To be published in: New Landscapes - New Lives: New Challenges in Landscape Planning, Design and
Management. Proceedings from the 20th Conference of the European Schools of Landscape Architecture. SLU,
Alnarp.
Nordic landscapes at the city edge: Lessons from case
studies in five countries
Mattias Qviström
Department of Landscape Architecture, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences
E-mail: Mattias.qvistrom@ltj.slu.se
Ole Hjort Caspersen
Department of Urban and Landscape Studies, Danish Centre for Forest, Landscape and Planning, KVL
Anne-Katrine Halvoren Thorén
Department of Landscape Architecture and Spatial Planning, Norwegian University of Life Sciences
Inger-Lise Saglie
Department of Landscape Architecture and Spatial Planning, Norwegian University of Life Sciences
Abstract: Recent international research has demonstrated the potential for developing
multifunctional landscapes at the urban fringe as a way of facilitating a sustainable society. The point
of departure for such development is favourable in the Nordic countries, which are characterised by
small cities with a fairly close relationship between city and country. However, a multitude of reforms
regarding spatial planning, economic incentives, land development policy, etc. are needed to promote
multifunctional land use. This paper presents experiences from five Nordic case studies, in Denmark,
Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden, and discusses whether Nordic comparisons of landscape
change and spatial planning can provide knowledge and practical experiences to foster
multifunctional development of the city edge. In order to provide a thorough analysis accounting for
site-specific and country-specific factors, researchers from all five Nordic countries played an active
part in the project. The case studies primarily focused on conflicts and potential for cooperation
between green-structure planning and agriculture and forestry. These cases were complemented with
a comprehensive analysis of the planning legislation and current planning practices in each country.
Against this background, some implications for spatial planning were identified. It was concluded that
there is a need for place-specific strategies, use of economic tools, cross-boundary planning and new
representations of the urban fringe in order to facilitate a multifunctional landscape.
Key words: Comparative studies; Land use policy; Multifunctionality; Scandinavia; Spatial planning;
Urban fringe
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1. Introduction
Images of a chaotic landscape at the urban fringe are readily available as an illustration of
‘new’ landscapes of the 21st century, or as a reminder of the land use conflicts of modern
society. During the past century the urban fringe, if recognised at all, has been regarded as
problematic, chaotic and unattractive. In short, it has been regarded as a materialisation of the
dark side of modern society. However, in recent years new interpretations of the fringe have
emerged that could generate a different landscape at the city edge in the near future. For
instance, Gallent et al. (2006) emphasise the potential for a multifunctional landscape at the
urban fringe. Multifunctionality in this instance is understood as a use of the land that allows
ecological, economic, historical, socio-cultural and aesthetical functions to coexist (cf.
Gulinck, 2004; Gallent et al., 2006). The city edge has also been identified as an arena where
the urban population can gain an understanding of the conditions for agriculture and forestry.
As a consequence, the non-conventional combinations of urban and rural activities appearing
at the city edge are now regarded as an asset for future planning, at least by some researchers
and planners. However, in order to utilise the urban fringe as a resource within planning, we
need to go beyond stereotypical images and preconceptions about such a varied landscape –
we need site-specific knowledge based on case studies.
In the Nordic research project City and Country, case studies of the urban fringe were carried
out in the five Nordic countries in order to gain a deeper understanding of how to facilitate
multifunctional landscapes at the fringe within planning, with particular emphasis on the
potential for combining agriculture and recreation in vernacular landscapes. This paper
describes preliminary results from the project, which is due to be completed in early 2009.
The first section of the paper discusses the Nordic context as a basis for comparative studies.
In the second section, some of the results of the case studies of landscapes and spatial
planning at the city edge are presented. Finally, the usefulness of these results is discussed,
focusing on the implications for planning.
2. Why a Nordic perspective?
In the Nordic countries, which are characterised by low population density, similar social
structures, a welfare state society, similarities in planning legislation and relatively small
cities with a fairly close relationship between city and country, the possibilities for
multifunctional use of the urban fringe should be rather promising. However, there is a lack
of landscape studies on the urban fringe in the Nordic countries; there is an imbalance
between the discourse on such landscapes and the actual knowledge based on case studies.
