III. AREA OF OPERATION: PREFLIGHT PREPARATION
NOTE: The examiner must select at least one TASK.
Table of Contents
CFI-A Practical Test Standards .......................................................................................................................................3
CERTIFICATES AND DOCUMENTS REFERENCES .............................................................................................................5
WEATHER INFORMATION ............................................................................................................................................11
OPERATION OF SYSTEMS .............................................................................................................................................27
PERFORMANCE AND LIMITATIONS..............................................................................................................................33
AIRWORTHINESS REQUIREMENTS ...............................................................................................................................37
*Only the ASEL sections are applicable to the CFI ASEL rating.
Pg. 3-1
Pg. 3-2
CFI-A Practical Test Standards
III. AREA OF OPERATION: PREFLIGHT PREPARATION
NOTE: The examiner must select at least one TASK.
A. TASK: CERTIFICATES AND DOCUMENTS
REFERENCES: 14 CFR parts 23, 43, 61, 67, 91; FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-H-8083-25; FAA-S-8081-12, FAA-S-8081-14;
POH/AFM.
Objective. To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to certificates
and documents by describing:
1. The training requirements for the issuance of a recreational, private, and commercial pilot certificate.
2. The privileges and limitations of pilot certificates and ratings at recreational, private, and commercial
levels.
3. Class and duration of medical certificates.
4. Recent pilot flight experience requirements.
5. Required entries in pilot logbook or flight record.
B. TASK: WEATHER INFORMATION
REFERENCES: AC 00-6, AC 00-45, FAA-H-8083-25; FAA-S-8081-12, FAA-S-8081-14.
Objective. To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to weather
information by describing:
1. Importance of a thorough preflight weather briefing.
2. Various means and sources of obtaining weather information.
3. Use of real-time weather reports, forecasts, and charts for developing scenario based training.
4. Inflight weather advisories.
5. Recognition of aviation weather hazards to include wind shear.
6. Factors to be considered in making a “go/no-go” decision.
C. TASK: OPERATION OF SYSTEMS
REFERENCES: FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-H-8083-23, FAA-H-8083-25; FAA-S-8081-12, FAA-S-8081-14; POH/AFM.
Objective. To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to the
operation of systems, as applicable to the airplane used for the practical test, by describing the following systems:
1. Primary and secondary flight controls
2. Trim
3. Water rudders (ASES)
4. Powerplant and propeller
5. Landing gear
6. Fuel, oil, and hydraulic
7. Electrical
8. Avionics including autopilot
9. Pitot static, vacuum/pressure and associated instruments
10. Environmental
11. Deicing and anti-icing
Pg. 3-3
D. TASK: PERFORMANCE AND LIMITATIONS
REFERENCES: FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-H-8083-23, FAA-H-8083-25, AC 61-84; FAA-S-8081-12, FAA-S-8081-14; POH/AFM.
Objective. To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to
performance and limitations by describing:
1. Determination of weight and balance condition.
2. Use of performance charts, tables, and other data in determining performance in various phases of flight.
3. Effects of exceeding airplane limitations.
4. Effects of atmospheric conditions on performance.
5. Factors to be considered in determining that the required performance is within the airplane’s
capabilities.
E. TASK: AIRWORTHINESS REQUIREMENTS
REFERENCES: 14 CFR parts 23, 39, 43; FAA-S-8081-12, FAA-S-8081-14; POH/AFM.
Objective. To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to required
airworthiness by explaining:
1. Required instruments and equipment for day/night VFR.
2. Procedures and limitations for determining airworthiness of the airplane with inoperative instruments
and equipment with and without a minimum equipment list (MEL).
3. Requirements and procedures for obtaining a special flight permit.
4. Airworthiness directives, compliance records, maintenance/inspection requirements, and appropriate
records.
5. Procedures for deferring maintenance on aircraft without an approved MEL.
Pg. 3-4
CERTIFICATES AND DOCUMENTS REFERENCES
Objective:
To familiarize the student with the different certificates and documents related to aviation that the student will, as
a pilot, need to know.
Content:
 Airplane Flight Manuals
o Go through the different sections
 Aircraft Documents
o Certificate of Aircraft Registration
 Cannot be used for ops when:
 Aircraft registered under laws of foreign country
 Aircraft’s registration canceled at request of certificate holder
 Aircraft is totally destroyed or scrapped
 Ownership of aircraft is transferred
 Holder of certificate loses U.S. citizenship
 Pink copy of application for aircraft registration is good for 90 days
o Airworthiness Certificate
 Must be displayed in aircraft so visible to passengers and crew when operated
 Remains in effect as long as aircraft receives required maintenance and is properly
registered in the U.S.
 Special Airworthiness Certificate issued for aircraft certificated in other than standard
classifications (Experimental, Restricted, Limited, Provisional, Sport Pilot) Contact FSDO
when purchasing aircraft under these categories for further information
o Aircraft Maintenance Records
o Minimum Equipment Lists (MELs)
 Cover operations with inoperative equipment as well as MELs
o Special Flight Permits
o Airworthiness Directives
o Aircraft Owner/Operator Responsibilities
 Maintain current airworthiness and registration certificate
 Maintain aircraft in airworthy condition (comply with ADs)
 Assure maintenance properly recorded
 Keep abreast of regs concerning operation and maintenance
 Notify FAA immediately of any change of permanent mailing address, or sale or export
of aircraft, or loss of eligibility to register an aircraft (14 CFR 47.41
 Have current FCC radio station license if equipped w/ radios, including ELT, if operated
outside U.S.
References:
14 CFR parts 23, 43, 61, 67, 91
Airplane Flight Manual / Pilot’s Operating Handbook
Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge – Chapter 7
Completion Standards:
The lesson is complete when the instructor determines that the student has adequate knowledge of certificates
and documents as covered in this lesson.
Pg. 3-5
Instructor Notes:
 Training Requirements
o Recreational Certificate (61.96)
 Must receive and log at least 30 hours of flight time that includes at least:
 15 hours from an authorized instructor in the areas listed in 61.98
 3 hours of flight training for the rating sought in preparation of the practical
test (within 60 days)
 3 hours of solo flying
o Private Certificate (61.109)
 For an airplane single engine rating
 Must log at least 40 hours of flight time
o At least 20 of which must be flight instruction from an authorized
instructor
o At least 10 hours must be solo flight including:
 5 hours of solo cross-country time
 One solo cross country flight of at least 150 nm total distance
with full stop landings at a minimum of 3 points and one
segment of the flight consisting of a straight line distance of
at least 50 nm between the T/O and LDG locations
 3 T/Os and LDGs to a full stop at an airport with an operating
control tower
 The training must include at least:
o 3 hours cross-country flight training in a single engine plane
o 3 hours of night flight training which includes:
 Once cross-country flight over 100 nm total distance
 10 T/Os and LDGs to a full stop at an airport
o 3 hours of flight training on the control/maneuvering solely by
reference to instruments
o 3 hours of flight training in prep for the practical test (within 60 days)
 For an airplane multiengine rating the same requirements apply but in a multiengine
airplane
 Except, the 10 hours of solo time must be in an airplane
o Commercial Certificate (61.129)
 For an airplane single engine rating
 Must log at least 250 hours of flight time as a pilot that consists of at least:
o 100 hours in powered aircraft, 50 hours of which must be in airplanes
o 100 hours of PIC flight time, which includes at least:
 50 hours in airplanes; and
 50 hours in cross-country flight of which at least 10 hours
must be in airplanes
o 20 hours of training in the areas of operation (61.127(b)(1)) that
includes at least:
 10 hrs of instrument training of which at least 5 hrs must be
in a single engine airplane
 10 hrs of training in an airplane that has retractable gear,
flaps, and a controllable pitch propeller, or is turbine
powered
 One cross-country flight of at least 2 hours in a SE airplane in
day VFR conditions
 The total straight line distance must be more than
100 nm
Pg. 3-6


