. From this new capital, the
Zhou forfeited their political and military control over their territories.
The territories now were larger and more powerful than the original Zhou kingdom. Even
though the Zhou were not in control, they still thought they were appointed by the
heavans and continued to be the ceremonial lords of the kingdoms. During this time,
there was great economic growth, even among the constant warfare between the
territories. It was also during this time that China entered its Iron Age.
The Iron Age brought iron-tipped oxdrawn plows and improved irrigation techniques
which increased the agricultural yield which in turn increased the population. With the
increase in population came greater wealth, and people started to become merchants and
traders. With the explosion of the merchant and trader class, the improvement of
communication was inevitable. The improvement came in the form of expanding the
horseback communication system. This increase in the economic situation allowed the
rulers to control more and more territories. Communication was far better than before,
and a ruler could have a larger empire and still be kept up to date on situations that may
arise.
The territories that were located at the edges of the Zhou empire expanded into nonChinese countries. Upon expanding, the kingdoms of the Zhou became more diversified
and these kingdoms selectively chose the aspects of the newly acquired culture to
assimilate into their own. One such aspect was the mounted cavalry. Before, all the
Chinese fighting was by foot soldiers. By the 6th century, seven powerful states arose
from the former Zhou territories. With the Zhou dynasty's decline and the rise of power
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of the former territories, the situation in China became unstable. Then, by the late 5th
century, the Zhou dynasty fell into a state of interstate anarchy, this period was known as
the Period of the Warring States.
The Golden Age of Chinese Philosophy
403 BCE - 221 BCE
Due to the instability of China, an intellectual movement swept through China that
shaped China's state and culture. The most influential of the philosophers was
Confucious. Confucius was the representation of the emerging class of administrators
and advisors that were needed to aid rulers deal with the ever-present need of diplomacy
with other states and internal administration. Confucius wanted a return to the Zhou style
of governing. He believed that the rulers of that period had tried to develope a society
based on the example of great personal virtue. By this, Confucius then took to the task of
creating a class based on virtue that would take over the high positions of government
and lead the people by their example.
In addition to Confucianism, another school of philosophy was Taoism. The principles of
Taosim are explained in the Tao-te-Ching or "Classic of the Way and Its Virtue." This
text is said to have been created by Lao-tzu and in the works of Chuang-tzu. The Taoist
philosophy was based on simplicity. The belief is that the government should be hands
off, and let the people deal with the problems of nature and the people should return to
primitive agricultural communities.
Legalism was the third school of philosophy. The philosophers felt that, during their time
of great disorder and chaos, something needed to be done. The legalist philosophers
believed that every aspect of life should be ruled by a set of strict and impersonal laws.
To have this system work, the legalists needed to have a powerful and wealthy state
where the ruler had ultimate authority. The wealth and military strength is what gave the
state and ruler power.
Fall of the Zhou Dynasty and the Rise of the Ch'in State
During the 4th century BCE, the state of Ch'in, one of the former territories of the Zhou
kingdom, emerged as a power. Based on theories of a leading legalist, the Ch'in kingdom
reformed its administration, economy, and military and became stronger as the Zhou
empire weakened and eventually died in 256 BCE. Soon, the Ch'in had conquered the
seven other warring states.
The Qin Dynasty
221 BCE - 206 BCE
The Qin Dynasty was the dynasty that redefined China. The emperor of this era wanted to
conquer the warring states that the Chou dynasty had in essence created. This emperor
succeeded and China was one nation once more. Upon conquering all the warring states,
the emperor pronounced himself as the first emperor of China or, Shih Huang Ti. The
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unified China was larger than it ever was. This was the first time outside forces
acknowledged the existance of another race of people, and aptly named the nation China
after the then current dynasty, the Qin.
The first emperor not only unified China, but went about standardizing writing, weights,
and measures throughout his kingdom. This was used to promote internal trade among
the newly aquired states. The states each had their own standards of measuring and
weighing, and the Qin emperor wanted his kingdom to be as one to strengthen it. This
standardization was good for the weights and measurements but was not good for
philisophical ideas.
During this time, many schools of thought were outlawed; only legalism was given
official sanction. In 213 BCE, all the books of the opposing schools of thought were
burned except for the copies held in the Qin imperial library. The only way for emperor
to keep his nation together was to have all his subjects think the same way. Any deviation
would throw China back to the hundreds of years of warring.