As a result, the current planning discourse is partly influenced by international experiences
and discourses based on e.g. studies in North America and the UK, which refer to a very
different context from the Nordic situation. In order to contribute to a deeper understanding
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of Nordic landscapes at the urban fringe, this project focused on case studies at the local
level.
Even though the Nordic countries share certain traits, as mentioned above, it is easy to
overestimate their similarities. When discussing Nordic identity, there is usually ‘a good
portion of myth-making in such constructions…’ (Olwig & Jones 2008, p. xi). However, it is
possible to argue the fruitfulness of Nordic comparisons without relying on myths or
romantic ideas of a shared past. In a study of the shared features of the Nordic countries,
Jones & Hansen (2008, p. 566) conclude that: ‘Although individual Nordic countries have
chosen some divergent policies … they continue to share a high degree of political, social,
cultural, and economic cooperation through the Nordic Council and related institutions.
While there are marked geographical variations among the countries and considerable
regional differences within them, Norden shows a higher degree of integration than most
other comparable groups of countries.’
In other words, the political will during the 20th century to collaborate has created a common
ground which facilitates comparative studies. This collaboration is obvious when comparing
the Planning Acts in the Nordic countries, which to a large extent have been influenced by
each other. As a result, the following comparison is facilitated by years of Nordic
cooperation within planning.
3. Five case studies
In order to carry out a thorough analysis that recognised site-specific traits and the countryspecific context, researchers from all five Nordic countries played an active part in the
project. Case studies were performed in each country, focusing on conflicts and potentials for
coordination between green-structure planning and agriculture and forestry within 10 km of a
medium-sized city. These case studies were complemented with an analysis of the planning
legislation and planning practice in each country, as well as a review of research on the urban
fringe conducted in each country.
Combined with a general description of the landscape studied, the case studies focused on
three objectives: (1) Analysing the accessibility for recreation at the urban fringe and
identifying weaknesses and strengths within the planning system as regards facilitating
access to outdoor leisure at the city edge; (2) highlighting strategies for multifunctional land
use at the fringe, i.e. the possibility of encouraging multifunctional land use within planning;
(3) discussing the kind of parameters that need to be monitored in order for planners to be
able to observe and deal with conflicts at the urban fringe. The general character of these
objectives facilitated a focus on site-specific features, interests and planning strategies,
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parameters that are of vital importance when searching for new ways of interpreting the
fringe within planning. It also allowed the specific expertise of the research teams to be
exploited.
The case studies were selected to illustrate different conditions in the Nordic countries,
although with a clear focus on open landscapes. In order to detect conflicts, we selected case
study areas around relatively large towns/cities or in metropolitan areas. In an international
context, however, these conurbations are small compared with the cities discussed in the
discourse on the urban fringe, but they provide a ‘Nordic perspective’. The case-studies are
introduced below (based on Qviström 2008), focusing on the Norwegian, Danish and
Swedish cases.
Sarpsborg, Norway
The Norwegian case study provides a thorough analysis of the municipal planning of
agricultural land in Sarpsborg, as well as a brief overview of the spatial development of the
town and country area from the 1960s up till now. A strict policy on protection of
agricultural land in Norway has resulted in a large-scale urban sprawl influencing natural
areas close to the town, while agricultural land is left as wedges between the built-up areas
(see Figure 1). The study illustrates how the heavily state-regulated agricultural sector may
be hampered when opportunities for urban development are offered due to their proximity to
densely populated areas. The development of the urban fringe is to a large extent influenced
by policy development in other sectors, most importantly the transport sector. The aim of
Norwegian transport policy is to maintain a compact city, since urban sprawl is seen as
detrimental to the goal of achieving lower emissions of carbon dioxide and less energy use,
particularly in the transport sector. The Norwegian goal of farmland protection in a country
with only 3% arable land is important, restricting local room for manoeuvre. Thus a
containment policy is followed, particularly in the zone closest to the city, while rural-driven
incremental changes are allowed in zones further from the city. Another important theme
concerning Norwegian agricultural policy is the price regulation system that restricts free
pricing on farm land, which means that market mechanisms do not influence spatial planning
and development as much as in the other Nordic countries.
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Figure 1: Sarpsborg, in southern Norway. Due to farmland preservation policies, the town is sprawling.