One cross-country flight of at least 2 hours in a SE airplane in
night VFR conditions
 The total straight line distance must be more than
100 nm
 3 hrs in a SE airplane in prep for the practical test (within 60
days)
o 10 hrs of solo flight time in a SE on the areas of operation in 61.127
which includes at least:
 One cross-country flight not less than 300 nm total distance
with landings at a min of 3 points, one of which is a straight
line distance of at least 250 nm
 5 hrs in night VFR conditions with 10 T/Os and LDGs with an
operating control tower
 For an airplane multiengine rating
 The same as the single engine rating but with ME airplane requirements
instead of SE
Privileges and Limitations
o Recreational Certificate (61.101)
 A person who holds a recreational pilot certificate may:
 Carry no more than one passenger; and
 Not pay less than the pro rata share of the operating expenses of a flight with a
passenger, provided the expenses involve only fuel, oil, airport expenses, or
aircraft rental fees
 With less than 400 flight hours, and has not logged PIC in an aircraft within the
preceding 180 days shall not act as PIC until receiving flight training and an endorsement
certifying PIC proficiency
o Private Pilot
 May not act as PIC of an aircraft carrying passengers or property for compensation or
hire
 May act as PIC for compensation/hire if incidental to the business and no passengers or
property
 May not pay less than the pro rata share of the operating expenses of a flight provided
the expenses involve only fuel, oil, airport expenditures, or rental fees
 May act as PIC for a charitable, nonprofit, or community event (91.146)
 May be reimbursed for operating expenses directly related to search and rescue
 May demonstrate an aircraft to a potential buyer if have over 200 hrs and are an aircraft
salesman
 May act as PIC of an aircraft towing a glider (under 61.69)
 May not act as PIC for comp/hire as SIC of an aircraft type certificated for more than 1
pilot or act as SIC for an aircraft carrying persons/property for comp/hire
o Commercial
 Privileges
 May act as PIC of an aircraft carrying persons or property for comp/hire
 May act as PIC of an aircraft for comp/hire
 Limitations
 Without an instrument rating in the same category and class
o The carriage of passengers for hire on x-country flights over 50 nm or
at night is prohibited
Pg. 3-7


Medical Certificates
o Class and Duration
 First Class
 When exercising the privileges of an ATP certificate
 Expires the end of the last day of the:
o 6th month for 1st class activities
o 12th month for 2nd class activities
o 24th month for 3rd class activities (over 40 years old)
o 60th month for 3rd class activities (under 40 years old)
 Second Class
 When exercising the privileges of Commercial certificate
 Expires the end of the last day of the:
o 12th month for 2nd class activities
o 24th month for 3rd class activities (over 40 years old)
o 60th month for 3rd class activities (under 40 years old)
 Third Class
 When exercising the privileges of a CFI, Private, Recreational, Student
certificate, etc.
 Expires the end of the last day of the:
o 24th month (over 40 years old)
o 60th month (under 40 years old)
Recent Flight Experience Requirements
o Pilot in Command
 To carry passengers, a pilot must have made 3 T/Os and LDGs within the preceding 90
days, and
 Acted as the sole manipulator of the flight controls in the same category, class,
type aircraft
 To carry passengers, 1 hr after sunset to 1 hr before sunrise, a pilot must have 3 T/Os
and LDGs within the preceding 90 days to a full stop during that time period, and
 Acted as the sole manipulator of the flight controls in the same category, class,
type aircraft
 For IFR conditions, within the preceding 6 months, you must have performed and logged
at least
 6 instrument approaches, holding procedures, and intercepting/tracking
courses
o A person who does not meet these reqs within the prescribed time or
within 6 calendar months after it, must take an IPC to serve as PIC
o Flight Reviews
 No person may act as PIC unless, within the preceding 24 calendar months he has
 Accomplished a flight review and received a log book endorsement certifying it
was completed
 Consists of a MINIMUM of 1 hour of flight training and 1 hour of ground training and
must include:
 A review of the current general operating rules and flight rules of Part 91 and a
review of those maneuvers that are necessary for the pilot to demonstrate the
safe exercise of the certificate
Pg. 3-8

Required Logbook Entries
o Must document and record training and aeronautical experience used to meet the requirements
for a certificate, rating, or review
 In the logbook, you must enter
 General,
o Date, Total flight/lesson time; location of departure/arrival (for a sim,
the location where the lesson occurred); type and identification of
aircraft, sim, or training device; and the name of the safety pilot (if
necessary)
 Type of pilot experience or training
o Solo, PIC, SIC, Flight and ground training received, training in a sim or
flight training device
 Conditions of Flight
o Day/Night, Actual Instrument, Simulated Instrument in flight or a
sim/FTD
Pg. 3-9
Pg. 3-10
WEATHER INFORMATION
Objective:
To familiarize the student with weather and how it will affect him as a pilot. To familiarize the student with
weather-related publications designed to give him a picture of the weather situation.
Content:
 Weather Theory
o Nature of the atmosphere
 Oxygen and the human body
o Atmospheric pressure
 Measurement
 Effects of altitude on pressure
o Effect of altitude on flight
o Effect of air density
o Wind
o Cause of atmospheric circulation
o Wind patterns
 Convective currents
 Effect of obstructions on wind
 Low-level wind shear
 Wind and pressure on surface weather maps
o Atmospheric stability
 Inversion
 Moisture and temperature
 Relative humidity
 Temperature/dewpoint
 Methods of cooling air
 Dew and frost
 Fog, clouds and ceiling
 Visibility
 Precipitation
o Air Masses
 Fronts
 Warm/Cold/Stationary/Occluded
 Weather Reports and Forecasts
o Observations
 METAR
 TAF
 AWOS/ASOS
 RVR
 Upper-air observations
 Radiosonde
 PIREPs
 Radar Observations
 Service Outlets
 FSS
 TIBS
 DUATS
 EFAS (“Flight Watch”)
Pg. 3-11
o
o
o
o
 HIWAS
 TWEBs
Weather Briefings
 Abbreviated
 Outlook
 Standard
Aviation Weather Reports
 METAR
 PIREPs
 Radar Weather Reports (SD)
Aviation Forecasts
 TAFs
 Area Forecast (FA)
 SIGMET, AIRMET
 Winds and Temperatures Aloft (FD)
Weather Charts
 Surface Analysis
 Weather Depiction
 Radar Summary
 Significant Weather Prognostic
References:
Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge – Chapter 10 and 11
Aviation Weather
Aviation Weather Services
Completion Standards:
The lesson is complete when the instructor determines that the student has adequate knowledge of weather
theory and reports and forecasts by giving an oral or written exam.
Instructor Notes:
 Importance of a Thorough Weather Briefing
o 1st step in determining if the flight can be conducted safely and where and when problems may
occur
o 91.103 – You are required to become familiar with the weather reports and forecasts
o Weather can be dangerous, if you know what to expect, unforecast conditions will alert you to
hazards
 Weather Information Sources
o General Awareness of the Overall Weather
 TIBS – Transcribed Information Briefing Service
 Continuous telephone recordings of meteorological and aeronautical info
(Phone #’s in the AFD)
o Specifically, area and route briefings, airspace procedures, and special
announcements
 PATWAS – Pilots Automatic Weather Answering Service
 TWEB – Transcribed Weather Broadcast (‘T’ in the upper right corner of the navaid ID
box)
 Weather report transmitted continuously over a selected navaid
o Route orientated info - Route forecast, forecast outlook, winds aloft,
other selected weather
 For an area w/in 50 nm of FSS
o Valid for 12 hours and updated 4 times a day
Pg. 3-12
 TV/Internet
Detailed Briefing (Specific to the flight)
 FSS (1-800-WX BRIEF)
 Primary source for preflight weather
 DUAT(S)
 NWS – National Weather Service
 SWSL – Supplemental Weather Service Location
 FSS/DUATS proved NOTAM info and filing of flight plans, while NWS/SWSL
provide weather only
o Inflight Weather
 EFAS (Flight Watch) – 122.0
 Weather advisories tailored to the type of flight, route, cruising altitude
 6 a.m. – 10 p.m. from 5,000’ AGL to 17,500’ AGL
 HIWAS (‘H’ in the upper right corner of the navaid identification box)
 Hazardous weather info broadcast continuously over selected navaids
o AIRMETs, SIGEMTs, Convective SIGEMTs, urgent PIREPs
 TWEB
In-Flight Weather Advisories
o Forecasts that detail potentially hazardous weather
o AIRMET (WA)
 Issued every 6 hrs with intermediate updates issued as needed for a particular area
forecast region
 Info is of interest to all aircraft but the wx section concerns phenomena dangerous to
light aircraft
 3 Types
 SIERRA denotes IFR and Mountain Obscurement
 TANGO denotes Turbulence, Strong Surface Winds, and Low-Level Wind Shear
 ZULU denotes Icing and Freezing Levels
o SIGMET (WS)
 In flight advisory concerning non-convective weather that is potentially hazardous to all
aircraft
 Sever icing/extreme turbulence/CAT not associated with T-storms; dust/sand storms
lowering visibility to less than 3 miles and volcanic ash
 Unscheduled forecasts valid for 4 hours (hurricane SIGMET is valid for 6)
o Convective SIGMENT (WST)
 Weather advisory issued for hazardous convective weather that affects the safety of
every flight
 Issued for
 Severe T-storms with
o Surface winds greater than 50 knots
o Hail at the surface >/= ¾ inch in diameter
o Tornadoes
 Embedded T-storms
 A line of T-storms
 T-storms with heavy or greater precipitation affecting 40% or more of a 3,000
sq’ or greater area
o PIREPS
 A pilot generated report concerning meteorological phenomena encountered in flight
 Aircraft in flight are the only way to observe cloud tops, icing and turbulence
 Fill the gaps between reporting stations
o