The Qin empire was vast. The first emperor pushed China's borders South to current day
Vietnam, and current day Korea. But the central kingdom was still in the Yellow River
Valley. Regardless, of all the accomplishments of the Qin, the best known is the Great
Wall of China.
The construction of the Great Wall of China did not come without a price. It came with
massive financial burden as well as human life. This led to resentment of the Qin emperor
by his people. Not only that, the intellectuals were not happy with the emperor either; the
books they coveted were burned at his hands.
By this time, the emperor had grown old and he did not want to face death. He wanted to
be immortal. He set all the court scientists and doctors to work to make some sort of
medicine that would make him a god. The doctors came up with a deadly solution that
they truely thought would work. The medicines the doctors prescribed were pills that
contained traces of mercury which eventually lead to the emperors death.
When the emperor died, China went into a rage, and a rebellion against the Qin dynasty
ensued, leading to the next dynasty, the Han.
The Early Han Dynasty
206 BCE - 9 AD
From the turbulent Ch'in dynasty a rebel leader, Liu Pang, arose to seize control of the
former Ch'in empire. He proclaimed himself emperor in 206 BCE. He established the
Han dynasty which would become the most durable dynasty of the imperial age. The Han
empire was established using what the Ch'in had already set up. The only difference is
that some of the policies were modified, especially those that had caused the Ch'in
collapse. Taxes were also reduced drastically, while the government played a smaller role
in the economic policies.
One of important contributions of the Han was the establishment of Confucianism as the
official ideaology over Legalism. The Confucianism was not the pure studies of
Confucius, but a conglomeration of various other philosphies and superstitions to
augment the complex and sparse teachings of Confucius. This changed the way that the
empire was run. Before, emperors appointed people to positions regardless of thier
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competence. Now, the emperors chose the people they thought were the best suited for
the job based on merit. Written examinations were used to identify the best qualified
people for the job. In the 2nd cnetury BCE, an imperial university was established to
teach students the five classics of the Confucian school to prepare them to become
bureaucrats.
The height of the Han empire was under the rule of Emperor Wu Ti, who ruled the Han
empire from 140 to 87 BCE. Emperor Wu wanted to expand his kingdom and did, but at
a price. The once abundent coffers of the Han kingdom, collected in the days when the
government was hands off regarding the economy, were empty. This led to the reestablishing of the legalist philosophy; taxes and old policies were reinstated. This did not
go well with the people and large land owners opposed the centeral government by
refusing to pay taxes. The government overlooked the large land cases and over-taxed the
peasants. The peasants did not like the change and a revolt ensued.
The Xin Dynasty
9 AD - 23 AD
During the revolt, a courtier, Wang Ming, deposed and infant emperor and established the
short Xin dynasty. Slavery was abolished in this time and the peasants' lives were
improved. State monopolies on salt, iron, and coinage were strengthened and new
monopolies were created. Wang Ming tried to do too much and this lead to his downfall.
He tried to pass legislation on land but it was repealed. A large rebellion, led by a group
known as the Red Eyebrows, succeeded in killing Wang Ming and restoring the Han
dynasty.
The Later Han Dynasty
25 AD - 220 AD
The weakness of the administration plagued the Later, or Eastern Han dynasty, from the
beginning. As it was under the Earlier Han dynasty, the centeral government was
weakened by infant emperors' mothers being appointed to leadership roles. With the help
of the court eunuchs, the later emperors were able to get rid of this problem, but at the
price of giving the eunuchs power equal to the mothers. This new power of the eunuchs
did not sit well with officials, so the government was again divided by factionalism.
Between 168 and 170 warfare exploded between the eunuchs and bureaucrats. The new
eunuch power threatened the bureaucrat's position, something that the eunuchs thought
the bureaucrats should not have had in the first place. By 184, two great rebellions broke
out, led by Taoist religious groups. It wasn't until 215 that the great Han general, Ts'ao
Ts'ao, was able to calm the rebellious attitude.
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Three Kingdoms – Period of Disunion – Warring States Period
The end of the Han dynasty was marked by the separation of the large families of that
dynasty. The families took advantage of the weakened state of the government and
started to establish their own private armies. Many dynasties were established during this
time.
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Wei Dynasty (220 AD - 265 AD)
Shu Dynasty (221 AD - 263 AD)
Wu Dynasty (222 AD - 280 AD)
These three kingdoms constantly fought one another during this time. But, in 265 Yen
Ssu-ma, a general in the Wei dynasty overthrew the throne and created the Western Tsin
or Chin dynasty (265 AD - 317 AD) in Northern China. Yen had reunited North and
South China, but it fell apart when he died.
