A. Alsoszatai-Petheo
Andrew Alsoszatai-Petheo
Professor Brown
Humanities 102
2 February 2004
The Arts Affected by the Council of Trent
With the rising number of separations within the Christian church (schisms) by the end of
the Reformation including Protestantism, Catholicism and many other sects, the Roman Catholic
Church initiated a meeting that would end denial of Roman Catholic dogma and schisms. The
Council of Trent not only created the foundations for common Catholic practices found today,
but also changed the spiritual aspect of art and architecture. Although there were many inspiring
paintings and buildings that were created by renowned artists before the Council of Trent, the
doctrines and decrees of the Council of Trent had a large impact on the art and architecture of the
international styles of the Baroque period.
According to John E. Schloder, when Martin Luther circulated his Ninety-Five-Theses in
1517, he initiated the Protestant Reformation as well. While Luther had intended to start a debate
in the Catholic Church, the end result was the unity of several separate Protestant churches. 1
Luther’s belief in “justification by faith alone,” which he discovered through studying the
scriptures as a monk, also led to the beginning of Protestantism.2 Protestantism spread through
Poland, France, and Switzerland. According to Roy T. Matthews and F. Dewitt Platt, Pope Paul
III, along with a series of Pope successors, struck back with the Counter-Reformation halting the
1
John E. Schloder,Baroque Imagery. Jo Zuppan. (Cleveland: The Cleveland Museum of Art in cooperation
with Indiana University Press,1984) 11.
2
Schloder, 11.
A. Alsoszatai-Petheo 2
spread of Protestantism through most of Europe. The Counter-Reformation was staged on three
fronts: The Reformed Papacy, New Monastic Orders and The Council of Trent.3
Because of interruptions, such as battles and plagues, The Council of Trent was held in
three separate sessions. According to De Lemar Jensen, in March of 1545, The Council of Trent
was held in the southern tips of the Alps, along the border of Germany and Italy, in the city of
Trent. Pope Paul III commenced the Council of Trent although it was “not easy to obtain
agreement as to time, place, and purpose” states De Lamar Jensen. Nor was it agreed upon that
“the Lutherans should be invited to attend” as Charles V insisted.4
The first meeting consisted of cardinals, archbishops, bishops, generals, theologians and
canonists who all fought together, as stated by Jensen, to “end a schism, combat heresy, and
reform the church in head and members.”5 Reform was not discussed at the first meeting.
Instead, doctrinal matters were discussed. One of the key settlements of the first meeting was an
agreement to allow only the Church to interpret the scriptures. Also, a high-ranking member of
the clergy rejected Luther’s Statement “justification by faith alone” as “inadequate” states
Jensen, explaining, “for faith also requires hope and charity . . . in other words, good works”6
One last key doctrine that was agreed upon was that the Vulgate or Latin version of the Bible
remained the only accepted and official version of the Bible. It was shortly afterward that plague
and war forced the council to adjourn in 1549. It was 1551 when Julius III (Pope Paul’s
successor) reconvened the council for the second meeting. The major accomplishment of the
3
Roy T. Matthews and F. Dewitt Platt, The Western Humanities Volume II: The Renaissance to the
Present. Fifth Edition. (San Francisco: Mc Graw Hill, 2004) 369-370.
4
De Lamar Jensen, Reformation Europe: Age of Reform and Revolution. (Lexington: D.C. Health and
Company, 1981) 188.
5
De Lamar Jensen, 188-189.
6
Roy T. Matthews and F. Dewitt Platt, 370.
A. Alsoszatai-Petheo 3
second meeting was to reaffirm the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation. However due to the
war starting again and the death of the emperor in 1552, the council was dismissed.7
The third and final meeting of the Council of Trent convened ten years later in 1562. By
then Pope Paul IV had died, leaving the third and final meeting to his successor, Pope Pius IV.
Attending the meeting this time were the Italian delegates, papal supporters and the Jesuits.
Under the leadership of Pius IV, the council members had accomplished the greatest amount of
work. The twenty-fifth and final session included the most crucial of decrees and doctrines for
artists living in the end of the Counter-Reformation. One passage, included in one of the many
decrees, was the ruling for a change in art and architecture to achieve an overwhelming
emotional religious impact and to support the Bible. This decree states “by means of the stories
of the mysteries of our Redemption portrayed by paintings or other representations, the people be
instructed and confirmed in the habit of remembering, and continually revolving in mind the
articles of faith.”8 According to Matthews and Platt, “The church council envisioned paintings
and sculptures that were simple and direct as well as unobjectionable and decent in appearance.”9
Pope Pius, among other Counter-Reformation popes, proclaimed in 1566 that Michelangelo’s
Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel was obscene and therefore ordered loincloths to be painted
over the male nudes. Pius V also ordered other arts to be veiled. Pope Clement VIII also wanted
a fresco to be veiled however it did not happen. Many other changes in art took place, impacting
the three international Baroque styles: Florid in Rome, Classical in France and Restrained in
England and the Netherlands.
7
Jensen, 190.
J. Waterworth, The Council of Trent: The canons and decrees of the sacred and oecumenical Council of
Trent. (London: Dolman,1848) 234.
9
Matthews and Platt, 371.