Pg. 3-13



Recognizing Weather Hazards
o Hazards can be recognized through proper interpretation of aviation weather charts, reports, etc
 Area Forecasts, WST, WS, WA, Significant Weather Prog charts
o Also, utilizing weather information resources will allow hazards to be recognized
 LLWAS, PIREPS, Convective Outlook, METARs, etc
Go/No Go Decision
o Weather factors must be considered in relation to the equipment to be flown
 Can the plane handle the flight?
 The following conditions may lead to a No Go Decision
 T-Storms of any kind, especially embedded
 Fast-moving fronts or squall lines
 Moderate or greater turbulence
 Icing
 Fog, or other visual obscurations
o Physical/Mental condition
 Sick, tired, upset, depressed – These factors can greatly affect the ability to handle any
problem
o Recent Flight Experience
 Don’t go beyond your abilities or the airplane’s abilities
 EX: Are you comfortable in MVFR if you haven’t flown in a while
o Flying is a continual process of decision making through the entire flight
METAR, TAF, and FA
o METAR (Aviation Routine Weather Report)
 An observation of current surface weather reported in a standard international format
 Contains the following information:
 Type of Report – There are 2 types. The first is the routine METAR report,
transmitted hourly.
o The 2nd is the aviation selected special weather report (SPECI).
 Is given any time to update a METAR for rapidly changing
weather, aircraft mishaps, etc.
 Station Identifier – Four letter code (ex. KAHN). K is the country identifier and
AHN is the airport identifier. (Alaska always begins with “PA” and Hawaii
identifiers always begin with “PH”)
 Date and Time of Report – (161753Z) Reported in a six digit group. The first 2
digits are the date; the last 4 are the time, in UTC.
 Modifier – Denote that the METAR came from an automated source or was
corrected
o “AUTO” indicates the report came from an automated source
o “AO1” and “AO2” indicate the type of precipitation sensors at the
station
o “COR” identifies a corrected report.
 Wind – (14021G26)
o Reported with 5 digits unless speed is > 99 knots, then it is 6
 The first 3 digits indicate wind direction in tens of degrees
 The last 2 digits indicate the speed of the wind in knots
 Gusting winds (G) show with the peak gust after the
“G”
 If wind varies more than 60 degrees and the speed > 6 knots,
a separate group of numbers, separated by a “V” will indicate
the extremes of the directions
Pg. 3-14






Visibility – (3/4SM)
o Reported in statute miles
o RVR is sometimes reported following the visibility,
 RVR is the distance a pilot can see down the runway in a
moving aircraft.
 Shown with an “R” then the runway number, a slant,
and the visual range in feet.
Weather – (-RA BR) Two different categories: Qualifiers and Weather
Phenomenon
o Qualifiers show intensity or proximity as well as descriptor codes
 - ,+ ,VC , SH, TS, FZ, etc
o Phenomena describe the different precipitation, obscuration, and
other phenomena
 DZ, RA, HZ, SS, DS, SN, etc
Sky Condition – (BKN008 OVC012)
o Always reported in the sequence of amount, height, and type
 Heights are depicted with three digits in hundreds of feet
above ground
 Clouds above 12,000 ft are not detected
 TCU and CB clouds are reported with their height
 The amount of sky coverage is reported in eighths of the sky
from horizon to horizon.
Temperature and Dewpoint – (18/17)
o In degrees Celsius (Temp below 0 degrees Celsius are preceded by the
letter “M”)
jAltimeter Setting – (A2970)
o Preceded by the letter “A” and reported as inches of mercury in a four
digit number
o “PRESRR” or “PRESFR” represent rising or falling pressure
Remarks – RMK
o May include wind data, variable visibility, begin/end times of
phenomenon, pressure info, and various other necessary info
EXAMPLE:
METAR BTR 161753Z 14021G26 ¾SM –RA BR BKN008 OVC012 18/17 A2970 RMK
PRESFR
EXPLANATION:
Type of Report: Routine METAR
Location: Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Date: 16th day of the month
Time: 1753 Zulu
Modifier: None shown
Wind Information: Winds 140 at 21 knots gusting to 26 knots
Visibility: ¾ SM
Weather: Light rain and mist
Sky Conditions: Skies broken 800 ft, Overcast 1,200 ft
Temperature: Temp 18 degrees C, Dewpoint 17 degrees C
Altimeter: 29.70 in. Hg.
Remarks: Barometric pressure is falling
Pg. 3-15
o
Terminal Aerodrome Forecast (TAF)
 A terminal aerodrome forecast is a report established for the 5 s.m. radius around an
airport
 Valid for a 24-hour period, and is updated four times a day at 0000Z, 0600Z, 1200Z, and
1800Z.
 The TAF utilizes the same descriptors and abbreviations as the METAR.
 Includes the following information in sequential order:
 Type of Report – Can either be a routine forecast (TAF) or an amended forecast
(TAF AMD)
 ICAO Station Identifiers – (KAHN) Same as METAR
 Date and Time of Origin – Six number code. First 2 are the date; last four are
the time, in UTC
 Valid Period Date and Time – Given by a 6 digit number group. The first 2 are
the date, the next 2 are the beginning time for the valid period and the last 2
are the end time
 Forecast Wind – The wind direction and speed forecasts are given in a five-digit
number group
 Forecast Visibility – Given in statute miles (Greater than 6 SM is shows as
“P6SM”)
 Forecast Significant Weather – Coded the same as a META (No sig wx forecast
“NSW” shown)
 Forecast Sky Condition – Given same as the METAR. Only “CB” clouds are
forecast
 Forecast Change Group – For any significant weather change forecast to occur,
the expected conditions and time period are included, this information can be
shown as:
o FM - From is used when a rapid and significant change, usually within
an hour, is expected
o BECMG - Becoming is used when a gradual change is expected over no
more than 2 hours
o TEMPO - Temporary is used for temporary fluctuations, expected to
last for less than an hr
 Probability Forecast – The given percentage that describes the probability of
thunderstorms and precipitation occurring in the coming hours
EXAMPLE:
TAF
KPIR 111130Z 111212 15012KT P6SM BKN090
TEMPO 1214 5SM BR
M1500 16015G25KT P6SM BKN080 OVC150 PROB40 0004 3SM TSRA
BKN030CB
FM0400 1408KT P6SM SCT040 OVC080 TEMPO 0408 3SM TSRA OVC030CB
BECMG 0810 32007KT=
EXPLANATION
Routine TAF for Pierre, South Dakota. On the 11th day of the month, at
11:30Z. Valid for 24 hrs from 1200Z on the 11th to 1200Z on the 12th.
Wind from 150 at 12 knots. Greater than 6 SM visibility. Broken clouds at
9,000 ft.
Temporarily, between 1200Z and 1400Z, visibility 5 SM in mist.
From 1500Z winds from 160 at 15 knots, gusting to 25 knots. Visibility
greater than 6SM, and clouds broken at 8,000ft, overcast at 15,000 ft.
Pg. 3-16
Between 0000Z and 0400Z, there is a 40 percent probability of visibility 3
statute miles, thunderstorm with moderate rain showers, clouds broken at
3,000 ft with cumulonimbus clouds.
From 0400Z winds are from 140 at 18 kts, visibility greater than 6 SM.
Clouds at 4,000ft scattered and overcast at 8,000. Temporarily between
0400Z and 0800Z, visibility 3 SM, thunderstorms with moderate rain.
Clouds overcast at 3,000 ft with cumulonimbus clouds.
Becoming between 0800Z and 1000Z, wind from 320 at 7 knots. End of
report
o
Area Forecasts (FA)
 The FA gives a picture of clouds, general weather conditions, and VMC expected over a
large area encompassing several states. This forecast gives information vital to en route
operations as well as forecast information for smaller airports that do not have terminal
forecasts.
 There are six areas for which area forecasts are published in the contiguous 48 states
 Area forecasts are issued 3 times a day and are valid for 18 hours
 Four Sections
 Header – Gives the location identifier of the source of the FA, the date and
time of issuance, the valid forecast time, and the area of coverage
EXAMPLE
DFWC FA 120945
SYNOPSIS AND VFR CLDS/WX
SYNOPSIS VALID UNTIL 130400
CLDS/WX VALID UNTIL 122200…OTLK VALID 122200-130400
OK TX AR LA MS AL AND CSTL WTRS
EXPLANATION
The area forecast shows information given by Dallas Fort Worth, for the
region of Oklahoma, Texas, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama,
as well as a portion of the gulf coast waters. It was issued on the 12th day
of the month at 0945. The synopsis is valid from the time of issuance until
0400 hours on the 13th. VFR clouds and weather information on this area
forecast is valid until 2200 hours on the 12th and the outlook is valid until
0400 hours on the 13th.