The Han Dyansty had fought non-Chinese tribes to the north to standstill. This warring
brought the invasion of these northern tribes when the Later Han Dynasty collapsed. The
non-Chinese invasions began in 304, and, by 317, the tribes had taken the control of the
Tsin Dynasty. But, even though the Northern Tribes had wrested control of one dynasty,
they could never take all of China. The non-Chinese rule lasted for about three centuries.
This was the first time the non-Chinese controlled China. Their rule lasted until the
Northern Wei Dynasty (386 AD - 534 AD) reclaimed China in 420 AD.
During the second half of the 5th century, the Northern Wei adopted a policy of
Sinification. The agricultural part of Northern China was administered bureaucratically as
it was in earlier chinese dynasties. Even though the Chinese were conquered by foreign
tribes, they still had influence on their new rulers. Chinese clothing, customs, and
language were adopted by the foreign invaders. After tribal cheiftains had been
overexerted by the official policies of SInification, they rebelled and in 534 the dynasty
fell. For the next 50 years, Northern China was ruled by non-Chinese.
Sui Dynasty
589 AD - 618 AD
Under the Sui Dynasty (589 AD - 618 AD), China was reunited. Yang Chien, the first Sui
emperor, was a military servant who usurped the throne of the non-Chinese Northern
Chou in 581. In the next eight years, Yang Chien successfully reconquered the Chinese
territory. The Sui dynasty re-established the centralized administrative system of the Han
and reinstated the competitive tests that were once taken to measure a bureaucrat's
competency.
In addition to the re-establishment of the government, there was a re-establishment of
religion and their roles. Even though Confucianism was officially endorsed, Taoism and
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Buddhism were acknowledged in formulating a new ideology for the empire. During this
time, Buddhism flourished.
Even though the Sui Dynasty was very short, it was filled with activity. The Great Wall
was repaired at the cost of human life; a canal system, which was later formed into the
Grand Canal, was constructed to carry water through out China. The eventual fall of the
Sui Dynasty was due to losses in southern Manchuria and Northern Korea. With these
defeats, the Sui dynasty was left devastated and rebels soon took control of the
government.
The Tang Dynasty
618 AD - 907 AD
The Tang dynasty was a dynasty that was characterized by such strength and brilliance
that it is unprecidented by any other. The civil service examination was so refined, that
the test's basic form was used in the 20th century. The role of the the imperial and local
government was amplified so that it centralized administration and enacted an elaborate
code of administrative and penal laws. The Tang dynasty was vast, with its control
ranging from Korea, southern Manchuria, and Northen Vietnam. In the west, the Tang
influence was felt as far away as present-day Afghanistan.
Tha Tang's strength came from a system of equal land allotments to the male population.
A tax on the allotments was the Tang's greatest source of income. In addition to that,
periodic miltary service from all males was the basis of the Tang's military. This system
worked for a while, but when the population increased, the land allotments to the males
decreased in size. The government's income did not change, but the peasants' did. This
caused many to flee; not only did the income for the government decrease, but the
military base did as well.
The early Tang monarchs were good rulers overall. But, one emperor, Hsuan Tsung, fell
in love with a woman and negelected his duties. This allowed the woman to place friends
and family in government positions. One general that was placed in such a position, An
Li-shan, had a quarrel with the woman's brother, causing a war to break out. Fighting
went on for eight years, and was stopped due to alliances made with the Centeral Asian
tribes. After this rebellion, the centeral government was never the same. The Tang could
no longer control the generals along the border. These generals withheld tax money and
eventually created kingdoms from the land they were to protect.
During the Tang dynasty, many great poets emerged. Li, Po, Tu Fu, and Po Chu-i and
prose master Han Yu appeared when the political decline had begun. The printing of
books and sharing of ideas promoted cultural unity.
During the Tang dynasty, Buddhism declined, and Confucianism became more popular.
Even though Buddhism was at its peak during the early Tang dynasty, many of the Tang
officials were of the Confucian discipline and regarded Buddhism as a disruptive force in
China. So, in 845, the Tang emperor started a full-scale persecution of Buddhists. More
than 4600 monestaries and 40,000 temples and shrines were destroyed. Other religious
groups were also brought under government control.
