MAJOR LITERARY TERMS
English IV AP / Mrs. Ramos
PROSE
Forms
allegory: a piece of literature that holds a deeper, often philosophical story.
exemplum: a fable or example for living. “The Pardoner’s Tale” from The Canterbury Tales
fabliaux (pl. of fabliau): medieval tale with humorous, often sexually explicit, overtones. “The
Nun’s Priest’s Tale” from The Canterbury Tales
farce: a type of comedy that is primarily visual / physical. “The Miller’s Tale” from The
Canterbury Tales
fiction: narrative that does not depict actual events
frame tale: a series of stories in a collection that are components of a larger, enveloping tale.
The Canterbury Tales
mock epic: a narrative that exaggerates the qualities of an epic in order to satirize them. “The
Nun’s Priest’s Tale” from The Canterbury Tales.
nonfiction: narrative that depicts actual events
prologue: a forward or background information required before reading a work
prose: writing that is not poetry and is organized into paragraphs; may be fiction or nonfiction.
satire: making fun of something that is serious. Johnathan Swift’s “A Modest Proposal”
estates satire a parody of social stations. Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales
Narrative devices
antagonist: the character or element in a narrative that stands in the way of the protagonist.
characterization: An author or poet's use of description, dialogue, dialect, and action to create
in the reader an emotional response to a character or to make the character more vivid
and realistic.
archetype: original model or pattern from which other later copies are made,
especially a character, an action, or situation that seems to represent common
patterns of human life generally; a stereotyped character (hero, damsel in
distress, careless teenager)
dynamic: a character that changes throughout the course of a narrative
epic hero: a hero, usually a king, of the epic poem (Beowulf)
flat: a character that is not well-described and may be simply a stereotypical entity
foil: a set of characters who are purposefully presented to be similar in some ways but
completely opposite in others in order to highlight particular character traits. In
Hamlet, Claudius and Old Hamlet are foil characters because they were both
kings of Denmark, but each had opposite moral tendencies.
purpose: the functional reason for the character to be in the story
round: a character that is described in detail in a work
static: a character that does not change throughout the course of a narrative
conflict: the opposition between two characters (such as a protagonist and an antagonist),
between two large groups of people, or between the protagonist and a larger
problem such as forces of nature, ideas, public mores, and so on.
external conflict: a conflict that occurs outside of the protagonist
man vs. man: a conflict between two characters
man vs. nature: a conflict between the protagonist and an element of nature
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man vs. society: a conflict between the protagonist and the socially accepted
behaviors of a society
internal conflict: a conflict that occurs inside a character’s mind, heart or
consciousness.
man vs. himself: a conflict such as a decision that must be reached, that occurs
within a character, usually the protagonist
man vs. fate: a conflict that demonstrates man’s desire to oppose the forces of
time or destiny
dialogue: the representation of a conversation between two characters in a narrative
epiphany: personal revelations that occur within characters in a narrative
fatal flaw: the personality trait that causes a character to experience a setback or tragedy
flashback: A method of narration in which present action is temporarily interrupted so that the
reader can witness past events--usually in the form of a character's memory.
foreshadowing: Suggesting, hinting, indicating, or showing what will occur later in a narrative.
irony: an opposition between what is expected and what really happens
dramatic irony: when the audience or reader of a piece of literature knows information
about the plot or characters that other characters do not know.
situational irony: when the opposite of what is expected occurs
verbal irony: saying one thing and meaning the opposite for the sake of exaggeration
cosmic irony:
Socratic irony: when a speaker pretends to be ignorant on a topic in order to illicit the
ideas of others
narrator: the "voice" that speaks or tells a story.
unreliable narrator: a storyteller who cannot be trusted for various possible reasons.