Precautionary Statements – IFR conditions, mountain obscurations, and
thunderstorm hazards are described. Statements of height are in MSL - if given
otherwise, AGL or CIG will be noted
EXAMPLE
SEE AIRMET SIERRA FOR IFR CONDITIONS AND MTN OBSCN.
TS IMPLY SEV OR GTR TURB SEV ICE LLWS AND IFR CONDS.
NON MSL HGTS DENOTED BY AGL OR CIG
EXPLANATION:
The FA covers VFR clouds and weather, so the precautionary statement warns
that AIRMET Sierra should be referenced for IFR conditions and mountain
obscuration. The code TS indicates the possibility of thunderstorms and implies
there may be occurrences of severe or greater turbulence, severe icing, lowlevel wind shear, and IFR conditions. The final line of precautionary statement
alerts the user that heights for the most part are mean sea level (MSL). Those
that are not MSL will be above ground level (AGL) or ceiling (CIG).
Pg. 3-17

Synopsis – A brief summary identifying the location/movement of pressure
systems, fronts, and circulation patterns
EXAMPLE:
SYNOPSIS…LOW PRES TROF 10Z OK/TX PNHDL AREA FCST MOV EWD INTO
CNTRL-SWRN OK BY 04Z. WRMFRNT 10Z CNTRL OK-SRN AR-NRN MS FCST LIFT
NWD INTO NERN OK-NRN AR EXTRM NRN MS BY 04Z.
EXPLANATION:
As of 1000Z, there is a low pressure trough over the Oklahoma and Texas
panhandle area, which is forecast to move eastward into central southwestern
Oklahoma by 0400Z. A warm front is located over Central Oklahoma, southern
Arkansas, and northern Mississippi at 1000Z is forecast to lift northwestward
into northeastern Oklahoma, northern Arkansas, and extreme northern
Mississippi by 0400Z.

VFR Clouds and Weather – Lists expected sky conditions, visibility, and weather
for the next 12 hrs and an outlook for the following 6 hrs
EXAMPLE:
S CNTRL AND SERN TX
AGL SCT-BKN010. TOPS 030. VIS 3-5SM BR.
14-16Z BECMG AGL SCT 030. 19Z AGL SCT050.
OTLK… VFR
OK
PNDL AND NW… AGL SCT030 SCT-BKN100. TOPS FL200
15Z AGL SCT040 SCT100. AFT20Z SCT TSRA
DVLPG..FEW POSS SEV. CB TOPS FL450.
OTLK… VFR
EXPLANATION:
In south central and southeastern Texas, there is a scattered to broken layer of
clouds from 1000ft AGL with tops at 3,000 ft, visibility is 3 to 5 statute miles in
mist. Between 1400 Zulu and 1600 Zulu, the cloud bases are expected to
increase to 3,000 ft AGL. After 1900Z, the cloud bases are expected to continue
to increase to 5,000 ft AGL and the outlook is VFR.
In northwestern Oklahoma and panhandle, the clouds are scattered at 3,000 ft
with another scattered to broken layer at 10,000 ft AGL, with tops at 20,000 ft.
At 1500Z, the lowest cloud base is expected to increase to 4,000 ft AGL with a
scattered layer at 10,000 ft AGL. After 2000Z, the forecast calls for scattered
thunderstorms with rain developing and a few becoming severe; the
cumulonimbus clouds will have tops at flight level 450 or 45,000 ft MSL.

Surface Analysis Chart
o Depicts an analysis of the current surface weather
o Computer prepared report transmitted every 3 hours covering contiguous 48 states and adjacent
areas
o Shows areas of high/low pressure, fronts, temps, dewpoints, wind direction/speed, local
weather, visual obstructions
o Surface weather observations for reporting points across the US are also depicted on this chart.
Each of these reporting points is illustrated by a station model. A station model will include:
 Type of Observation – Round indicates official weather observer, square is automated
station
Pg. 3-18




Sky Cover – Shown as clear, scattered, broken, overcast, or obscured/partially obscured
Clouds – Cloud types are represented by specific symbols. Low cloud symbols are placed
beneath the station model, while middle and high cloud symbols are placed directly
above the station model. Typically, only one type of cloud will be depicted with the
station model.
 Sea Level Pressure – Given in 3 digits to the nearest tenth of a millibar. For 1000 mbs or
greater, prefix a 10 to the 3 digits; for less than 1000 mbs, prefix a 9 to the 3 digits
 Pressure Change/Tendency –In tenths of mbs over the past 3 hours, depicted directly
below the slp
 Precipitation – Precipitation that has fallen over the last 6 hours to the nearest
hundredth of an inch
 Dewpoint – In degrees Fahrenheit
 Present Weather – Many different weather symbols are used to describe the current
weather
 Temperature – Given in degrees Fahrenheit
 Wind – True direction of wind is given by the wind pointer line, indicating the direction
from which the wind is coming (A short barb is 5 knots, a long barb is 10 knots, and a
pennant is 50 knots)
Radar Summary Chart
o A graphically depicted collection of radar weather reports (SDs) displaying areas of precipitation
as well as information regarding the characteristics of precipitation
o The chart is published hourly at 35 min past the hour
o A radar summary chart includes:
 No information – If info isn’t reported it will say “NA.” if no echoes are detected, it will
say “NE”
 Precipitation Intensity Contours – Described as one of 6 levels and shown by 3 contour
intervals
 Height of Tops – The heights of the echo tops are given in hundreds of feet MSL
 Movement of Cells –Indicated by an arrow pointing in the direction of movement, speed
in knots is at the top of the arrow heard (“LM” indicates little movement)
 Type of Precipitation - Marked using specific symbols (not those used on the METAR)
 Echo Configuration – Echoes are shown as being areas, cells, or lines
 Weather Watches – Depicted by boxes outlined with heavy dashed lines
o Limitations
 Only depicts areas of precipitation
 Will not show areas of clouds and fog with no appreciable precipitation,
 Will not show the heights of the tops and bases of the clouds
o Depiction of current precipitation and should be with current METAR and weather forecasts
Winds and Temperatures Aloft Chart (FD)
o Provide wind and temperature forecasts for specific locations
o The forecasts are made twice a day based at 0000Z and 1200Z
o Through 12,000 ft are true altitudes and above 18,000 ft are pressure altitudes
o Wind
 Direction is always in reference to true north and wind speed is always given in knots
 No winds are forecast when a given level is within 1,500 ft of station elevation
 Wind direction and speed are listed together in a four digit code
 The first two numbers indicate the direction the wind is blowing from in tens of
degrees
 The second two numbers indicate the speed of the wind
Pg. 3-19

o
If the wind speed is forecast to be greater than 100 knots but less than 199 knots, 50 is
added to the direction and 100 is subtracted from the speed
 To decode, the reverse must be accomplished
o EX: For 7319 - Subtract 50 from the direction, add 100 to the speed to
get 230o at 119 knots
 If the wind speed is forecast to be 200 knots or greater, the wind group is coded as 99
knots
 EX: For 7799 - Subtract 50 from the direction, add 100 to 99 to get 270 at 199
knots or greater
 Light and Variable wind is coded “9900”
Temperature
 Temperature is always given in Celsius
 No temperatures are forecast for any station with 2,500 ft of station elevation
 Temperatures above 24,000 feet MSL are negative.
EXAMPLE:
EXPLANATION:
The heading indicates that this FD was transmitted on the 15th of the month at 1640Z
and is based on the 1200 Zulu radiosonde. The valid time is 1800 Zulu on the same day
and should be used for the period between 1700Z and 2100Z. The heading also indicates
that the temperatures above 24,000 feet MSL are negative. Since the temperatures
above 24,000 feet are negative, the minus sign is omitted. A 4-digit data group shows
the wind direction in reference to true north, and the wind speed in knots. The
elevation at Amarillo, TX (AMA) is 3,605 feet, so the lowest reportable altitude is 6,000
feet for the forecast winds. In this case, “2714” means the wind is forecast to be from
270° at a speed of 14 knots. A 6-digit group includes the forecast temperature aloft. The
elevation at Denver (DEN) is 5,431 feet, so the lowest reportable altitude is 9,000 feet
for the winds and temperature forecast. In this case, “2321-04” indicates the wind is
forecast to be from 230° at a speed of 21 knots with a temperature of –4°C.