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Social and economic growth kept the Tang dynasty together during the years of disunion.
Handicraft guilds and the use of paper money all started in the late Tang dynasty. The
period of disunion was known as the Five Dynasties period (907-960). Not only did five
short-lived dynasties form during this period, but ten independent states were also
formed, primarily in Southern China.
The Northern Sung Dynasty
969 AD - 1126 AD
To avoid the problems the Tang government faced, the Northern Sung made the military
subordinate to the civil government. Every aspect of government and society was
dominated by the civil government. The civil service test was expanded so that the
government would have a constant flow of young talent. The Sung re-organized the
imperial government, centralizing the control of the dynasty at the capital. The local
government was left pretty much the same. Education flourished and the economy also
continued to expand. The literature that was being created in the late Tang dynasty
continued to flourish as well. However, even with such improvements, there was one
major flaw, a weak military.
The Sung's military was not very powerful, and they frequently signed treaties to end
fighting. Usually included in the treaties were stipulations requiring the Sung to pay
tributes to the enemies they were fighting. With the population growth came greater
economic growth. The military was a large portion of the annual income due to border
defenses. The Northern Sung fell apart due to differences in opinions by the civil
bureaucrats.
In 1069, a young Sung emperor appointed Wang An-shih as his chief counselor. Wang
brought about great change in the government. He proposed plans to increase government
income, decrease spending, and strengthen military forces. Wang An-Shih realized that
the government's wealth came from the peasants, and that the wealthier the peasants
were, the wealthier the government would be. So, Wang implemented land reforms to
give equal allotments of land to farmers, loans to cultivators to assist planting and
harvesting, and a graduated tax on wealth. Parts of Wang's plan were adopted, but some
were not used due to bureaucratic opposition.
The Southern Sung Dynasty
1127-1279
Due to their weakness, the Sung made an alliance with a Chin dynasty (1122-1234) of
northern Manchuria. After all their mutual enemies were defeated, the Chin turned on the
Sung. This forced them to retreat and form a new capital in the South in 1135. This new
Sung dynasty far surpassed that of the old one. The economic and intellectual
achievements increased while the former Sung dynasty to the north slowly decayed. The
dynasty showed no internal sign of collapse, but its downfall was many years of bitter
fighting against a superior force.
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In 1206, all the Mongol tribes convened at Karakorum in Outer Mongolia to confirm
Mongol unity under the command of Genghis Khan. Soon, the Mongols started to
conquer the surrounding land to form the largest empire of that time. First, Genghhis
Khan captured the Manchurian Chin dynasty. This was the dynasty that had pushed the
Sung out of the North. The Southern Sung was not captured until 1279, when Genghis
Khan's grandson, Kublai Khan, took control.
The Yuan Dynasty
1279 AD - 1368 AD
Kublai moved the Mongol capital from Karakorum to somewhere near Beijing. The
mongol empire was vast. It stretched from eastern Europe to Korea and from northern
Siberia to the northern rim of India. Instead of being tribal lords, the mongols ruled as if
they were chinese. That is why they adopted the the dynasty name, Yuan. During this
time, the traffic from West to East were greatly increased. Many missionaries and
merchants influenced the Chinese. The most notable foreigner that visited during this
time was Marco Polo. There was resentment towards the mongols by the Chinese. They
accepted them as rulers but resented the fact that they held back able Chinese due to the
Confucianism tests. Eventually, the mongol control of China was started to deteriorate.
Uprisings sprung up in every province of China and, in the 1360s, Chu Yuan-chang was
successful in exerting control throughout the Yellow River Valley. In 1371, Chu was
successful in pushing the mongols back into Mongolia.
The Ming Dynasty
1368 AD - 1644 AD
The Ming Dynasty was founded by Chu Yuan-chang, the rebel leader that was successful
in removing the mongols from the throne. Chinese control was re-asserted in China and
eastern Asia. Literature became more important, schools were created, and the justice
system was reformed. The Great Wall and the Grand Canal were also improved. The
dynasty was divided into 15 provinces and three commisioners were assigned to each
province: one for finances, one for military, and one for judicial matters. The financial
commisioner was over-ruled by a governor in the later years of the dynasty.
The Ming's power was great. They started to re-establish a tribute among the nonChinese states of East Asia. This tribute required that these states acknowledge the moral
and cultural supremecy of the Chinese. In the first quarter of the 15th century, the Ming
had decisively defeated the the mongol tribes. In addition to the superior land troops, the
Chinese navy was strong. Their power was felt throughout Southeast Asia, India, and
even Madagascar.
