Brain Integration in World-class Athletes.
1
NOTICE: this is the author’s version of a work that was accepted for publication in
Scandinavian Journal of Exercise. Changes resulting from the publishing process, such as
peer review, editing, corrections, structural formatting, and other quality contro l
mechanisms may not be reflected in this document. Changes may have been made to this
work since it was submitted for publication. A definitive version was subsequently
published in Scandinavian Journal of Exercise and Sport, 2011, 32-41.
Higher Psycho-physiological Refinement in World-class Norwegian Athletes:
Towards a Brain Measure of Performance Capacity in Sport
H. S. Harung, Ph.D., Oslo University College, P.O.Box 4 St. Olavs Plass, N-0130 Oslo, Norway
F. Travis, Ph.D., Center for Brain, Consciousness and Cognition, Maharishi University of
Management, Fairfield, Iowa 52557, USA
A. M. Pensgaard, Ph.D., The Norwegian School of Sports Sciences, postbox 4014, Ullevaal
Stadion, N-0806 Oslo, Norway
R. Boes, Ph.D., Center for Brain, Consciousness and Cognition, Maharishi University of
Management, Fairfield, Iowa 52557, USA
S. Cook-Greuter, Ed.D., Independent Scholar and Management Consultant, 34 Campbell Road,
Wayland, Massachusetts 01778, USA
K. Daley, M.S., Department of Exercise and Sport Science, Maharishi University of Management,
Fairfield, Iowa 52557, USA
Corresponding author:
Dr. Harald S. Harung
Cellular phone:
0047 90 77 54 59
Office phone:
0047 22 45 32 90
Office facsimile:
0047 22 45 32 05
Email:
harald.harung@iu.hio.no
Brain Integration in World-class Athletes.
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Abstract
This study tested the hypothesis that the degree of psycho-physiological development is related
to performance level in World Class athletes. We compared physiological and psychological
patterns of 33 Norwegian World-Class athletes to patterns in 33 average performing athletes. The
subjects were matched for gender, age, and type of sport. EEG activity was recorded to measure
brain integration; skin conductance was recorded to measure habituation to a loud stimulus, and
paper-and-pencil tests were given to measure self-development, moral development, and frequency
of peak experiences.
A factor analysis (varimax rotation) reduced the eight variables to three factors that together
accounted for 65.3% of the total variance: 1) Physiological Integration – brain integration and
habituation rates, 2) Self- and moral development, and 3) Peak experiences. A MANOVA
conducted on the factor-scores showed a significant main effect for the experimental group
collapsing across the three factors (p < .0001). Individual ANOVAS showed significantly higher
values for Development (p = .021) and Physiological Integration (p < .0001) factor scores for the
World Class athletes.
The above measures can be seen as different expressions of an underlying dimension – human
development. These data support the concept that higher psycho-physiological growth underlies
higher performance.
Brain Integration in World-class Athletes.
Key words: Self-development, brain integration, world-class athletes, mental training
Running head: Brain Integration in World-class Athletes
3
Brain Integration in World-class Athletes.
4
Introduction
Athletes, who compete at the highest level, invest in general around 1,000 training hours a year
in order to be prepared for upcoming challenges. Typically, at the top level of any sports there are
many athletes who have the physical fitness and the physical skills for being a winner. In this
scenario, it is psychological skills and capabilities that determines who will be able to best cope
with the pressure of competing at the elite level (Hardy et al., 1996; Boes et al, submitted).
One study on mental links to excellence concluded that athletes had their technical and physical
skills honed to perfection for years before becoming world champions, but they had not yet learned
how to hold their best focus in important competitions (Orlick et al., 1988). These athletes said that
it was not until their focusing skills were refined that their dreams of winning became a reality.
Jimmy Conners, an athlete known for his mental toughness, has often stated that professional tennis
is 95 % mental (Weinberg et al., 1995). Thus, it is important to illuminate the mental aspect that
appears to give athletes the competitive edge.
The research reported here is part of a comprehensive investigation of the relationship of selfdevelopment and high performance in world-class athletes and top-level managers (Harung et al.,
1996; Harung, 1999; Travis et al., submitted). Sense-of-self underlies how we make meaning of
daily experiences, and is reflected in our success of planning, thinking, and acting (Alexander et al.,
1990). Levels of self-development are characterized by an increasingly expanded awareness, and
range from ego-centric (pre-conventional), to socio-centric (conventional), to world-centric (postconventional), to ego transcendence (unitive level and peak experience) perspectives on life
(Loevinger, 1976; Cook-Greuter, 1999). Higher levels of self-development are characterized by
increasing differentiation from the environment, one’s possessions, thoughts, and plans; and
increasing integration of sense-of-self.
Brain Integration in World-class Athletes.
5
Self-development
Self-development is a measure of a person’s capacity to make meaning of experience. As we
move from the pre-conventional to the rare ego transcendence, the more sources of input (internal
and external) a person can orchestrate and use to their advantage (Loevinger, 1987; Cook-Greuter,
1999). With increasing self-development, there is a corresponding reduction in immature defenses
(e.g., denial, repression, blaming, and hostility) and an increase in more mature defenses (e.g.,
suppression, asceticism, sublimation, and humor – such as being able to make fun of one’s own
mistakes). Mental flexibility, prioritizing, and making deliberate choices as well as welcoming
learning and challenge are other hallmarks identified with mature self-development.
