Name ____________________________
Chemistry
Mr. Harper
History of Chemistry Packet
Study Guide
1. When did chemistry begin?
a. Which is most likely the first chemical reaction used by man?
b. What is a chemical reaction and what are the signs that a reaction has occurred?
c. How did people discover metal?
2. Greek Philosophy of Matter
a. What were the two “schools of thought” among the Greeks concerning matter?
b. How did Aristotle’s view of matter influence medieval science?
3. Age of Alchemy
a. What is alchemy?
b. What good came out of the age of alchemy?
c. What is the difference between a physical/chemical property? Physical/chemical change?
d. What is the flow chart to classify matter?
4. Phlogiston Theory
a. According to phlogiston theory, what should happen to a substance when it burns or rusts?
5. Study of Gases
a. What are the gas laws? Why are they important?
b. How did Joseph Priestley collect gases from chemical reactions? Draw a diagram.
c. What new gas did Priestley discover after heating up “calx of mercury?”
6. Antoine Lavoisier
a. What experiments did Lavoisier do and what were his conclusions?
b. What law did Lavoisier discover?
c. What was the program Lavoisier proposed for chemistry?
d. What two things made Lavoisier so successful at chemistry?
7. Dalton’s Atomic Theory
a. What were the four laws of matter discovered by Dalton’s time?
b. Be able to match the points of Dalton’s theory to the laws they explain.
8. Avogadro’s Hypothesis
a. What is Avogadro’s hypothesis?
b. What two things did Avogadro’s hypothesis enable chemists to determine?
c. How do you determine those two things from the previous question?
9. Mendeleev
a. How did Mendeleev arrange the elements into a table?
b. What prediction did Mendeleev make using his table of the elements?
c. After his prediction, what gave him confidence that his table was useful?
1
Name:
Date:
Period:
Saponification: Making Soap
(Adapted from Saponification from Laboratory Experiments for the World of Chemistry)
Introduction:
Soap is something that we use daily (hopefully ). This was not always the case however. Queen Isabella
of Spain (1451-1504) claimed to have only bathed when she was born and on her wedding day. Queen
Elizabeth I (1558-1603) took a bath every three months whether she “needth to or not.” Soap was known
to the ancient Romans (a soap factory discovered among the ruins at Pompeii), but this soap was too harsh
to be used on the skin.
The use of soap and water as we know it began in London when people realized that poor personal hygiene
was part of the cause of cholera and typhoid epidemics. In 1846, the British government passed a Public
Baths and Wash Act. It provided public baths and laundries for the working class of London. The idea
rapidly spread throughout Europe and the USA.
Soap is produced when a fat (or oil) is mixed and heated with sodium hydroxide, commonly known as lye,
in a chemical process called saponification. Hard soap, soft soap, liquid soap, are all made from different
fats or oils. Soap molecules are the salts (ionic compound) of fatty acids (covalent compound). More
practically speaking, they are molecules with two different ends, one that dissolves the grease/oil (referred
to as the “tail” made from lots of carbons and hydrogens) and one that dissolves in water (called the
“head” where the ionic bond is). The “tail” end is nonpolar because it is all carbon and hydrogen, while the
head is polar because it is ionic, which is as polar as you can get.
Polar substances dissolve in or mix with other polar substances because of similar intermolecular forces
while nonpolar substances mix with other nonpolar substances for the same reason. Since soap has a polar
end and a nonpolar end and because it is such a big molecule, in can mix with both polar and nonpolar
substances.
Purpose: To understand how soap is made.
Prelab:
1. Read the lab thoroughly.
2. In your notebook, write the purpose of the lab, create a place to record observations.
3. Answer the following questions: (Introduction will help)
a. What 2 diseases convinced people of the importance of soap?
b. How is soap made?
c. What is the process of soap making called?
d. Why could it be said that soap has a “dual personality” or “dual properties”?
Safety:
1. Wear goggles and a lab apron at all times in the laboratory
2. Be very careful when heating the soap mixture and especially when adding the ethyl alcohol. Ethyl
alcohol is flammable!!
3. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is caustic! Be careful not to get it on your skin or clothing.
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Materials:
250-mL beaker
graduated cylinder
extra beaker
hot plate
stirring rod
pipettes
ethyl alcohol
6M NaOH
balance
water
filter paper
paper towel
beaker tongs
ceramic pad
Oil or fat (choose one): coconut oil, lard, vegetable shorting
Procedure: Making Soap
1. Weigh out 15-20g of your selected oil or fat into a clean 250 mL beaker.
2. To the beaker add 25mL of the NaOH solution.
3. Measure 10 mL of ethyl alcohol using a graduated cylinder. Add this to the 250 mL beaker
containing the fat and NaOH solution.
4. Heat the mixture carefully on the heating unit, stirring constantly for 23 minutes. The solution
should be hot but not boiling. As you heat carefully drip in 10 mL of additional ethyl alcohol over
the first five minutes. As the mixture is heated it will bubble and foam. Be careful to regulate the
heating to prevent the mixture from overflowing, use your tongs to remove it if it is about to
overflow.
5. At the end of 23 minutes, add 25 mL of tap water and continue heating for an additional 10
minutes. Allow mixture to cool for a few minutes.
6. Filter the soap with the filter paper to get rid of the excess water. Carefully remove the soap from
the filter paper and place it on several layers of paper towel. Pat it dry and shape it into a bar or
ball. Observe and record its appearance and smell.
7. Label the paper towel with your names. Place the paper towel with the soap off to the side and
allow it to air dry until the next laboratory session. Wash your hands before you leave.
Conclusion: Answer the following questions for your conclusion.
1. Find a lab group that made their soap with a different oil or fat than you. Observe their soap and
compare it with the soap you made. Write down your observations and your comparison. Be
thorough.
2. If you were just learning how to make soap, how would you use the information gathered in
question number one? Be thoughtful. Imagine you are living years ago when this trade was just
being developed. What would you do to improve you soap making?
3. How does this lab relate to the beginning of chemistry?
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Inquiry Lab: Separating Mixtures
Prelab: Complete the Purpose, Hypothesis, and Procedure for this lab so that you are ready to go during
the class period. (Hint: Your hypothesis is the procedure you come up with. You are testing whether your
procedure will work.)
Problem: How can you separate a mixture of salt, sand, and iron filings into their pure form? Use the
inquiry lab report guidelines.
Conclusion: Evaluate your procedure – whether it worked or not; how you could improve. Also, discuss why
it would be important in chemistry to perfect the technique of separating substances.
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Gas Properties
1. Gases have no definite __________________ or _________________. That means they expand to fill
their container and assume its shape.
2. Gas particles are in constant __________________ and exert ________________ on whatever they
hit. In this way, pressure acts in all directions and can be applied to an object in any direction. It
simply matters how the object is oriented.
3. The atmosphere exerts _________________ on all objects because of the ______________ of the air.
We live at the bottom of a great sea of air.
4. A ____________________ is empty space – lack of any matter at all. Air will try to fill up this space if
it can because of _______________________ _____________________.
5. All else being equal, if the temperature of a gas goes up the volume will __________________.
6. All else being equal, if the volume of a gas goes up the pressure will _____________________.
7. All else being equal, if the temperature of a gas goes up the pressure will _________________.
8. All else being equal, equal volumes of gases contain _________________ numbers of particles.
9. Combining each of these laws into one, we get the ________________________ law. Write the
equation in the space below.
10. If the volume and number of particles are held constant, what happens to the temperature if the
pressure increases by a factor of 4?
11. If the pressure and volume are held constant, what happens to the temperature if the number of
particles decrease by a factor of 3?
12. A gas in a sealed rigid container is heated to twice its original temperature. What happens to the
pressure?
13. The pressure of a gas is increased by a factor of 5 while the volume is cut in half. If the number of
particle stays the same, what happens to the temperature?