This narrator may miss the significance in elements of the story because of his/her point
of view or plainly misinterpret the motives or actions of characters.
innocent eye narrator: a narrator who is young, ignorant, or naïve; the audience often
catches significance that the narrator describes but does not comprehend.
plot: the framework of events in a narrative
exposition: the introduction of basic elements of a narrative such as characters and
setting
rising action: the point in the plot of a narrative when the conflict becomes complicated
climax: the point in a narrative when the protagonist has to make a decision regarding
the conflict
falling action: the point just after the climax when the results of the protagonist’s
decision are revealed
resolution / denouement: the final outcome of the narrative
point of view: the way a story gets told and who tells it. It is the method of narration that
determines the position, or angle of vision, from which the story unfolds. Point of view
governs the reader's access to the story.
first person: the narrator speaks as "I" and the narrator is a character in the story who
may or may not influence events within it
second person: the narrator addresses the audience throughout the narrative (rarely
used)
third person limited: the narrator seems to be someone standing outside the story who
refers to all the characters by name or as he, she, they, and so on
third person omniscient: a narrator who knows everything that needs to be known
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about the agents and events in the story, and is free to move at will in time and
place, and who has privileged access to a character's thoughts, feelings, and
motives.
mixed point of view: the use of multiple narrators in the same narrative. A strategy
used by an author to give a more rounded perspective of events.
protagonist: the character that drives the action in a narrative
style: the author's words and the characteristic way a writer uses language to achieve certain
effects.
verisimilitude: the sense that what one reads is "real," or at least realistic and believable.
POETRY
Form
ballad: a narrative poem in which the story is told through dialogue and action. The language
is simple or "folksy," and the theme is often tragic. The ballad contains a refrain
repeated several times.
couplet: two consecutive lines of rhyming poetry
dramatic monologue: a poem in which the speaker is a created character who tells his/her own
story. There is usually a critical situation as topic.
elegy: a poem that eulogizes; a poem written upon the occasion of a person’s death
epic poem: a long, story-like poem that is focused on the exploits of a hero or demi-god who
represents the cultural values of a race, nation, or religious group Beowulf, Milton’s
Paradise Lost.
free verse: a poem without regular rhyme or metrical patterns
octave: eight lines of poetry in a stanza, usually rhymes in a regular pattern
ode: a long, often elaborate apostrophaic poem of varying line lengths and sometimes intricate
rhyme schemes dealing with a serious subject matter and treating it reverently. Keats’
“Ode on a Grecian Urn”
lyric poem: expresses the feelings, perceptions, and thoughts of a single poetic speaker (not
necessarily the poet) in an intensely personal, emotional, or subjective manner.
narrative poem: tells a story. Beowulf
quatrain: four lines of rhyming poetry together in a stanza
scop (shope): an Old English term for poet. In Anglo-Saxon culture, the scop had the important
job of singing about the accomplishments of his patron and his people. The scop
functioned as both an entertainer and as an historian.
sestet: six lines of poetry together in a stanza.
sonnet: fourteen-lined poem with a particular pattern of rhyme and idea progression:
Shakespearean (English): three quatrains; each rhymed differently, with a final,
independently rhymed couplet that makes an effective, unifying climax to the
whole. Its rhyme scheme is abab, cdcd, efef, gg. Typically, the final two lines
follow a "turn" or a "volta," (sometimes spelled volte, like volte-face) because
they reverse or turn from the original line of thought to take the idea in a new
direction.
Petrarchan (Italian): an eight line stanza (called an octave) followed by a six line
stanza (called a sestet). The octave has two quatrains rhyming abba, abba, the
first of which presents the theme, the second further develops it. In the sestet,
the first three lines reflect on or exemplify the theme, while the last three bring
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the poem to a unified end. The sestet may be arranged cdecde, cdcdcd, or
cdedce.
Spencerian: contains three quatrains which are interlocked by the repetition in both the
second and third quatrains of a rhyme from the quatrain that immediately precedes it.
abab
- End words of first quatrain in alternating rhyme.
bcbc
- End words of second quatrain in alternating rhyme,
with repetition of the last rhyme in the first quatrain.