From the middle of the 15th century, the Ming's power started to decline. The quality of
the imperial leadership deteriorated and eunuchs started to exercise control over the
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emperors, causing great discontent among the bureaucrats and factionalism in the
government.
In addition to the deteriortion of the government, the imperial treasuries were being
depleted by war. Much money was spent on defending against the mongol tribes to the
north and Japanese pirates along the coast. The royal treasuries were eventually
exhausted trying to defend Korea in a seven-year war against the Japanese pirates. p> In
the final years of the Ming dynasty, maritime relations with Western countries were
opened. Among the countries that had trading posts or settlements in China were: The
Portuguese in Macao (1514), the Dutch in (Formosa)Taiwan (1619) and the near by
Pescadres islands. At the same time, Jesuit missionaries came to spread the Christian
faith and western scientific knowledge. The Jesuits soon won favor in the Ming court and
the neo-Confucian scholars were pre-occupied with individual merit and social order. The
Jesuits were unable to implant either Chiristian thought or western scientific knowledge
in the Chinese court.
The downfall of the Ming dynasty was brought about by a rebellion due to the inability of
the government to provide food in a time of famine. When the rebels attacked, the best
Ming troops were deployed along the Great Wall to protect against a Manchurian tribe.
The Ming commander was offered help by the Manchurians and helped drive out the
rebels. But once the rebels were purged from the capital, the Manchurians refused to
leave. This forced the Ming to withdraw to the south.
The Manchu or Qing Dynasty
1644 AD - 1912 AD
Under Manchu rule, China reached the highest point in its 2000-year history and
collapsed from internal pressure along with pressures exerted by the West. As with
previous invaders of China, the Manchus started to absorb the Chinese culture. The
government was based on that of the Ming and was more centralized. The central
administration was regulated by a new institution called the Grand Council. This council
regulated the military and political affairs guided by the emperor. The chief bureaus in
the capital had both a Chinese and a Manchu leader. The traditional bureaucracy and civil
service examination was generally the same as with previous Chinese dynasties.
By the end of 17th century, the Manchus had effectively eliminated all of the Ming
opposition and put down a rebellion led by Chinese generals that had helped the
Manchus. The Manchu dynasty eventually controlled Manchuria, Mongolia, Xinjiang,
and Tibet. Even Nepalm Burma, Korea, and Vietnam recognized China as a major power.
Even though the Manchu dynasty had over-powered it enemies, the 18th century was a
time of unprecedented peace. However, as with the previous trends, the population
growth superseded the economic growth. So, in the 18th century, the economic status of
the Chinese peasant declined. The government's funds were depleted due to foreign
expansion. The Manchus grudgingly accepted trade with the West. The most active
trading partners were the British, French, and the United States. The British, wanting to
gain a larger foothold in the Chinese market introduced Indian opium. This opium trade
depleted the Chinese silver reserves and gave the British a large advantage over all the
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other Chinese trading parteners.
List of Chinese Dynasties
Not surprisingly, there is some disagreement over how Chinese dynasties should be
listed. Often times, an overthrown government continues to control one region of the
country, while the new regime fights to extinguish it. Several dynasties or kingdoms
may co-exist, conquering each other in succession. In addition, various non-Chinese
dynasties have controlled all of, or part of, China. I have consulted several sources
and made my own judgment for the listing. Like most sources, I have only counted
years of non-Chinese dynasties that have gained control over all China when their
sovereignty over the country had been traditionally considered established.