(Photo: Sarpsborg municipality, used with permission).
To conclude, current policies restrain farmers and land use at the city edge, making it
difficult to go beyond traditional farming and develop multifunctional landscapes. On the
other hand, there are several possibilities in the financial support system that could be used
more effectively to reach such goals if applied in a more coordinated way. Coordination
between rather influential planning for recreation and the planning incentives for facilitating
a ’living countryside’ could also be beneficial, as illustrated by the case of Sarpsborg.
Hillerød, Denmark
The Danish planning reform in 2007 and its rather substantial consequences for spatial
planning at the urban fringe is illustrated in the Danish case study. Until 2007, municipal
planning in Denmark was restricted to urban areas, whereas rural areas were dealt with in
regional planning. In addition, a zoning system divides the countryside into a rural and an
urban zone, which is why the Danish countryside in general is not characterised by urban
sprawl. The case area chosen for the Danish study was the urban area of Hillerød, with 46
000 inhabitants, of which the majority (30 000) live in the city itself. The surrounding
countryside is characterised by agriculture, with a distinct divide between urban and rural
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areas: urban sprawl is a rather limited phenomenon in the area. However, the study reveals
that hobby farmers and ‘horsiculture’ dominate the countryside. The farms are relatively
small and traditional full-time farmers constitute only a minor proportion of the population.
The price of farm land is relatively high, and due to the constant demand for structural
rationalisation in the agricultural sector, most full-time farmers are being forced out of the
region. As the price of farm land illustrates, the region is characterised by hidden
urbanisation: even though the land use has not changed significantly, the functions that relate
to this landscape have changed from a traditional monofunctional use towards a
multifunctional use in which both buildings and landscape serve purposes other than the
solely agricultural (Præstholm & Kristensen, 2007). Leisure, recreation and small private
enterprises are important functions in this multifunctional landscape. Prior to the 2007
Danish planning reform, no efficient tools or planning measures were available to cope with
this transformation and the increasing multifunctionality developed more or less
spontaneously. The new planning reform underlines the demand for sustainable development
and transfers the responsibility for planning to the local municipal level. This reform
facilitates a holistic planning and management process that includes the specific transition of
the urban fringe. However, these holistic planning measures have yet to be adopted by the
municipalities and the case study reveals that there is a high demand for regulation of the
continuous trend towards increased multifunctionality.
Greater Malmö, Sweden
The Danish study provides a historical overview regarding planning and landscape change at
the urban fringe, a theme even more accentuated in the Swedish case study. The case
illustrates land use conflicts in south-west Scania between the most productive farmland in
the country and one of the most expansive metropolitan regions in Sweden. The case study
area, on the border between three municipalities, has in recent decades been in a transitory
phase between rural and urban activities (see Figures 2 and 3). Even though this area has a
long ‘suburban’ history, its character and structures are being redefined in recent processes.
Based on several years of field studies, the case study offers detailed notions on this process
of transformation and argues that we need to recognise the transitory landscapes as a resource
when discussing the urban fringe.
As in the other Nordic countries, the rural/urban divide is prominent within Swedish
planning. In general, only densely built areas can be incorporated into the legally binding and
detailed plans, leaving the countryside and the urban fringe with strategic and advisory plans
without any legal power to affect land use changes. The rural/urban divide is mirrored in the
administrative structure on local, regional and national levels, whose decisions materialise in
the landscape. The urban fringe of Malmö clearly illustrates this divide. In order to examine
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Figure 2: Bernstorp, at the urban fringe of Malmö (in the municipality of Burlöv), in August 2005. (Photo:
Mattias Qviström).
Figure 3: Bernstorp in October 2008. The farmland, which is considered to be the most productive in the
country, has been used for developing a shopping centre. (Photo: Mattias Qviström)
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the divide in further detail, Swedish land policy was studied, in particular the leasing of land
owned by the municipalities. In Sweden, municipal purchasing of land in the 1960s and
1970s was a political act that had a major influence on landscape development at the urban
fringe. Vast areas of agricultural land once purchased for city development are still owned by
the municipal authorities. In Malmö, almost 50% of the surrounding agricultural land is
owned by the municipality and although this is an extreme case, other municipalities also
own significant parts of the urban fringe. Although the original plans and the planning
ideology nurturing these plans are out of date, their presence is still apparent in the short-term
nature of farmers’ tenancy agreements, where they contribute to maintaining the status quo
when it comes to investments and innovative use of the urban fringe. The ideological divide
between city and country is manifested in these tenancy agreements, which are drawn up by
the management division of the municipal authority. Furthermore, the study of the land
policy illustrates the divide between municipal management and planning divisions, which
produce contradictory planning documents for the urban fringe.