5
Steel Wool Experiment:
Investigating One of the Most Familiar – and Destructive – Changes of Matter
Introduction
You are going to prepare a set-up that will produce a very well-known example of chemical
change and follow that change over the course of two days. The observations you will gather will
hopefully lead to the beginnings of a deeper understanding of this change – and also a connection to a
larger category of chemical change that has been the most studied in the history of mankind.
Materials
You will need to gather the following: 150-mL beaker, medium-sized test tube, plastic pipet, pad
of steel wool, and a permanent marker.
Procedure
1. Tear a plug of steel wool off of the pad, place it on an electronic balance, and determine its mass.
2. Run tap water across the plug of steel wool to rinse it off.
3. You will be trying to re-create the set-up in the diagram
to the right; follow the steps below to do so:
a. Invert the test tube. Use a pencil or glass rod to
push the plug of steel wool up to the top of the
inverted test tube.
b. Measure 50.0 mL of tap water and pour it into
the 150-mL beaker.
c. Tilt the beaker. Lower the mouth of the test tube
into the water in the beaker and move it around
until the tap water goes up into the test tube.
d. Set the beaker on your lab station and make sure
the test tube is perfectly upright.
e. Use the plastic pipet to add / remove water from
the beaker until the level the level in the beaker and the level in the test tube are the same.
4. After everything is in place, use a permanent marker to mark the water level in the beaker (which
should be = to the water level in the test tube) on the outside of the beaker.
5. Label your beaker with masking tape and then move the set-up to a place on the lab station where it
will be out of the way so that you can make observations of it over the next few days while you
conduct other laboratory work.
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Observations
1. Write down your initial data and observations from Day 1 on a separate sheet of paper.
Follow-up / Conclusions
1. Tomorrow, you will be asked to tear down your set-up. This means removing the test tube
from the beaker, dumping the water out of the beaker, pulling the steel wool plug out of the test
tube and cleaning out the test tube. Beyond just taking it apart, though, you should gather as much
detail as you can about the changes that have taken place within the set-up since yesterday. Write
those details on the separate sheet of paper with your observations from yesterday. In addition, answer
the questions below.
2. What were the most surprising / dramatic things you observed happen in your set-up over the day(s)
that it was sitting undisturbed?
3. What chemical change took place in the set-up in this time period?
4. What do you think caused that chemical change to take place?
5. What evidence do you have in your observations for your answer to #3?
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The Scientific Method in Action: How Does a Candle Burn?
Introduction
"I propose to bring before you, in the course of these lectures, the Chemical History
of a Candle. There is not a law under which any part of this universe is governed
which does not come into play and is touched upon by these phenomena. There is
no better, there is no more open door by which you can enter the study of natural
philosophy than by considering the physical phenomena of a candle." --Lecture 1
So began the first of six lectures on the "Chemical History of a Candle" given by Michael Faraday
starting in December of 1834. They were part of a series of Juvenile or "Christmas" lectures, so-called
because they were given for young people during their Christmas holidays. It was Faraday’s way of
repaying the society which had given him the opportunity to do the one thing he had always dreamed of:
Study science. Having been born poor, he had to rely on the generosity of affluent people to realize this
dream; he did not want others to suffer the same limitation. In this particular set of lectures, Faraday
attempted to unlock the secrets of the deceptively simple process of the burning of a candle to his eager
audience, much as you will attempt to put together the pieces of this puzzle in the experiment that follows.
What great mysteries lie hidden within the mesmerizing flicker of the candle flame? An explanation
already existed for this mystery – the Phlogiston Theory – which indicated that materials burned by giving
off a material called phlogiston that they contained. Will you be able to come up with your own explanation
of how materials (e.g. a candle) burn? If so, perhaps you will gain an appreciation for what Faraday meant
by his opening remarks to Lecture 1.
Procedure
0. Obtain a candle and a pack of matches. Determine the mass of the candle, remove it from the
balance and then use a match to light it.
1. Experiment 1: What changes take place in the wick and wax as the candle begins to burn? Allow
the candle to burn undisturbed for a couple of minutes, during which time you should make as many
observations as possible about the candle, changes in its physical appearance and the role of each of
its components in the combustion process.