Significant Weather Prognostic Charts
o Portray forecasts of selected weather conditions at specified valid times
 Forecasts are made from a comprehensive set of observed weather conditions. The
observed conditions are extended forward in time and become forecasts by considering
atmospheric and environmental processes.
o Forecasts are made for various periods of time
 Each valid time is the time at which the forecast conditions are expected to occur
 The valid time is printed on the lower left hand corner of each panel
 A 12-hour prog is a forecast of conditions with a valid time 12 hours after the
observed time
o EX: A 12 hr forecast based on 00Z observations is valid at 12Z
 Forecasts are issued four times a day at 0000Z, 0600Z, 1200Z, 1800Z
o Altitude information is referenced to MSL. (Below 18,000’ are true, above 18,00’ are pressure)
Pg. 3-20
o
o
The prog charts are generated for two general time periods
 Day 1 progs are forecast for the first 24-hour period and are prepared for 2 altitude
references
 Day 2 progs are forecast for the second 24-hour period
Charts are available for low-level significant weather and high-level significant weather
 Low Level Chart
 A day 1 forecast of significant weather for the conterminous US
 Weather information pertains to the layer from surface to FL240 (400 mbs)
o The information is provided for two forecast periods: 12 hours and 24
hours
 The chart is composed into 4 panels:
o The upper two panels depict the 12 and 24-hour significant weather
progs
 The Significant weather panels display forecast weather flying
categories (VFR/IFR/MVFR), freezing levels, and turbulence
 A legend on the chart illustrates symbols and criteria
used for these conditions
o The lower two panels depict the 12 and 24-hour Surface Progs
 Display forecast positions and characteristics of pressure
systems, fronts, precipitation
 Standard symbols are used to show fronts and
pressure centers
 Direction of movement of the pressure center is
depicted by an arrow
 The speed is in knots and is shown next to the arrow
 Areas of forecast precipitation and thunderstorms
are outlined
o Shaded areas of precip. indicate at least ½
the area is affected by the precip.
o Unique symbols indicate the type of
precipitation and the manner it occurs
 Using the chart
o Provides an overview of selected flying weather conditions up to
24,000 ft for day 1
o Surface winds can be inferred from surface pressure patterns
o Structural icing can be inferred in areas with clouds and precipitation,
above freezing levels, and in areas of freezing precipitation
o Use to obtain an overview of the progression of weather during day 1
Pg. 3-21
EXAMPLE:


36 and 48-hour Surface Prog
 A day 2 forecast of general weather for the conterminous US
o An extension of the day 1 low-level prog chart issued from the same
observed data base
 The chart is issued two times daily at 0000Z and 1200Z and valid 36/48 hrs after
observed
o EX: A chart issued based on 00Z Tuesday observations has a 36-hour
valid time of 12Z Wednesday and a 48-hour valid time of 00Z Thursday
 The chart is composed of two panels and a forecast discussion
o The two panels contain the 36 and 48-hour surface progs
 The panels display forecast positions/characteristics of pressure patterns,
fronts, precipitation
o Provides info regarding only surface weather forecasts, includes a
discussion of the forecast
o Standard symbols are used to show fronts and pressure centers
o Precipitation areas are outlined on each panel
o The forecast discussion is a discussion of the day 1 and day 2 forecast
package, including identification/characterization of weather systems
and associated weather conditions portrayed on the prog charts
 Using the chart
o The 36 and 48-hour surface prog provides a general weather
conditions outlook for day 2
o The chart can be used to assess the progression of weather through
day 2
High-Level Significant Weather Prog
 The high-level significant weather prog chart is a day 1 forecast of significant
weather covering a large portion of the Northern Hemisphere and a limited
portion of the Southern Hemisphere
 Weather information pertains to the layer from above 24,000 to 60,000 ft
o Conditions routinely appearing are jet streams, CB clouds, turbulence,
and tropopause heights, surface front are also included to add
perspective
Pg. 3-22



Tropical cyclones, squall lines, eruptions, sandstorms, dust storms will appear
Each prog chart is issued 4 times a day and is valid times at 00Z, 06Z, 12Z, 18Z
Using the chart
o This chart is used to get an overview of selected flying weather
conditions above 24,000 ft
EXAMPLE:


Prognostic charts are an excellent source of information for preflight planning;
however, this chart should be viewed in light of current conditions and specific
local area forecasts
Convective Outlook Chart
o Delineates areas forecast to have thunderstorms
o Presented in two panels
 The left-hand panel is the Day 1 Convective Outlook
 Outlined areas are where thunderstorms are forecasted during the day 1
period
o The outlook issued qualifies the risk (SLGT, MDT, HIGH) and areas of
general thunderstorms
 Issued 5 times daily
o 1st issuance is 06Z and is the initial Day 1 Outlook, valid 12Z until 12Z
the following day
o The other issuances are 1300Z, 1630Z, 2000Z, and 0100Z
o All issuances are valid until 12Z the next day
 The right-hand panel is the Day 2 Convective Outlook
 Contains the same information as the Day 1 Outlook
 It is issued 2 times a day
o The first issuance is at 0830Z during standard time and 0730Z during
daylight time
o It is updated at 1730Z
Pg. 3-23


The timeframe covered is from 12Z the following day to 12Z the next day
o EX: If today is Mon, the Day 2 Outlook will cover the period 12Z
Tuesday to 12Z Wednesday
Levels of Risk
 Risk areas come in 3 varieties based on the number of severe thunderstorm
reports per geographical unit and forecaster confidence
o SEE TEXT is used for situations where slight risk was considered, but at
the time of the forecast, was not warranted
o SLGT risk - Well-organized severe T-storms expected but in small
numbers/low coverage
o MDT risks - Greater concentration of severe T-storms, and greater
magnitude of severe wx
o HIGH risk - Almost always means a major weather outbreak is
expected, with great coverage
o In addition to the risk areas, general T-storms are outline, but not
labeled


Using the chart
o A flight planning tool used to determine forecast areas of
thunderstorms
ASOS, AWOS, and ATIS
o ASOS (Automated Surface Observing System)
 Continuous min-by-min observations to generate a METAR and can provide other
information
 ASOS software transmits a SPECI report whenever it determines a significant change in
conditions
 Types of Observations
 Every ASOS contains:
o Cloud height indicator
o Visibility Sensor
o Precipitation identification sensor
o Freezing rain sensor (at select sites)
o Pressure sensors
o Ambient temperature and dew point temp sensors
o Anemometer (wind direction & speed)
o Rainfall accumulation sensor
 Some include precipitation discriminator which differentiates liquid/frozen
precipitation
o If it has this capability, it’s designated as A02 in the remarks section
(otherwise A01)
 At selected ASOS installations lightning detection equipment is installed
 Limitations
Pg. 3-24