- Shift.
cdcd
- End words of third quatrain in alternating rhyme,
with repetition of the last rhyme in the second quatrain.
ee
- Heroic couplet.
stanza: a poem’s ‘paragraph’ or grouping of lines.
tercet: a three-line stanza
villanelle: a 19-line poem that is structured in five tercets with a final quatrain. The repetition
of lines 1 and 3 of the first stanza continues in the other stanzas to create the rhythm.
Sound Devices
alliteration: repeating a consonant sound in close proximity to others, or beginning several
words with the same vowel sound.
cacophony: unharmonious sounds within a poem (opposite = euphony)
caesura: a pause in a line of poetry
consonance: repetition of internal vowel sounds in close proximity words
enjambment: a line having no pause or end punctuation but having uninterrupted meaning
continuing into the next line
euphony: harmonious sounds within a poem (opposite = cacophony)
meter (scansion): the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of poetry
foot: A basic unit of meter consisting of a set number of strong stresses and light
stresses.
stressed syllable: one that is spoken with more emphasis
unstressed syllable: one that is spoken with less emphasis
free verse: poetry that has no regular meter, rhyme, or number of syllables on a line
onomatopoeia: The use of sounds that are similar to the noise they represent for a rhetorical or
artistic effect. For instance, buzz, click, rattle, and grunt make sounds akin to the
noise they represent.
rhyme: a matching similarity of sounds in two or more words, especially when their accented
vowels and all succeeding consonants are identical.
eye rhyme (sight rhyme): two words that look as if they would rhyme due to similar
internal vowels but do not (pint / lint; move /love)
feminine rhyme: a rhyming set of words in which the final syllable is unstressed
(feather / heather). Creates a soft sound.
internal rhyme: a poetic device in which a word in the middle of a line rhymes with a
word at the end of the same metrical line
masculine rhyme: a rhyming set of words in which the final syllable is stressed or both
words are stressed one-syllable words (hit/fit). Creates a powerful punch of a
rhyme.
rhyme scheme: the pattern of end rhyme in a poem that is typically rendered with
letters of the alphabet signifying like rhymes.
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slant rhyme (approximate rhyme, near rhyme): rhymes created out of words with
similar but not identical sounds. In most of these instances, either the vowel
segments are different while the consonants are identical (soul/all), or vice versa
(moon/fool).
Comparisons
allusion: A reference in literature to a person, place, event, or another passage of
literature, often without explicit identification. Allusions can originate in
mythology, the Bible, historical events, or legends. Authors often use allusion to
establish a tone, create an implied association, contrast two objects or people, or
make an unusual juxtaposition of references. Authors assume that the readers
will recognize the original sources and relate their meaning to the new context.
conceit: a fairly elaborate figure of speech, especially an extended comparison involving
metaphor: a comparison or analogy stated in such a way as to imply that one object is another
one, figuratively speaking. The comparison is usually between two unlike objects.
extended metaphor: a metaphor that is sustained for several lines /stanzas of a
poem or the entire poem
implied metaphor: a metaphor that is suggested (his stomach growled) rather
than stated directly (his hunger is a tiger).
motif: a recurring element, such as a type of incident, a device, a reference, or verbal formula,
which appears frequently in a work of literature
personification: a type of metaphor in which an object is given human qualities (“The sun
wept golden tears.”)
simile: a comparison that suggests two things are similar, using “like” or “as” (Time folds as
wrinkles at the corner of the universe’s eye.)
epic / heroic simile: Like a regular simile, an epic simile makes a comparison between
one object and another using "like" or "as." However, unlike a regular simile,
which appears in a single sentence, the epic simile mainly appears in the genre
of the epic and it may be developed at great length, often up to fifty or a hundred
lines.