Vasa, Finland
The case study of Vasa focuses primarily on inter-municipal conflicts on the urban fringe,
caused by weak regional planning. In Finland a ‘landscape plan’ is produced by the regional
authorities, in order to facilitate regional development. However, regional planning is
intrinsically weak; the plan can only be constructed based on close collaboration with the
local authorities, which opens the way for parochial tendencies or ‘NIMBY’ planning. In
addition, the structure in Finland, with a vast amount of small municipalities, hampers
regional coordination.
Due to the country’s relatively short urban history, urban residents in Finland usually have
personal bonds to rural areas, e.g. relatives living in the countryside, or they own properties
in the countryside. The Vasa case study illustrates the importance of seasonal changes for
recreation and leisure, a feature common to all the Nordic countries. In winter, cross-country
skiing and walking along snow-ploughed roads are the main activities. In spring and summer,
walking, running, cycling and horseback riding along small roads and footpaths and picnics
in parks and at beaches are common activities, while in autumn many people pick berries and
mushrooms in the forest. All mans right, which applies in all the Nordic countries except
Denmark, facilitates such public use of the landscape.
Reykavik, Iceland
The case study in Iceland describes urban development and its closely related planning
history. Countryside planning was only introduced in Iceland a decade ago, although
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conflicts between e.g. nature conservation and transport infrastructure are evident in the
Reykavik region of today. A recent plan for a green belt, or ‘green scarf’ has been presented.
The case study in Reykavik is important due to the fact that it so clearly illustrates the
different landscapes in the Nordic countries.
4. Discussion
It has been argued that ‘the case story is itself the result’ and that the ambition to reduce a
complex case study into a few conclusions is questionable (Flyvbjerg 2006, p. 238). In view
of this claim, distilling five case studies and a 200-page report into a few pages inevitably
eradicates the very character of the research. The imposing variety of landscape morphology
and land use at the urban fringe observed in the five case studies of different Nordic cities
emphasises the danger of generalisations regarding the character of the Nordic urban fringe –
whereas some cities are situated on the edge of the archipelago, others are embedded in
forests, surrounded by open fields, or even (as in the case of Hafnafjordur in the Reykavik
metropolitan area) surrounded by lava fields (Johannesson, submitted manuscript). In
Sarpsborg, Norway, the urban area is concentrated along forested ridges, with arable land in
between, whereas Malmö is situated on a plain, leaving only two options: densification of the
city or exploitation of the most productive arable land in Sweden. A short-list of Nordic
recommendations for future planning could cause a standardisation of the urban fringe, an
approach scarcely in accordance with the aim of fostering multifunctionality. However, the
process of national normalisation is already underway, since the planning legislation is the
same whatever the kind of landscape. The importance of landscape morphology for the
character of the urban fringe needs to be emphasised within planning – highlighting regional
differences could be an important part of implementation of the European Landscape
Convention.
According to Burman (2007, p. 270), ‘… researching locales-in-flux forces an interpretive
open-endedness to match that of cityscapes themselves’. The open-ended case studies
presented highlight different themes depending on the expertise of the researchers
performing the study, the site-specific conditions and the national context. However, the
themes discussed in each case are also important in the other Nordic countries. Hence, the
cases are complementary; in combination, they unfold a very complex, or rich, description of
the urban fringe and identify several themes in need of further research. Two themes found to
be crucial when discussing the future of spatial planning at the urban fringe are described
below.
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Multifunctional fringes and the rural/urban divide
Today, there are owners, interests and activities at the urban fringe that go beyond a
rural/urban divide and this calls for a revision of the planning legislation and planning
practices at the fringe. However, the divide is deeply embedded in the structure of
administrative institutions, in law and policy documents, in statistics and landscape
information, and in planning conventions. The case studies illustrate different aspects of this
divide but in combination they reflect the complexity of the divide. For instance, Nordic land
use policy is closely related to a traditional farming landscape, to the production of goods,
and to a clear-cut divide between town and country.
