Manifest Destiny and Its Legacy
I.
II.
The Accession of John Tyler
a. Harrison’s Death
i. Harrison made the longest inaugural speech in history while in bad
weather
ii. He contracted pneumonia and died after only 4 weeks in office. It
was the shortest administration in American history
b. John Tyler
i. Tyler, who was the vice-president, was now president
ii. 6’ tall
iii. Slim
iv. He had left the Jacksonian Democrats for the Whigs because he
couldn’t take the dictatorial tactics of Jackson. However, the
minority wing of the Whigs that he embraced had a few Jefferson
States’ righters
v. Tyler had run with Harrison to attract voters from this group
vi. Tyler was against the unwritten platform of the Whigs:
1. Pro-bank
2. Pro-protective tariff
3. Pro-internal improvements
John Tyler: A President Without a Party
a. Financial Reform
i. Henry Clay drove through the Whig-dominated Congress a bill
that would create a new Bank of the United States
ii. Tyler vetoed the bill on practical and constitutional grounds
iii. Another bill was passed to try to satisfy Tyler’s objections (it
provided for a “Fiscal Corporation”)
iv. Tyler vetoed the bill
b. Whig Reaction
i. Called “His Accidency” and “Executive Ass”
ii. Burned in effigy
iii. He received numerous letters threatening him with death
iv. Formally expelled from his party by a caucus of Whig
congressmen
v. All of his cabinet resigned except Secretary of State Daniel
Webster, who was in delicate negotiations with England
vi. There was a serious attempt to impeach him in the House
c. Tariff Bill
i. Tyler wanted more federal revenue, but didn’t like that this bill
would distribute the money among the States from the sale of
public lands in the West
ii. He vetoed the bill
iii. The Whigs redrafted the bill, taking out the distribution scheme
iv. Tyler signed the law, created the Tariff of 1842
III.
IV.
v. Later, pressure to create a higher tariff would decrease as
Americans got out of the depression
A War of Words With Britain
a. Anti-British Feelings
i. Caused by:
1. The two wars
2. British travelers wrote of how America was full of tobacco
spitting, slave auctioneering, lynching, and other bad
features of the country
3. Magazines did the same sort of thing
b. America and British Financial Relationship
i. America is a borrowing nation (because of all the canals and
railroads)
ii. Britain is a lending nation
iii. When the Panic of 1837 broke out, several States defaulted on their
bonds or repudiated them
c. Canadian Rebellion of 1837
i. A small number of Canadians started a rebellion
ii. They were joined by hundreds of Americans who were wanting to
help Canada gain freedom from the British. The Americans also
gave supplies
iii. As in Texas, the national government couldn’t uphold their
neutrality laws
iv. 1837 – The Caroline, an American steamer, was carrying supplies
to the Canadians on the Niagara River. It was attacked and set fire
by the British, killing one American. However, American
newspapers illustrated the ship on fire and falling over the Niagara
Falls, inflaming American passions
v. 1840 – A Canadian named McLeod boasted of his part in the
destroying of the Caroline. He was arrested and indicted for
murder. Britain warned that his execution would bring war.
However, war was avoided when he provided an airtight alibi
d. Creole
i. 1841 – British officials in the Bahamas offered asylum to 130
Virginia slaves who had rebelled and captured this American ship.
The slaves were never returned
ii. Britain abolished slavery in 1834, so this raised southern fears that
British Caribbean possessions would become safe-havens for
escaped slaves just like Canada
iii. While some people argued that slaves were property that had to be
given up, others claimed that the slaves violated no federal law,
just individual State laws. So, slavery didn’t exist in the federal
government
iv. The British would sometimes stop American ships to suppress
American slave smuggling
Manipulating the Maine Maps
V.
VI.