2. Experiment 2: After the candle has been burning for a couple of minutes, extinguish the flame,
and place the candle on a balance without losing any of the wax. Re-determine its mass and
compare this value to the one obtained in step 1.
3. Experiment 3: Re-light the candle. Bring an unlit match to within a couple of centimeters of the
top of the candle flame and hold it there for several seconds. What happens?
4. Experiment 4: Drip some wax from the base of the candle flame onto your lab station until you
have a small pool of it. Observe the appearance of the candle flame now that you have poured off
this pool of wax compared to before you poured it off. Next, light a wooden splint and use it to
try to light the pool of candle wax on your lab station. What happens?
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5. Experiment 5: Break a toothpick in half and insert one of the halves into the pool of wax you
created in the last experiment. Use a match to light the toothpick and compare how this
improvised candle burns with respect to how a regular candle burns.
6. Experiment 6: Place a piece of string about 4 cm. long on a watch glass or glass square. Light it
and observe how it burns compared to how a candle wick burns. Next, take another piece of
string and drip wax from your burning candle onto it to coat the string completely. Use a wooden
splint to light the wax-coated string and compare how it burns to the string alone.
7. Experiment 7: Use extreme caution when performing this next procedure! Place a few milliliters
of charcoal starter fluid in a small beaker. Obtain a new piece of string that is cut to be a couple
of centimeters longer than the height of the beaker. Place one end of the string in the starter fluid
and let the other end of the string hang over the edge of the beaker. Allow the string to set for a
minute or two and then light the end that is hanging over the edge of the beaker. Compare
what you observe to the results from Experiment 6. Once you have made your observations, use
a watch glass to smother any flames that may exist.
8. Experiment 8: Blow out the flame of your candle with a small, quick puff so as not to create turbulent air currents. Notice a trail of smoke that continues to rise from the wick until the last spark
of ember dies out. Relight the candle and have a burning wooden splint ready to go. Once again
blow out the candle, but this time place the burning splint in the smoke trail and observe what
happens. Repeat two or three times.
9. Experiment 9: Procure a solid metal spatula. Move it over the top of the candle flame so that the
bottom surface is perpendicular to the flame. Quickly lower the spatula until it is just a centimeter or so above the wick. Leave it there for several seconds. Pull it out of the flame, turn it
over and examine the pattern/appearance of the black residue. What information does this
provide about the processes going on inside the flame?
10. Experiment 10: Procure a wire-mesh square. Hold it over top of the candle flame and slowly
lower it down onto the flame. When you have lowered the wire mesh to approximately the
midway point of the candle’s height, hold it there for several seconds and observe. Then, lower
it until it is right on top of the wick and the flame appears to go out. Hold it there for several
seconds, make observations, then lift it straight up and note what happens. Next, bring the wire
mesh back to the midway point of the flame and move it horizontally until it is just out of the
flame. Then, move it back into the flame and note what happens.
11. Experiment 11: Obtain a second wire-mesh square. Raise the first wire-mesh square until it is
centered at about the midway point of the flame. Slowly bring the second square down until it
is right on top of the first square; then, begin raising the second square until it is several centimeters above the first square (hold the first square steady). Bring a burning wooden splint into
the region above the second wire mesh in a direct line with the candle flame. What do you see?
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12. Experiment 12: Procure a 150- or 250-mL beaker (one that will completely cover your candle).
Obtain a glass crystallizing dish and fill it to about 1/2 its depth with water. Place your candle
in the middle of the water in your crystallizing dish. After the candle holds a steady flame, cover
it with the beaker and observe. Repeat as necessary to more precisely determine the sequence of
events that occur in this insightful procedure.
13. Experiment 13: Obtain a 250-mL beaker and pour into it about 25 mL of 3% hydrogen peroxide.
Add one scoopula full of manganese dioxide to the hydrogen peroxide and quickly note the sign(s)
of a chemical reaction that will ensue. While those chemical-change signposts are still evident, use a
pair of metal tongs to lower a candle into the beaker. (A short candle works best.) Observe any
differences in the way the candle burns in this new atmosphere.