o
o
ASOS cannot distinguish between stratus and cumulonimbus clouds
It is limited in its ability to identify restrictions to visibility
o No prevailing, sector, tower visibility (Input from a trained human
observer is integral part)
 Levels of service
 LEVEL A- The highest – which is typically available at major airports like those in
or near Class B
o Other levels offer less human augmentation, with fewer types of
weather reported
 LEVEL B – Has human observers available 24 hours a day
o LEVEL C – At airports with part-time towers (Human augmentation
ends when tower closes)
 LEVEL D – Found at smaller, nontowered airports meeting the FAA or NWS
criteria for the ASOS
o Unattended, and always contain the AUTO designation when in a
METAR
AWOS (Automated Weather Observing System)
 First widely installed automated weather data gathering system at US airports
 AWOS is available in lesser configurations without all the types of observations listed
above
 Levels of service:
 AWOS-A: Only reports the altimeter setting
 AWOS-1: Also measures and reports wind speed, direction, gusts, temperature,
and dew point
 AWOS-2: Adds visibility information
 AWOS-3: Most capable system – also includes cloud/ceiling data (essentially
equivalent to ASOS)
o Like ASOS, AWOS-3 can include precipitation discrimination sensors
indicated by A02
o Lightning detection is also a possible enhancement for selected
AWOS-3 sites
 Difference between ASOS/AWOS is ability to identify/report significant changes in
surface weather
 AWOS transmits 3 reports per hour at fixed intervals and cannot issue a special
report as needed
ATIS (Automatic Terminal Information Service)
 A continuous broadcast of recorded non-control information in busier terminal areas
 Contain essential info - weather, active runways, approaches, and other required info
(NOTAMs)
 Updated when there is a significant change in the information; it is given a letter
designation
 In its simplest form, the ATIS is a continuously playing recording of a person reading the
message
 Re-recorded at every update (which is several times per hour at least), which is quite
cumbersome
 Data may be entered by hand, coming from a METAR, or be taken directly from sensors
 Modern systems are fully automated and do not require a controller except in
case of sensor failures/unusual activities
 Some airports have separate ATISs for arriving/departing aircraft, each on its own
frequency
Pg. 3-25
Pg. 3-26
OPERATION OF SYSTEMS
Objectives:
To familiarize the student with the operation of various aircraft systems so that the student may have a better
understanding of his aircraft.
Content:
 Powerplant
o Reciprocating engines
 Radial, In-line, V-Type, Opposed
 Liquid or air cooled
 4-stroke operating cycle (Intake, Compression, Power, Exhaust)
 Propeller
o Angle of incidence – for prop, angle formed by chord line and reference plane containing prop
hub
o Fixed Pitch Propeller (2 types)
o Climb Propeller
o Cruise Propeller
o Tachometer as indicator of engine power
o Lower density, less power
o Controllable Pitch Propeller
o Constant Speed Propeller
 Acts as fixed pitch prop when pitch stops contacted
 Manifold pressure as indicator of engine power (MAP)
 For given RPM there is Manifold pressure that shouldn’t be exceeded
(accordance w/ mfcr)
 Induction Systems (2 types)
o Carburetor system
 Float-type and pressure-type
 Icing most likely @ temps < 70?F (21?C) relative humidity > 80%
 Carb Heat in float-type
 Fuel injection system
 Impact icing
o Superchargers
 Increase service ceiling
 Sea level engine (sea level supercharger)
 Altitude Engine
 Turbosuperchargers
 Critical altitude
 Turbine and compressor
 Waste gate
 Intercooler
 Overboost
o Excessively rich mixture causes carbon buildup/spark plug fouling
o Excessively lean mixture causes detonation
 Ignition System
o Dual ignition systems
o Combustion
o Detonation
o Preignition
Pg. 3-27








Fuel Systems (figures 5-15, 5-17 PHAN)
o Gravity-fed
o Fuel-pump, primer, tanks, gauges, selectors, strainers, sumps, and drains
o Fuel Grades
o Refueling procedures
Starting System
Oil Systems
o Recip. Engines use wet sump or dry sump oil system
Engine Cooling Systems
o Cowl flaps
o Cylinder Head Temperature Guage (CHT)
o Exhaust Systems
o Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) and leaning
o Electrical Systems
o 14- or 28-volt direct current system
o Ground Power Unit (GPU) receptacle
o Alternator/Generator
o Ammeter/Loadmeter
o Voltage regulator
Hydraulic Systems
o Single- or double-acting servos
Landing Gear
o Tricycle (Nosewheel)
 Steerable or Castering
o Conventional (Tailwheel)
o Fixed and Retractable
Brakes
Autopilot
References:
Airplane Flight Manual / Pilot’s Operating Handbook
Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge – Chapter 5
Completion Standards:
The lesson is complete when the instructor determines that the student has adequate knowledge of the aircraft
systems by giving an oral or written exam.
Instructor Notes:
 Primary Flight Controls and Trim
o Ailerons (CFRP)
 Actuated via push rods
 Attached with stainless steel and aluminum hinges
o Elevator (CFRP)
 Actuated via push rods
 Semi-Monocoque sandwich construction
Pg. 3-28

o


Trim

Controlled by a Rocker Switch
o Switch forward = Nose Down; Switch aft = Nose Up
o Switch controls an electrical actuator beside the vertical push rod in
the vertical stabilizer
 The actuator applies a load to compression springs on the
elevator push rod
Trim circuit breaker can be tripped manually to disable the system

Rudder
 Actuated via control cables
 Semi-Monocoque sandwich construction
Flaps
o
Driven by an electric motor
 Electric flap actuator is protected by a circuit breaker (5 Amp)
 Located on the R side of the instrument panel and can be manually tripped to
disable the system
o Controlled by 3 position flap operating switch on the instrument panel
 Top position – Cruise – 0o (Green Light)
 Middle Position – Approach – 15o (Yellow Light)
 Bottom Position – Landing – 45o (Yellow Light)
 When two lights are illuminated at the same time, the flaps are in-between positions
o Cruise and Landing positions are equipped with position switches to prevent over-traveling
Powerplant and Propeller
o Powerplant
 Continental IO-240-B Engine
 Fuel Injected
 4 Cylinder
 4 Stroke
 Horizontally Opposed cylinders and heads
 Air cooled cylinders and heads
 Propeller drive is direct from the crankshaft
 3.9 liters
 125 HP at 2800 RPM
 Engine Controls
 Mixture Lever
 Throttle
 Alternate Air
o Full Forward = Primary Air Intake
o Full Aft = Alternate Air Intake
o Propeller
 Hoffmann HO-14HM-175-157
 Diameter - 5’ 8.9”
 Two-bladed fixed pitch propeller
 Wood and glass fiber
 Sensenich W69EK7-63, 63G, or W69EK-63
 Diameter – 5’9”
 Two-bladed fixed pitch propeller
 Wood prop
Pg. 3-29


Landing Gear
 Two main landing gear wheels (mounted to aluminum spring struts)
o Nose Wheel
 60o castering
 Suspension is provided by an elastomer spring
o Wheel Brakes
 Hydraulically operated disc brakes
 Operated individually using toe-brake pedals
 Failure
 If either the left or right wheel brake system on the pilot’s side fail, the copilot’s brakes fail too
 If copilot’s master brake cylinder/input lines to the pilot’s master cylinder fail
the pilot’s brakes will stop operate
o Parking Brake
 Repeated pushing of the toe-brake pedals will build up the required brake pressure,
which will remain in effect until the brake is released
Fuel, Oil, and Hydraulic
o Fuel
 Aluminum Fuel Tank
 Located behind the seats, below the baggage compartment
 24.5 Gallons fuel (24 Gallons Usable)
 Operation
o Fuel is gravity fed to a filter bowl (gascolator) and then to the electric
fuel pump
 Filter bowl must be drained before flight (black tube)
o Electric fuel pump primes for starting (Prime ON) and is used for low
throttle operations
 When the pump is off, fuel flows through the pump’s internal
bypass
o From electric pump, fuel is delivered to the mechanical fuel pump by
the fuel supply line
o Fuel is metered by the fuel control unit and flows via the fuel
distribution manifold to the injector nozzles
o Return line from mechanical fuel pump’s fuel vapor separator returns
vapor/excess fuel to the tank
 Electric Fuel Pump
o DUKES constant flow, vane type, two speed, electric fuel pump
 Fuel Prime
 Pump’s high speed setting, used for priming the
engine prior to engine start
 Turning the prime pump on while running will
enrichen the mixture considerably
o At high throttle settings the effect is less
noticeable
o At low throttle settings may cause engine
roughness or engine stoppage
 Fuel pump
o Required for maintaining positive fuel
pressures at low throttle settings
 Fuel Shutoff Valve
o Closing will cause the engine to stop within a few seconds
Pg. 3-30
o
Oil