8
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The changes that were made to the architecture, sculptures and the paintings in the Florid
stylistic art were first seen in the reconstruction of the church of St. Peter’s in Rome. In the early
1500’s great architects such as Bramante, Raphael and Michelangelo built St. Peter’s to take the
shape of the Greek cross. However, to abide by the Council of Trent, Pope Paul V commissioned
Carlo Maderno to, as Matthews and Platt state, “to add a long nave thereby giving the floor plan
the shape of a Latin cross.”10 By this time St. Peter’s massive size not only attracted people to
hear the pope’s blessings, but also symbolized the power of the church. Later, in 1656 Pope
Alexander VII commissioned Gianlorenzo Bernini to integrate the Baroque style into St. Peter’s
Church by tearing down any straight lines. Bernini also built an enormous piazza onto St.
Peter’s. The new piazza, which was finished in 1667, would allow the greatest number of people
to see the Pope give his blessings. Bernini then added, atop the columns surrounding the piazza,
statues of saints. Bernini was considered as the artist who, as Matthews and Platt state, “brought
the Florid Baroque to a dazzling climax”11 with several works outside St. Peters, as well as
several statues inside. St. Peter’s Church gave inspiration to architects around Europe to update
buildings to conform to the Council of Trent. St. Peter’s is attributed with starting the Florid
Baroque style.
Paintings after the Council of Trent moved from serenity and balance to expressiveness
and movement in the Florid Baroque style.12 Ovular and circular shapes as well as shadows and
light, or chiaroscuro, lead the style of painting. One painter by the name of Michelangelo Merisi,
also known as Caravaggio, inspired several painters throughout Spain, Netherlands, France, and
in Caravaggio’s home country of Italy. Caravaggio’s The Conversion of St. Paul was a
10
Matthews and Platt, 390.
Matthews and Platt, 391.
12
Erich Hubala, Baroque and Rococo. George Weidenfield and Nicholson ltd., (New York: Universe
Books) 100.
11
A. Alsoszatai-Petheo 5
monumental painting after the Council of Trent. This painting not only symbolized St. Paul’s
turning point in the faith of Christianity, but also taught Christians about forgiveness and God’s
power. This painting had met the requirements of the Council of Trent by inspiring emotional
religious impact. All of the Florid Baroque art and architecture may have influenced several
artists and architects in other countries of Europe; however, under the rule of Louis XIV, the
style had little effect on France.
The French court was inspiring architects and artists such as Louis Le Vau, Andre Le
Notre, and Jules Hardouin-Mansart who redesigned the Palace of Versailles,13 which is called by
Matthews and Platt “the most splendid palace that has ever been seen in Europe.”14 Again, the
massive size of the Palace of Versailles spanned the length of two miles and contained a royal
chapel and various support structures. The most notable room in the palace is the hall of mirrors:
a long hallway with painted ceilings depicting victories and other deeds of Louis XIV. Classical
Baroque style art in France had little to do with Florid Baroque style in Rome. In fact the French
artists and architects thought the Florid Baroque to be, as Matthews and Platt state, “alien and
even offensive.”15 Classical style was seen as “more impersonal, controlled, and measured.”16
Instead of focusing on religious art, as the Council of Trent decreed, French artists flourished to
Versailles under the patronage of Louis XIV.
Unlike the Classical Baroque style in France, in which the classical tastes of Louis XIV
dominated the art world, in England and the Netherlands art was dominated by the sensibilities
of the Protestant citizens.17 Matthews and Platt state that the Restrained Baroque style
“humanized Baroque exuberance, appealed to democratic sentiments, and reflected common
13
Matthews and Platt,
Matthews and Platt,
15
Matthews and Platt,
16
Matthews and Platt,
17
Schloder, 11.
14
397.
397.
396.
396.
A. Alsoszatai-Petheo 6
human experience.”18 Architecture of the Restrained Baroque was influenced by much of the
Classical Baroque styles of France. Sir Christopher Wren was the most prominent architect of
the Restrained Baroque style. Wren’s inspiration was the ornamentation of Versailles from the
Classical Baroque style and from Bramante’s Renaissance style. Wren had built several churches
after the Great Fire of London in 166619 but his most renowned work is St. Paul’s Cathedral in
London. St Paul’s Cathedral combines Bramante’s Tempietto with some Gothic features as well
as features similar to those of St. Peter’s in Rome. St. Paul’s Cathedral was meant to be the
Protestant rival to St. Peter’s in Rome. Paintings made famous in Restricted Baroque style
created “a secular style that mirrored the pious outlook of the ruling middle class.”20 Rembrandt
van Rijn of the Netherlands led the way for paintings of the Restrained Baroque style.
Rembrandt is most known for his Night Watch and Self-Portrait, which incorporate both
Caravaggio’s expressionistic style as well as chiaroscuro. Rembrandt was famous for the moods
he painted, turning the person viewing the pictures to moods of pity and sorrow.
With the rise of the Baroque period the artistic style slowly conformed to the doctrines,
decrees, and canons of the Council of Trent, which stated the need for art and architecture to
appeal to the masses. The three variations on the international Baroque style changed due to the
decrees of the Council of Trent. The first affected was Rome. Rome’s new art and architecture
inspired those which followed. Through the variations of the Baroque styles the historical
settings are reflected through famous works of art or building such as St. Peter’s in Rome, St.
Paul’s Cathedral in England, and the Palace of Versailles in France.
18
Matthews and Platt, 398.
Matthews and Platt, 403.
20
Matthews and Platt, 398-399.
19