Dynasty
Time Period
Notes
Xia4
2205 BC - 1766
Conquered by Shang1
BC (trad. dates)
Shang1
1766 BC - 1122
Conquered by Zhou1
BC (trad. dates)
Zhou1
-- Western Zhou1
-- Eastern Zhou1
1122 BC - 255
BC (trad. dates)
-- 1122 BC -- Broke up into small feudal
771 BC
states
-- 771 BC - 255 -- Conquered by someone
BC
Spring and Autumn Period
770 BC - 476
BC
Warring States Period
-- Han4
-- Zhao4
-- Wei4
-- Chu3
-- Yan4
-- Qi2
-- Qin2
475 BC - 221
BC
-- until 230 BC
-- before 403
BC - 228 BC
-- until 225 BC
-- until 223 BC
-- until 222 BC
-- until 221 BC
-- until 206 BC
(see below)
Qin2
221 BC - 206
BC
Han4
-- Western Han4
-- Xin1 (interregnum)
-- Eastern Han4
206 BC - AD
-- Overthrown by Xin1 rebels
220
-- 206 BC - AD -- Overthrown by Eastern Han4
8
rebels
Small states united to ignite
Warring States Period
-- Conquered by Qin2
-- Conquered by Qin2
-- Conquered by Qin2
-- Conquered by Qin2
-- Conquered by Qin2
-- Conquered by Qin2
-- (see below)
Overthrown by Han rebels
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-- 8 - 25
-- 25 - 220
-- Overthrown by Wei4 rebels
Three Kingdoms
-- Wei4
-- Shu3 Han4
-- Wu2
220 - 265
-- 220 - 265/266 -- Overthrown by Jin4 rebels
-- 221 - 263/264 -- Conquered by Wei4
-- 222 - 280
-- Conquered by Jin4
Jin4
-- Western Jin4
-- Eastern Jin4
265 - 420
-- 265 - 316
-- 317 - 420
-- Defeated by Xiongnu (Huns),
moved east
-- Overthrown by Liu Song4
rebels
Northern and Southern
Dynasties
420 - 581
"Six" Dynasties Period in the
South
(Two of which are the Eastern
Jin
and Wu, see above)
-- Liu Song4
-- Southern Qi2
-- Southern Liang2
-- Southern Chen2
-- 420 - 479
-- 479 - 502
-- 502 - 557
-- 557 - 589
-- ?
-- ?
-- ?
-- ?
Sixteen Kingdoms in the North
-- Northern (Later) Wei4
-- Eastern Wei4
-- Western Wei4
-- Northern Qi2
-- Northern Zhou1
-- et al., mostly non-Chinese
kingdoms
-- 386 - 534/535
-- 534 - 549
-- 535 - 557
-- 550 - 577
-- 557 - 581
-- ?
-- ?
-- ?
-- Conquered by Northern Zhou1
-- Overthrown by Sui rebels2
Sui2
581 - 618
Overthrown by Tang2 rebels
Tang2
618 - 907
Overthrown by Later Liang2
rebels
Five Dynasties and Ten
Kingdoms
907 - 960
Five Dynasties in the North
-- Later Liang2
-- Later Tang2
-- Later Jin4
-- Later Han4
-- Later Zhou1
-- 907 - 923
-- 923 - 936
-- 936 - 947
-- 947 - 951
-- 951 - 960
-- Overthrown by Later Tang2
rebels
-- Overthrown by Later Jin4
rebels
-- Overthrown by Later Han4
rebels
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Ten Kingdoms in the South
-- Wu
-- Southern Tang
-- Southern Ping
-- Chu
-- Former Shu
-- Later Shu
-- Min
-- Northern Han
-- Southern Han
-- Wu Yue
-- Overthrown by Later Zhou1
-- 902 - 937
rebels
-- 937 - 975/976 -- Overthrown by Song4 rebels
-- 924/925 - 963
-- 927 - 951
-- 907 - 925
-- ?
-- 934 - 965
-- Surrendered to Song4
-- 909 - 945/946 -- ?
-- 951 - 979
-- ?
-- 917 - 971
-- ?
-- 907 - 978
-- ?
-- ?
-- ?
-- ?
-- Surrendered to Song4
Song4
-- Northern Song4
-- Southern Song4
-- Liao4 (Khitan tribes in North
China)
-- Western Xia4 (Tangut tribes in
Western China)
-- Jin1 (Juchen tribes in North
China)
960 - 1279
-- 960 - 1127
-- 1127 - 1279
-- 907 - 1125
-- 1038 - 1227
-- 1115 - 1234
Yuan2 (Mongol)
1279 - 1368
Expelled by Ming rebels
Ming2
1368 - 1644
Conquered by Qing
Qing (Manchu)
1644 - 1912
Overthrown by republican rebels
Republic of China (ROC)
-- Mainland
-- Taiwan
1912 - present
-- 1912 - 1949 -- Defeated by Communists,
-- 1949 moved to Taiwan
present
-- Retroceded by Japan in 1945
People's Republic of China
(PRC)
1949 - present
1
-- Defeated by Jin, moved south
-- Conquered by Mongols
-- Conquered by Jin
-- Conquered by Mongols
-- Declared ind. from Liao,
conquered by Mongols
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