High pressure wet sump lubrication
Oil is pumped by a mechanical, engine driven pump
Oil must be between 4 and 6 quarts
Electrical
o Power Generation
 40 Amp Generator
 Feeds the Main Bus via the Generator Circuit Breaker (50 Amps)
 Generator Warning Light
 Activated by internal voltage regulator monitoring circuit - illuminates if
generator fault occurs
o Power Storage
 12V battery
 Connects to the Master Bus via the Battery Circuit Breaker (50 Amps)
o Power Distribution
 Electrical Bus
o Consumers
 Individual consumers (e.g. Radio, Fuel Pump, Position Lights, etc.) are connected in
series with their respective circuit breakers
o Electrical Monitoring Instruments
 Voltmeter
 Indicates the status of the Electrical Bus
 Consists of a dial marked numerically from 8 – 16 volts in divisions of 2
o Scale
 RED for 8.0 – 11.0 volts
 YELLOW for 11.0 – 12.5 volts
 Green for 12.5 – 16.0 volts
 REDLINE at 16.1 volts
 Ammeter
 Indicates the charging (+) and discharging (-) of the battery
 Consists of a dial which is marked numerically from -60 to 60 amps
 Generator Warning Light
 Illuminates during generator failure
o No output from the generator
 The only remaining power source is the battery (20 Amps for 30 min)
Avionics
o Center of the instrument panel contains the radio and navigation equipment
 Operating instructions should be taken from the manuals of the respective
manufacturers
o Vertical Stabilizer contains a di-pole antenna for the VHF radio equipment
o Horizontal Stabilizer contains an antenna for the NAV equipment (VOR)
Pitot-static, Vacuum Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments
o Pitot-Static
 Pitot pressure is measured on the leading edge of a calibrated probe below the left wing
 Airspeed indicating error, refer to Chapter 5 of POH
 Static pressure is measured by the same probe
 Error of the static pressure system is negligible
 Instruments
 Airspeed Indicator
o Pitot Pressure (Ram Air Pressure) and Static Pressure
Pg. 3-31


Altimeter
o Static Pressure
 Rate of Climb Indicator
o Static Pressure
o Vacuum Pressure (Gyros)
 Instruments
 Heading Indicator
 Attitude Indicator
o Electrically Driven Instruments
 Turn Coordinator
Environmental
o Cabin Heat and Defrost
 Directs ram air through the exhaust heat shroud into the cabin heat valve
 The air is directed to the window defrosting vents and to the cabin floor as
selected by the lever
 The cabin heat selector is used to regulate the flow of heated air
Pg. 3-32
PERFORMANCE AND LIMITATIONS
Objectives:
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to airplane performance and limitations as
required in the necessary PTS.
Content:
 Structure of the atmosphere
o Atmospheric pressure
 Temperature/pressure lapse rates
o Pressure altitude
 Standard datum plane
o Density altitude
 Effects of pressure on density
 Effects of temperature on density
 Effect of humidity on density
 Performance
o Power – work per unit time
o Thrust – the force that imparts a change in the velocity of a mass
o Straight-and-level
o Climb performance
 Reserve power
o Range performance
 Specific range
 Specific endurance
 Cruise control
 Lift/Drag ratio
 Brake specific fuel consumption
 Brake horse power
o Ground Effect
o Region of Reversed Command
o Runway surface and gradient
o Water on runway and dynamic hydroplaning
 Takeoff/Landing Performance
 Performance Speeds
 Performance Charts
o Interpolation
o Density altitude charts
o Takeoff charts
o Climb and cruise charts
o Crosswind and headwind component chart
o Landing charts
o Stall speed performance charts
References:
Airplane Flight Manual / Pilot’s Operating Handbook
Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge – Chapter 9
Pg. 3-33
Completion Standards:
The lesson is complete when the instructor determines that the student has adequate knowledge of performance
and limitations of aircraft by giving an oral or written exam.
Instructor Notes:
1. Determining Weight and Balance
a. CG = Total Moment divided by Total Weight
i. Begin with the empty weight and make a list of everything that will be loaded in the
airplane
1. People, items, and fuel (note the weights of everything as well)
2. Be sure the weight of what you want to load is within the max weight limits
a. If the total weight is too high, remove items/people to get in weight
limits
ii. Calculate the Moments of each item
1. To find the moments, use the graph or multiply the weight by the arm in the
POH
a. The weight/moment of the airplane are found in its weight and
balance documents
iii. Then calculate the CG – (Total Moment/Total Weight)
1. For the DA20, compare the Total Weight and Total Moment on the graph in
supplement 4
iv. Use the chart in Supplement 4 to determine whether the airplane is within limits
2. Atmospheric Conditions and Performance
a. Atmospheric Pressure
i. Though air is light, it has mass and is affected by gravity and therefore, it has a force
ii. Under standard conditions at sea level, the average pressure exerted is approx 14.7
lbs/in
iii. Since air is a gas, it can be compressed or expanded
iv. Density of the air has significant effects on the airplane’s performance
1. As the density of the air increases (lower DA), airplane performance increases
and vice versa
b. What Changes Air Density?
i. Barometric Pressure, Temperature, Altitude, and Humidity all affect air density
1. Density varies directly with pressure - As pressure increases, density increases
and vice versa
2. Density varies inversely with temperature – As temp increases, density
decreases and vice versa
3. Density varies inversely with altitude - As altitude increases, density decreases
and vice versa
4. Density varies inversely with humidity – As humidity increases, density
decreases and vice versa
c. How it affects Performance
i. As it becomes less dense, it reduces:
1. Power since the engine takes in less air
a. Power is produced in proportion to air density (As density increases,
power does too)
2. Thrust since the propeller is less effective in thin air
a. Thrust is produced in proportion to the mass of air being accelerated
3. Lift because the thin air exerts less force on the airfoils
a. As air density decreases, the lift efficiency of the wing is decreased
d. Leaning the Engine
Pg. 3-34
3.
4.
5.
i. At power settings less than 75% or at DAs > 5,000’ the engine must be leaned for max
power on T/O
1. The excessively rich mixture deters engine performance
ii. At higher elevations, high temps may have such an effect on DA that safe ops may not
be possible
1. Even at lower temps, with excessive temps/humidity, performance can be
marginal and weight may need to be reduced
Performance Charts
a. Airplane performance is found in Section 5 of the POH (Performance and Limitations)
i. Supplement 4, for the DA20 (any charts not shown in the supplement are found in
Chapter 5)
b. Using the performance charts, and the accompanying instructions, we can calculate
i. Cruise Performance
ii. Stall Speeds based on airplane configuration
iii. Wind Components (Crosswind and Headwind)
iv. T/O Distance and Landing Distance
v. Climb Performance (In cruise and T/O configurations as well as Balked Landing)
vi. TAS
vii. Maximum Flight Duration (Chart in which the PA is combined with RPM to find % bhp,
KTAS, GPH)
c. In order to make use of these charts we need to know the Pressure Altitude
i. Pressure Altitude – The altitude indicated when the altimeter setting window is set to
29.92
1. PA = 1,000(29.92-Current Altimeter Setting)+Elevation
a. EX: Altimeter = 30.42 and Elevation = 808, so PA = 308’
b. EX: Altimeter = 29.84 and Elevation = 808, so PA = 888’
ii. From PA we can compute DA
1. DA – PA corrected for non standard temperature (Directly related to airplane
performance)
2. DA = 120(Current Temperature-15oC)+PA
a. EX: Temp = 23oC and PA = 308’, so DA = 1,268’
b. EX: Temp = 03oC and PA = 308’, so DA = -1,132
d. Once we have PA, we can start at the temp at the bottom of the chart and move upwards to the
PA
i. From there, we move straight across until we reach the next stage of the chart we’re on
1. Once we reach the next step, we follow the trend line and then, again, move
straight across
e. This is done until we reach the performance number
Determining the Required Performance is Attainable
a. Obviously, the performance charts and relating them to the airport’s information (runway
lengths, etc)
i. The charts will provide performance for all phases of flight
ii. But, remember, the charts don’t make allowance for pilot proficiency or mechanical
deterioration
1. Does the airplane have problems that may limit performance?
b. Possibility of, or the expected changing of weather resulting in useless original calculations
i. Just because the plane will perform well now doesn’t mean it will perform well later
Exceeding Airplane Limitations
a. Operating Limitations are in Chapter 2 of the POH
i. The limits here establish the boundaries in which the airplane can be safely operated
ii. Adverse Affects
Pg. 3-35
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Attempting to T/O or Land without enough runway
a. Can result in a crash into an obstacle or over-running the runway also
damaging the plane
Attempting to clear an obstacle that the airplane performance will not allow at
a certain weight
a. This can result in crashing into the obstacle
Not having enough fuel to reach the airport of intended landing, cruising at a
high power setting
a. Can result in an emergency landing
Using the wrong type of fuel
a. Can result in detonation, causing large amounts of damage to the
engine
Exceeding the structural or aerodynamic limits by being overweight or outside
CG limits
a. Can result in airplane damage or structural failure
b. Airplane control may be hampered and stall speeds may be affected
Exceeding the maximum crosswind component (20 knots)
a. This will greatly increase the difficulty of the landing, possibly resulting
in a crash
b. The airplane may not have the ability to stay aligned with the runway,
resulting in a crash
Pg. 3-36
AIRWORTHINESS REQUIREMENTS
Objectives:
The student should exhibit knowledge of the elements regarding airworthiness requirements as necessary based
on their respective PTS.
Content:
 Required Instruments and Equipment for Day and Night VFR
o Visual-Flight Rules (Day): TOMATOFFLAMES
o Visual-Flight Rules (Night): IFLAPS
 Equipment List
 Kinds of Equipment List
 Type Certificate
 Airworthiness Directives.
 Maintenance/Inspection Requirements
o Annual Inspection
o 100-Hour Inspection
o Altimeter System Inspection
o Transponder Inspection
o Pitot/Static System
o VOR
o ELT
 Appropriate Record Keeping
 Procedures and Limitations for Determining Airworthiness of the Airplane
 Requirements and procedures for obtaining a Special Flight Permit
References:
14 CFR Part 91.205 and 91.213
Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge – Chapter 8
Minimum Equipment Requirements for General Aviation Operations Under FAR Part 91 (AC 91-67)
Aircraft Type Certificate
Airplane Flight Manual / Pilot’s Operating Handbook
Completion Standards:
The lesson is complete when the student can explain, and when necessary locate, the elements and documents
related to airworthiness requirements.
Pg. 3-37
Instructor Notes:
 Required Instruments and Equipment for Day and Night VFR (14 CFR 91.205)
o Visual-Flight Rules (Day): For VFR flight during the day, the following instruments and equipment
are required:
 Tachometer for each engine
 Oil pressure gauge for each engine
 Manifold pressure gauge for each altitude engine
 Airspeed Indicator
 Temperature gauge for each liquid-cooled engine
 Oil temperature gauge for each air-cooled engine
 Fuel gauge indicating the quantity of fuel in each tank
 Flotation gear (if operated for hire over water beyond power-off gliding distance from
shore)
 Landing gear position indicator
 Altimeter
 Magnetic compass
 Emergency Locator Transmitter
 Safety belts/Shoulder Harnesses
o Visual-Flight Rules (Night): For VFR flight during the night, the following instruments and
equipment are required:
 Instruments and equipment required for VFR day flight, and:
 Fuses
 Landing Light (Electric)
 Anti Collision Lights
 Position Lights
 Source of electricity for all installed electrical and radio equipment
 Equipment List
o Definition: Furnished with the aircraft is an equipment list that specifies all the required
equipment approved for installation in the aircraft. The weight and arm of each item is included
on the list, and all equipment installed when the aircraft left the factory is checked. It is usually
found in the weight and balance data.
 Kinds of Equipment List
o Define: Listing of the required equipment based on the type of flight intended
 Type Certificate
o Definition: The TCDS is a formal description of the aircraft, engine or propeller. It lists limitations
and information required for type certification including airspeed limits, weight limits, thrust
limitations, etc.
 Airworthiness Directives (FAA-H-8083-25, 14 CFR 39)
o Definition: The means used to notify aircraft owners and other interested persons of unsafe
conditions and to specify the conditions under which the product may continue to be operated
o ADs may be divided into two categories:
 Those of an emergency nature requiring immediate compliance prop to further flight
 Those of a less urgent nature requiring compliance within a specific period of time.
o ADs are regulatory in nature and shall be complied with unless a specific exemption is granted
o It is the aircraft owner/operator’s responsibility to ensure compliance with all pertinent ADs
o Compliance Records: 14 CFR part 91.417 requires a record to be maintained showing the status
of applicable ADs.
Pg. 3-38