a. Building a Road Through Disputed Territory
i. The British wanted to build a road as a defensive precaution
against New England that ran through disputed northern territory
ii. Early 1840s - Aroostook War –
1. War between lumberjacks from Maine and Canada near the
Aroostook River
b. Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842
i. Americans retained 7,000 miles of the 12,000 miles in dispute near
Maine
ii. Also settled border disputes in the Great Lakes region (the area
given up was later found to contain iron deposits near Minnesota)
The Lone Star of Texas Shines Alone
a. Problems Between Mexico and Texas
i. Mexico, refusing to recognize Texas’ independence since 1836,
regarded the Lone Star Republic as a province in revolt, to be
reconquered in the future
ii. Mexican officials loudly threatened war if the American eagle
should ever gather the fledgling republic under its protective wings
iii. The Texans were forced to maintain a costly military establishment
iv. Vastly outnumbered by their Mexican foe, they could not tell when
they would strike again
1. As a result, Texas was driven to open negotiations with
other countries. In 1839-40, the Texans concluded treaties
with France, Holland, and Belgium
b. The British Want an Independent Texas
i. A republic would check the southward surge of the Americans,
who posed a threat to nearby British possessions in the New
World. A puppet Texas, dancing to strings pulled by Britain, could
be turned upon the Yankees. In addition, it would challenge the
insolent Monroe Doctrine by allowing foreign countries in the
Americas and fragment the United States. The French had similar
purposes in mind
ii. British abolitionists hoped that by freeing the few blacks in Texas,
they presumably would inflame the nearby slaves of the South
iii. British merchants regarded Texas as a potentially important freetrade area and an offset to the tariff-walled United States
iv. British manufacturers believed that the Texas plains constituted
one of the great cotton-producing areas of the future. An
independent Texas would relieve British looms of their chronic
dependence on America – a supply that might be cut off in time of
crisis by embargo or war
The Belated Texas Nuptials
a. The American Controversy Over Texas
i. Partly because of the fears aroused by British schemers, Texas
became a leading issue in the presidential campaign of 1844
VII.
ii. Tyler believed that northerners wouldn’t want Texas to become a
State for fear that they would be a slave State. He decided not to
annex Texas through a treaty, which needed 2/3 vote, but through a
joint resolution, which needed a majority vote
iii. 1845 – Texas became the 28th State
b. The Mexican Controversy Over Texas
i. Mexico argued that the Americans had taken Texas from them.
However, this was not true anymore. It was clear to most that
Mexicans would never be able to have this province back
ii. Americans feared that Texas could have alliances with other
foreign powers, so many wanted it annexed
Oregon Fever Populates Oregon
a. About the Oregon Country
i. Enormous wilderness
ii. Most parts of this area were claimed at one time or another by four
nations:
1. Spain
2. Russia
3. Britain
4. United States
iii. Spain dealt its rights away to the U.S. in the Florida Treaty of 1819
iv. Russia dealt its rights away with a treaty in 1824
b. British Claims to Oregon
i. Based on prior discovery and exploration, treaty rights, and actual
occupation
ii. The most important colonizing agency was Hudson’s Bay
Company, which was trading profitably with the Indians of the
Pacific Northwest for furs
c. American Claims to Oregon
i. Based on prior discovery and exploration, treaty rights, and actual
occupation
ii. Captain Robert Gray in 1792 had stumbled upon the Columbia
River. The Lewis and Clark expedition also explored the area
from 1804-06
iii. Missionaries settled in the area to convert the Indians
d. Treaty of 1818
i. Americans and British lived peacefully in the area
ii. In the Treaty of 1818, the United States divided/shared the area
with the British
e. Influx of Americans in the Early 1840s
i. In the early 1840s, hundreds of pioneers covered the 2,000 mile
Oregon Trail in about 5 months
ii. By 1846, 5,000 of them had settled south of the Columbia River.
The British could only manage 700 or so people in the area
iii. They were beginning to see the wisdom of arriving at a peaceful
settlement before being engulfed by their neighbors
VIII.
IX.
f. Area of Oregon In Dispute
i. The area in dispute consisted of the northwest corner of presentday Oregon
ii. Britain offered the line of the Columbia River, while America
offered the 49th parallel
iii. This now became in issue in the 1844 election
A Mandate for Manifest Destiny
a. Nominations For the Presidency
i. Whigs – Henry Clay (Some Whigs feared American expansion
because they were concerned about slavery in the new territories,
while other supported it by peaceful means)
ii. Democrats – James K. Polk (Van Buren was against annexing
Texas, so this ensured his defeat)
b. James K. Polk
i. Was Speaker of the House for 4 years
ii. Governor of Tennessee for two terms
iii. Favored by Andrew Jackson
c. Manifest Destiny and the Election
i. In the 1840s and 1850s, many citizens felt a mission that God had
“manifestly” destined the American people to have all of the
continent and possibly South America as well. John O’Sullivan,
an American journalist, wrote an article pushing for the annexation
of Texas and coined the phrase “Manifest Destiny”
ii. This came out of post-1812 War nationalism, reform impulse of
the 1830s, and the need for new resources
iii. Most Democrats favored expansion and incorporated it in their
campaign (with Texas and Oregon)
iv. Clay wrote a series of confusing letters over the crucial issue of
Texas. They seemed to say that while he personally favored
annexing slaveholding Texas (an appeal to the South), he also
favored postponement (an appeal to the North)
d. Election of 1844
i. Polk won – 170-105; 1,340,000-1,300,000
ii. Clay would have won if he had not lost New York State by 5,000
votes. In that States, the antislavery Liberty Party absorbed 16,000
votes, many of which probably would’ve gone to Clay
iii. Ironically, the Liberty Party, by spoiling Clay’s chances of
winning, helped to ensure the election of pro-Texas Polk. The
Liberty Party was against annexation of Texas
iv. The Democrats claimed that they had received a mandate from the
voters to take Texas, so Tyler signed the joint resolution just before
he left office
Polk the Purposeful
a. James K. Polk
i. 5’8”
ii. Lean
X.