14. Experiment 14: Procure a 250-mL Erlenmeyer flask and a solid [#6] stopper to fit it. Invert the
unstoppered flask and lower it down onto the candle until the opening is just above the tip of the
flame. Keep it there for 30 seconds or more, stopper it and set it right-side up. Pour a few
milliliters of fresh limewater solution into the flask and then quickly re-stopper it. Shake the
limewater in the flask and note any changes.
The Case For Combustion
Introduction: Now that we have learned about phlogiston theory and gathered a body of
evidence to put it to the test, I would like you to analyze that evidence and draw a conclusion to explain
combustion (aka fire) and the other chemical processes we have discussed in class. Aristotle said fire was an
element. The phlogiston supporters said that phlogiston leaves a substance when it burns or changes. What
do you say? Use the experiments of Priestly and Lavoisier and ones we conducted in class to make your
determination. Does phlogiston theory adequately explain the chemical processes that we have discussed in
class or is there a better explanation? If so, what is that explanation?
Assignment: Write an essay in which you analyze the evidence presented/gathered in class and draw a
conclusion to explain combustion and the other chemical processes discussed in class. Your conclusion must
be supported by the evidence so describe the evidence you are using for any claims that you make. In
addition, staple all your observations from the Candle Lab on the back of your essay.
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Laws of Matter & Dalton’s Atomic Theory
Laws of Matter
1. Conservation of mass – In a chemical reaction, mass is not created or destroyed.
2. Gas laws
a. As temperature increases, pressure increases.
b. As temperature increases, volume increases.
c. As volume increases, pressure decreases.
3. Law of definite proportions
a. A chemical compound contains the same elements in exactly the same proportion by mass
regardless of the size of the sample or the source of the compound.
4. Law of multiple proportions
a. This law concerns two or more different compounds composed of the same two elements. If the
mass of element 1 is the same in each sample of the compounds, then the ratio of masses of
element 2 from both compounds will be a ratio of small whole numbers.
b. In other words, the mass of element 2 in one of the compounds will be twice as much (or three,
or four, and so on) as element 2 in the other compound. It seems that nature only allows
multiples of masses in this way.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1803)
1. All matter is made of extremely small particles called atoms (in constant motion).
2. Atoms of a given element are identical in size, mass, and other properties; atoms of different elements
differ in size, mass, and other properties.
3. Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed.
4. Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole-number ratios to form chemical compounds.
5. In chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated, or rearranged.
Group Activity
***Complete on a separate sheet of paper, one per group, to be handed in at the end of the period.***
Brainstorm with your group and come up with illustrations for at least two of the four laws.
 You may use some words to put captions on your illustrations, but you need to have some sort of
physical picture or model.
 You may use construction paper, markers, scissors, Styrofoam balls, toothpicks, or anything else in
the room. (Hint: Think about making comparisons between compounds, making comparisons before
and after a chemical reaction, and comparing different situations for a gas.)
 The idea is to explain the law and make it easier to understand.
Homework Assignment
Use Dalton’s theory to explain two of the laws of matter. For example, conservation of mass states that in a
chemical reaction, mass is not created or destroyed. How do the points in Dalton’s theory explain why that
law is so? You might want to start out like this, “Mass is conserved in chemical reactions because…”
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Molecular Formulas & Relative Atomic Mass Worksheet
1. Restate Avogadro’s hypothesis and draw a picture to illustrate it.
2. If 1 volume of nitrogen and 3 volumes of hydrogen combine to form the compound of ammonia, what
is the molecular formula of ammonia?
3. If 1 volume of hydrogen combines with 1 volume of chlorine to form the compound of hydrochloric
acid, what is the molecular formula of hydrochloric acid?
4. If 2 volumes of nitrogen and 1 volume of oxygen combine to form the compound of laughing gas, what
is the molecular formula for laughing gas?
5. What is the “mole” and what do chemists use it for?
6. How many moles of ammonia could you form with 6 moles of hydrogen and 2 moles of nitrogen?
(Hint: Use the molecular formula you found above.)