Maintenance/Inspection Requirements
o 14 CFR part 91 places primary responsibility on the owner/operator of an for maintaining an
aircraft in an airworthy condition
o Annual Inspection
 Any reciprocating-engine powered or single-engine-turbojet/turbo-propeller powered
small aircraft (less than 12,500 pounds) flown for business or pleasure and not flown for
compensation or hire is required to be inspected at least annually
 Otherwise it cannot be flown
 Must be done by an airframe and powerplant mechanic (A&P) who holds an Inspection
Authorization (IA)
 An aircraft overdue for an annual inspection may be operated under a Special Flight
Permit for the purpose of flying the aircraft to a location where the inspection can be
performed
 All applicable ADs that are due must be complied with
 An annual inspection may be substituted for a required 100 hr inspection
o 100-Hour Inspection
 All aircraft under 12,500 lbs (except for turbo powered), used to carry passengers for
hire or, used for flight instruction for hire, must have received a 100-hour inspection
 The inspection must be performed by an FAA certificated A&P mechanic, and
appropriately rated FAA certificated repair station, or by the aircraft manufacturer.
 An annual inspection may be substituted for a required 100 hr inspection
 The 100-hr limit may be exceeded by not more than 10 hours while en route to reach a
place where the inspection can be done
o Altimeter System Inspection: 91.411 requires that the altimeter, encoding altimeter, and related
system be tested and inspected in the preceding 24 months before operated in controlled
airspace under instrument flight rules.
o Transponder Inspection: 91.413 requires that before a transponder can be used under 14 CFR
part 91, section 91.125(a), it shall be tested and inspected within the preceding 24 months.
o Pitot/Static System: The pitot/static system must be checked within the preceding 24 calendar
months. A record must be kept in the aircraft logbook. (IFR Requirement)
o VOR: The VOR must have been checked within the preceding 30 days. A record must be kept in a
bound logbook, (IFR Requirement)
o ELT: If operations require an ELT it must be inspected every 12 calendar months
Appropriate Record Keeping (CFR 91.417)
o The 100-Hour/Annual inspection as well as the inspections required for instruments and
equipment necessary for legal VFR/IFR flight are located in the aircraft and engine logbooks
o Removing/Installing equipment not on the Equipment List
 The AMT must change the weight and balance record to indicate the new empty weight
and EWCG, and the equipment list is revised to show which equipment is actually
installed.
o Repairs and Alterations
 Major Alteration: 14 CFR part 43, Appendix A
 Minor Alteration: May be approved for return to service with a proper aircraft log
entry.
Procedures and Limitations for Determining Airworthiness of the Airplane (CFR 91.213d)
o When inoperative equipment is found prior to flight, decide whether to: Cancel the flight, obtain
maintenance prior to the flight, or defer the item or equipment
o Two methods of deferring maintenance on aircraft operated under Part 91
 Deferral Provisions of 91.213(d) and FAA-Approved MEL
Pg. 3-39
o

Without an MEL – 14 CFR part 91.213(d)
 Widely used by most pilots due to the simplicity and minimal paperwork
 Deferring the Item or Equipment
 Pilot determination: Type design, CFRs, ADs
 If not required, and the aircraft can be safely flown without it, the deferral may
be made
 Inoperative equipment is deactivated and placarded INOPERATIVE
 Part 91.213(d)
 EX: Position Lights/2nd ADF (installed equipment) were discovered to be inoperative prior to
a daytime flight, the pilot would follow the requirements of 91.213(d). Deactivation could be
as simple as pulling the circuit breaker or as complex as rendering instruments or equipment
totally inoperable
o With an MEL MMEL
 Definition: A precise listing of instruments, equipment, and procedures that allows an
aircraft to be operated under specific conditions with inoperative equipment.
o Also allows for deferral of inoperative items/equipment
o Considered to be a supplemental type certificate
o EX: If the position lights were discovered inoperative prior to a daytime flight, the pilot would
make an entry in the maintenance record or discrepancy record provided for that purpose. The
item is then either repaired or deferred in accordance with the MEL .
o Should a component fail that is not listed in the MEL as deferrable then repairs are required to be
performed prior to departure
o If maintenance parts are not available at your location, a special flight permit can be obtained
Requirements and procedures for obtaining a Special Flight Permit (FAA-H-8083-25, 14 CFR 21.97)
o Definition: An authorization that may be issued for an aircraft that may not currently meet
applicable airworthiness requirements, but is safe for a specific flight.
o Issued for the following reasons:
 Flying an aircraft to a base where repairs, alterations or maintenance are to be
performed
 Delivering or exporting an aircraft
 Production flight testing new production aircraft
 Evacuating aircraft from areas of impending danger
 Conducting customer demonstration flights
 To allow the operation of an overweight aircraft for flight beyond its normal range
where adequate landing facilities or fuel is not available.
o Obtaining a Special Flight Permit
 If a special flight permit is needed, assistance and the necessary forms may be obtained
from the local FSDO or Designated Airworthiness Representative (DAR).
Pg. 3-40