Even though current planning aims to maintain a division between rural and urban area, these
ideas are often set aside in a strongly market-driven planning practice when attractive offers
for investments in suburban shopping or business facilities are made to the municipal
authority. For an investor there is much to be gained in transforming rural areas into urban,
while the local municipal authority might gain important investments to boost the local
economy. The question is how multifunctionality can be promoted when this means changing
the traditional view of the rural landscape and (most likely) questioning the boundary
between city and country, and whether the rural/urban divide can be questioned without
threatening agriculture at the city edge with being replaced by urban development.
In order to facilitate multifunctional landscapes, we need to reveal the importance of the
hidden ideals of Rural and Urban within planning. On the one hand, multifunctional
landscapes are regarded as a solution, while on the other hand, traditional (i.e. monofunctional) landscapes are regarded as the ideal, and any kind of combination of rural and
urban is considered a blight (cf. Gulnick, 2004). We need to employ case studies to discuss
the actual character of the present day landscape, in order to question the prevailing ideals
and in order to offer new representations of the urban fringe. In addition to revised planning
instruments, new ways of representing or charting the urban fringe are needed if we are to
promote a multifunctional landscape. For instance, Swedish agricultural land is graded on a
scale of 1 to 10, and such an extreme reduction of the open landscape to its value for
production of food hinders a discussion about multifunctionality. Nevertheless, it seems
inexpedient to let go of the rural/urban divide within planning before we have a clear idea of
how to define the value of the urban fringe and how to describe the assets of a
multifunctional fringe.
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Figure 4: A landscape of infrastructures at the edge of Malmö. The urban fringe is a complex landscape, where
intense conflicts on land can be reflected in derelict land or ’left-overs’ only a few metres away. The potential
for recreation in such landscapes has been little explored within planning, let alone the potential for
multifunctional use of the land. (Photo: Mattias Qviström)
Economic tools and cross-boundary planning
Strong regional planning and participatory planning have been proposed as solutions for how
to deal with the urban fringe. However, it should be mentioned that these require (strong)
regional planning in order to deal with the urban fringe and that this has been a recurring
theme for the last 70 years in Sweden, with no success. In Norway, regional planning has
always been very weak. The new planning law offers stronger instruments, but it remains to
be seen whether it will be effective. It could be argued, therefore, that we need a wider
approach to planning, instead of only arguing for regional planning. We probably need to
acknowledge unconventional land uses, unexpected users and unconventional means of
planning in order to cope with the present day character of the urban fringe (cf. Figure 4). We
need to look for alternative tools, such as the certification of goods within agriculture, to
broaden the repertoire within landscape planning. A very wide definition of ‘planning’ at the
fringe is needed, and the lack of coordination between the different ‘planners’ needs to be
studied. For instance, land use policy, e.g. the price of agricultural land (and who is allowed
to buy the land and why) and the design of tenancy agreements are very important. It is well
known that land ownership structure is a major factor in the potential for land use planning at
the fringe, but the same goes for economic subsidies for agriculture and new life-style trends
(and trends within marketing), resulting in certification of agricultural products, for instance
in organic farming. In Norway in particular, national agricultural subsidies and price
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regulations concerning farm land play a significant role at the urban fringe. Environmental
policies and subsidies are equally important to planning tools. Even though far from easy to
compose, an overview of the ‘planning tools’ (in the widest sense) affecting the urban fringe
would be a good start for cross-boundary planning at the fringe.
5. Conclusions
This paper discusses five case studies at the urban fringe in the Nordic countries and provides
an analysis of Nordic planning legislation with regard to the urban fringe. A few themes are
presented in the discussion and these need further research in order to facilitate
multifunctional landscapes at the city edge. The paper illustrates the fruitfulness of openended comparative studies, revealing the chaotic assemblages of planning tools merging at
the fringe, as well as the jumble of activities occurring at the edge of the city.
Acknowledgements
The paper is a result of the research project Stad och Land (project no 05-1), funded by the
Nordic Council of Ministers. Mikael Alaviitala made an important contribution to the text.
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