symbol: a word, place, character, or object that means something beyond its literal meaning ()
Poetic devices
antithesis: opposing ideas presented in similar-sounding language. (“There is no king who has
not had a slave among his ancestors, and no slave who has not had a king among his.” –
Helen Keller)
apostrophe: the act of addressing some abstraction or personification that is not physically
present. Keats’ “Ode to Autumn”
diction: the word choice of an author
connotative diction: the extra emotional tinge or taint of meaning each word carries
beyond the minimal, strict definition found in a dictionary
denotative diction: the dictionary definition of a word
imagery: "mental pictures" that readers experience with a passage of literature. It signifies all
the sensory perceptions referred to in a poem, whether by literal description, allusion,
simile, or metaphor
auditory: imagery that appeals to the sense of sound
color: the use of colors to create a verbal picture
gustatory: imagery that appeals to the sense of taste
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olfactory: imagery that appeals to the sense of smell
tactile: imagery that appeals to the sense of touch
visual: imagery that appeals to the sense of sight
oxymoron: using contradiction in a manner that oddly makes sense on a deeper level. Simple
examples include such oxymora as jumbo shrimp, sophisticated rednecks, and
bittersweet
paradox: seeming opposites that turn out to be true.
parallelism: when the writer establishes similar patterns of grammatical structure and length.
For instance, "King Alfred tried to make the law clear, precise, and equitable." The
previous sentence has parallel structure in use of adjectives.
poetic idea: the overall philosophical concept of the poem
refrain: a repeated line or phrase in a poem; creates a musical repetition
speaker: the narrative voice in a poem that speaks of his or her situation or feelings. It is a
convention in poetry that the speaker is not the same individual as the historical author
of the poem.
tone: The means of creating a relationship or conveying an attitude. By looking carefully at the
choices an author makes (in characters, incidents, setting; in the work's stylistic choices
and diction, etc.), careful readers often can isolate the tone of a work and sometimes
infer from it the underlying attitudes that control and color the story or poem as a whole
volta / turn: a change in thought, direction, or emotion in a poem
Drama
act: a large section of a drama containing a number of scenes. Most plays have five acts.
aside: a statement made by a character that is meant only for the audience or reader
chorus: In ancient Greek drama, (1) A group of singers who stand alongside or off stage from
the principal performers in a dramatic or musical performance. (2) The song or refrain
that this group of singers sings. In other works of drama, the chorus serves as a narrator
at the beginning of a scene. See Oedipus Rex by Sophocles or Shakespeare’s Hamlet
comedy: any play or narrative poem in which the main characters manage to avert an
impending disaster and have a happy ending. The comedy did not necessarily have to be
funny, and indeed, many comedies are serious in tone. Shakespeare’s All’s Well That
Ends Well.
dramatic structure: Act I (exposition); Act II (rising action); Act III (climax); Act IV (falling
action); Act V (resolution/denouement)
history: a play that presents historical information. Shakespeare’s Richard III.
scene: a smaller section of an act. Most acts have 3-7 scenes.
soliloquy: a monologue spoken by an actor at a point in the play when the character believes
himself to be alone. The technique frequently reveals a character's innermost thoughts,
including his feelings, state of mind, motives or intentions. The soliloquy often provides
necessary but otherwise inaccessible information to the audience.
tragedy: a serious play in which the chief figures, by some peculiarity of character, pass
through a series of misfortunes leading to a final, devastating catastrophe.
Shakespeare’s Hamlet
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RHETORICAL DEVICES
ethos: appealing to ethics in order to make a point
hyperbole: an exaggeration; opposite of understatement
logos: appealing to logic in order to make a point
pathos: appealing to compassion in order to make a point
negation: anticipating the arguments of your opponents and refuting them before they can
debate
rhetorical question: asking a question that is intended merely to make listeners think, not for
an actual response
syntax: word order and sentence structure, as opposed to diction, the actual choice of words.
Standard English syntax prefers a Subject-Verb-Object pattern, but poets may tweak
syntax to achieve rhetorical or poetic effects.
theme: a lesson or moral presented in a work of literature. A work may have many themes, but
they will all be universal (about life in general, not the particular piece of literature) and
stated in a sentence.
understatement: intentionally stating something with less emphasis than that for which the
situation calls. The opposite of exaggeration: "I was somewhat worried when the
psychopath ran toward me with a chainsaw."
Midway through the exam, Allen pulls out a bigger brain.
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