iii. Hard-working, but not brilliant
iv. He didn’t want to delegate authority and took everything seriously,
which drove him to his death
v. Achieved a 4-point program with remarkable success
b. Polk’s Objectives
i. Lowered Tariff (Walker Tariff of 1846) –
1. Devised a tariff bill that reduced the average rates of from
32% to 25%
2. New Englanders and the middle States claimed that
American manufacturing would be ruined, but it didn’t
happen
3. It proved to be successful because it was followed by heavy
imports and a good economic period
ii. Restoration of the Independent Treasury –
1. Established in 1846
iii. Acquisition of CA
iv. Settlement of OR Dispute –
1. Proposed the line of 49 degrees, not the 54 degrees 40
minutes line proposed by his party
2. British now concluded that the Columbia River wasn’t that
important and Americans one day might seize Oregon from
them
3. 1846 – British said that the 49 degrees line would be alright
4. The treaty was accepted by the Senate
5. The fact that the U.S. was in a war with Mexico deeply
influenced their vote
c. Reaction to the Oregon Settlement
i. The northwest States wanted the 5440 line. Saw as a betrayal by
the South. Why all of Texas but not all of Oregon? One Senator
joked “Great Britain is powerful and Mexico is weak”
ii. It was a good compromise in that there was no bloodshed
Misunderstandings With Mexico
a. California
i. Many Americans wanted its verdant (green) valleys and San
Francisco Bay (future gateway to the Pacific Ocean)
ii. Population was mixed
1. 1,300 – Mexicans
2. 75,000 – Indians
3. 1,000 – Americans
iii. Unfounded rumors were spreading that Britain was about to buy
CA
iv. An envoy (John Slidell) who was sent to Mexico was instructed to
offer a maximum of $25 million to buy CA and territory to the east
v. The proud Mexican people thought that the proposition was
insulting and rejected Slidell
b. Unpaid Debts
XI.
i. The U.S. had claims against the Mexicans for $3 million in
damages to American citizens and their property. The Mexicans
agreed to pay the debt, but were forced to default on them because
they were in a revolution
c. Argument Over Texas
i. The Mexican government, after threatening war if the United
States should acquire Texas, had recalled its minister from
Washington following annexation
ii. There was also a question of boundaries – Americans claimed to
the Rio Grande, but the previous boundary had been the Nueces
River
iii. Mexican still believed that Texas was theirs and Polk avoided
conflict by keeping troops out of the no-man’s land between the
two rivers
American Blood on American Soil?
a. War With Mexico
i. January 13, 1846 – Polk ordered 4,000 men under General Zachary
Taylor to march from the Nueces River to the Rio Grande. He
expected a clash
ii. When no clash happened, he informed his cabinet that he intended
to ask Congress to declare war on the basis of:
1. Unpaid claims
2. The CA rejection
iii. Before this happened, Mexican troops crossed the Rio Grande and
attacked Taylor
iv. Polk then sent a message to Congress that despite “all our efforts”
to avoid a clash, hostilities had been forced upon the country
through the shedding of American blood on American soil
v. Congress overwhelmingly voted for war
b. Reaction to the War
i. Polk felt justified in bending the truth if that’s what it took to get
what he wanted. Since Mexico refused to sell CA at any cost, Polk
felt that war was the quickest solution
ii. Congressman Abraham Lincoln introduced resolutions that
requested information as to the precise “spot” on American soil
where American blood had been shed. He pushed his “spot”
resolutions with such persistence that he came to be known as the
“spotty Lincoln” who could die of “spotted fever”
iii. Extreme antislavery people in the North (many Whigs) called the
president a liar
c. Mexican Aggressor?
i. Wanted to:
1. Humiliate the bullies to the North
2. Invade the U.S.
3. Free the black slaves
ii. Hoped that Britain would fight America over Oregon
XII.