7. How many moles of chlorine are needed to produce 5 moles hydrochloric acid?
8. How many moles of nitrogen are contained in 15 moles of laughing gas?
9. Methane has a molecular formula of CH4. If a sample of methane contains 48 g of carbon and 16 g of
hydrogen, what is the relative atomic mass of each element?
10. A sample of quartz, SiO2, contains 56 g of silicon and 64 grams of oxygen. What is the relative atomic
mass of each element?
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Mendeleev for a Day: Part 1
You will be presented with 24 puzzle pieces. Your task is to analyze the features of these pieces and
arrange these pieces into some logical pattern that incorporates each feature of the puzzle piece. For
instance, the pieces have different numbers, letters, notches, and shading. In their final arrangement, there
should be a recognizable pattern among each of these features. In other words, nothing about the features
should be “out of order” or “out of place” when you are done. In addition, one puzzle piece is missing. You
must determine the location of this piece in the pattern and predict its features. When you have arranged
the pieces into your pattern, copy it down onto a blank sheet of paper, include your prediction of the
missing piece, put your names on it, and hand it in by the end of the period. Please stack the puzzles pieces,
put the paper clip back on, and return it and this paper to the front desk.
You will be graded on the following criteria: (1) Time spent on task; (2) Contribution to your group;
(3) Independent thinking skills; (4) Logic of your final pattern; (5) Prediction of the missing piece. (10 pts)
Mendeleev for a Day: Part 2 – An Opportunity to Emulate a Master
To give you a true taste of what Mendeleev experienced, you will be presented with [a fraction of]
the same information he had in front of him on that fateful day in February, 1869. Each group in this class
will receive a Ziploc bag containing sixteen Element Cards. On the front of each card, you will find the
name and symbol for each element; on the back of the card, you will find a standard list of eight of the
physical and chemical properties known for each element at the time. Your task is clear: Take the cards
and use the information they contain [and only this information] to organize these sixteen elements into
groups. There can be as many [or as few] groups as you see fit. Beyond this, however, you are asked to
organize the elements within each group according to some system of your choosing and then, further, to
try to develop a way of organizing the groups into some overall pattern in which all sixteen elements are
interconnected. Record this final pattern on a clean sheet of paper to give to your teacher for assessment.
Include a written explanation of the pattern. Due at the end of the period.
You will be graded on the following criteria: (1) Time spent on task; (2) Contribution to your group;
(3) Independent thinking skills; (4) Thoroughness, creativity, and logic of the final pattern you develop; (5)
Explanation of your final pattern. (15 pts total)
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Atomic Theory Timeline
Purpose: By completing this activity, students will learn how the understanding of the atom progressed
throughout history and how scientific models change with the introduction of new evidence.
Requirements:
1) Create a timeline of atomic theory.
***It must be an actual, physical timeline, not just an outline listing the events.
2) Include the following scientists:
Bohr
de Broglie
Rutherford
Chadwick
Democritus
Schrodinger
Dalton
Goldstein
Thomson
3) Include the following information for each scientist:

Date – What was the time or year of the scientist’s work concerning the atom? (1 pt)

Observations/Experiments/Evidence – Describe or explain what observation, evidence, or
experiment the scientist used to devise his theory of the atom. (2 pts)

Discoveries/Conclusions – Explain what discovery or conclusion the scientist came to about the
atom. What was his atomic theory? (2 pts)

Contribution – Explain how the scientist helped in the development of atomic theory. How did his
work contribute to the theory? What did his experiment/discovery/conclusion do for the theory?
Think about the larger picture and how the theory progressed as a result of his work. (2 pts)
4) Bonus: Draw a diagram of the scientist’s model of the atom for Democritus, Dalton, Thomson,
Rutherford, Bohr, and Schrodinger. (Up to 6 pts)
5) You may use your textbook (pp. 43, 67-76, and 97-106), the library, the internet, or other credible
sources to research the information needed to complete the timeline.
***You must document your sources and include them on the project.
6) You may work alone or in groups of two.
Grading:
7 pts for each scientist
12 pts for the physical timeline
75 points total for the project
Due Date:
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