XIII.
iii. Thought that conquest of Mexico would go like the American
invasion of Canada in 1812
The Mastering of Mexico
a. Santa Anna
i. Exiled dictator Santa Anna was in Cuba. He let it be known that if
the American blockade would let him back into Mexico, he would
sell out his country
ii. Polk agreed to this, but once Santa Anna returned to Mexico, he
proceeded to rally his countrymen to defend their soil
b. General Stephen Kearny and Captain John Fremont
i. Kearny led troops over the Santa Fe Trail, capturing the area
ii. Fremont won attacks by land and sea in CA in 1846. He created
the California Republic
c. General Zachary Taylor
i. He went into Mexico and reached Buena Vista by 1847. There, his
5,000 men fought Santa Anna’s 20,000 man army and won
ii. News of this victory soon spread
d. General Winfield Scott and the Conquest of Mexico City
i. Army pushed inland from the coastal city of Vera Cruz in early
1847 under Scott
ii. Scott was a hero from the War of 1812
iii. He was handicapped in the Mexican campaign by:
1. An inadequate number of troops
2. Expiring enlistments
3. A more numerous enemy
4. Mountainous terrain
5. By disease
iv. He reached and captured Mexico City by September 1847
v. Scott was one of the most distinguished generals ever
Fighting Mexico for Peace
a. America Wants Peace
i. Polk sent the chief clerk of the State Department, Nicholas Trist,
who was to arrange for an armistice with Santa Anna at a cost of
$10,000. The dictator pocketed the bribe and then used the time to
bolster his defenses
ii. Polk recalled Trist, but he stayed and negotiated the Treaty of
Guadalupe Hidalgo
b. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
i. Mexico conceded Texas
ii. Yielded the area extending westward to Oregon
iii. The U.S. paid $15 million for the land and assumed the claims of
U.S. citizens against Mexico in the amount of $3.25 million
iv. With mounting opposition to the war in the House (they were
beginning to refuse to allocate money for supplies), the treaty had
to be passed quickly
c. All of Mexico For America?
i. More and more people were wanting all of Mexico
ii. If the nation would have seized it, America would’ve been
burdened with an expensive and complicated political problem
iii. The treaty was approved by the Senate 38-14
d. Immediate Aftermath of the War
i. Victors don’t usually pay $18.25 after winning a war. Why did
Polk do it?
1. Some have charged that the Americans had a guilty
conscience
2. Others thought that it was due to fair play
3. Could’ve been paid as a bribe to get the treaty done
quickly, before mounting opposition in Congress could
block Polk’s expansion policies
XIV. Profit and Loss in Mexico
a. Results of the War
i. Loses –
1. 13,000 Americans (most from disease)
ii. Increased Land –
1. Area was increased by 1/3
iii. Increased Experience –
1. Mexican campaigns provided field experience for Civil
War generals, including Lee and Grant
2. West Point (1802) justified its existence by the Mexican
War success
3. Naval Academy (1846) justified its existence through the
success of the crippling blockade around Mexican ports (it
was founded by historian and Navy Secretary George
Bancroft)
4. Marine Corps won prestige as well (still sing about Halls of
Montezuma)
iv. Foreign Countries Increase Respect –
1. The army waged war without defeat and without a major
blunder, despite the long marches
2. British and foreign skeptics changed their opinion on
American military strength
v. Downturn In Latin American Relations –
1. Mexicans have never forgotten that their northern enemy
tore away about half of their country
2. Ever since this war, America has been regarded with
suspicion, as greedy, a bully, and untrustworthy
vi. Roused the Slavery Issue –
1. Abolitionists believed that the war was provoked by the
South to expand slavery. Most American volunteers were
from the South and Southwest (but proximity rather than
conspiracy was the real explanation)
b. Wilmot Proviso
i. Representative from PA who introduced a bill that would make
slavery nonexistent in any of the territory gained from Mexico
ii. It never became law, but all except one of the free States adopted it
iii. The Mexican War represented the looming question of slavery’s
future, which would be decided in the Civil War