To get a comprehensive picture of self-developmental, we also measured related psychological
and physiological variables that are robust, well documented, and simple to administer. First, moral
development in athletes is a highly relevant topic as the many recent doping scandals in the USA
and in professional cycling indicate. Second, peak experiences have been found to relate to mature
self-development and to peak performance (Maslow, 1968, 1971; Alexander et al., 1990; Harung,
1999; Harung et al., 1996; Boes et al., submitted). Third, the speed of habituation to a loud sound
(i.e., the time needed to start ignoring an irrelevant sound) indicates the athlete’s ability to remain
focused on what is relevant for success in his or her performance. Fourth, the integration of the
electrical brain wave activity using EEG (electroencephalography) also correlates to top
performance.
Brain Patterns in Skilled Performance
EEG has been recorded in high performing athletes. EEG recording is non-invasive, relatively
non-interfering with the sports event, and has excellent time and space resolution (msec recordings
and mm resolution.) Most research has been conducted on self-paced sports, such as rifle and pistol
marksmanship (Hatfield, Landers, Ray and Daniels, 1982), archery (Salazar et al., 1990), and golf
Brain Integration in World-class Athletes.
6
putting (Crews and Landers, 1993). That research focused on EEG activity over temporal leads,
which are responsible for adding details of experience. Before pulling a trigger, releasing an arrow,
or hitting the golf ball, left temporal activity was lower, suggesting “economy” of effort – decreased
intentional demand and less cognitive interference with motor planning and execution.
The above research is task specific. Brain differences are seen during sports but there were
no differences between trained athletes and controls during cognitive tasks. Another study looked at
non-specific changes in brain functioning during training. Alpha EEG, a signature of restful brain
activity, was recorded in frontal, central, parietal, and temporal areas over three months of training
(Kerick, Douglass and Hatfield, 2004). This study reported widespread increases in alpha at all
sensors over the training period. Increases in global alpha are consistent with the idea of “efficiency
of movement,” “minimal effort,” and “economy of effort” reported in skilled performers (Hatfield,
Haufler, Tsung-Min and Spalding, 2004).
Brain Integration Scale
The Brain Integration Scale, which is used in the present study, is also a measure of non-specific
brain functioning. The Brain Integration Scale consists of three brain patterns important for athletes:
1)
Frontal EEG coherence indicates integration of the executive centers of the brain. For an
athlete, higher brain integration may be necessary for uniting perception, planning,
strategizing, smooth motor functioning, and endurance into a perfectly sequenced
performance.
2)
Alpha EEG power is a brain indice of restful alertness, a measure that relates to Kerick’s
finding. By remaining at the balance point – being calm and alert at the same time – an
athlete can be most adaptable to changes in the environment, or changes in the behavior
of team mates or the opposition.
3)
Better match between task demands and brain activation translates into more efficient
Brain Integration in World-class Athletes.
7
brain functioning. Brain areas involved in a task will be primed and activated only when
needed and for as long as needed, and relaxed when that is most appropriate. Fewer
resources will be wasted. Since the brain will function more economically this could covary with high performance.
The Brain Integration Scale score correlates with higher levels of emotional stability, innerdirectedness (more contact with inner, deeper levels of the mind), and moral reasoning; and with
lower levels of anxiety (Travis et al., 2004, 2006).
Moral Development
Gibb’s details four stages of moral reasoning: 1) unilateral and physicalistic – rules determine
your behavior; 2) exchanging and instrumental – a consideration of consequences determines your
actions; 3) mutual and pro-social – concern for the integrity of the individual determines your
actions; and 4) systemic and standard – concern for the larger societal consequences and benefits of
your actions. More abstract levels of moral reasoning emerge developmentally and parallel growth
in cognitive development, and in self-development (Gibbs et al., 1992).
Moral development and sport have received attention due to considerable unethical behavior
amongst athletes (Long et al., 2006; Shields & Bredemeier, 2001). Shields and Bredemeier (2001)
write “At one time it was widely believed that sport was valuable because it develops the character
of its participants, a belief that is no longer so widely shared” (p. 598). They report on several
studies that show that the level of moral reasoning in professional basketball players was lower than
in non-athletes. For instance, Long et al. (2006) studied elite team players and found that they
generally were associated with low levels of moral reasoning.
Peak experiences
This measure has been developed over 25 years based on ego transcendence experiences that are
beyond the endpoint of development – self-actualization – normally described by modern social
Brain Integration in World-class Athletes.
8
sciences (Harung et al., 1996). Maslow (1968) reported that peak experiences are associated with
peak performance. Ego transcendence – in our model – involves the experience of “transcendental
consciousness” – the most basic and expanded level of the mind; a state of “restful alertness” and
“inner wakefulness” (Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, 1963, 1969; Alexander et al., 1990; Travis and
Pearson, 2000).
Self-development as a Causal Variable
A number of authors write that higher levels of self-development are a predictor of enhanced
performance, leadership ability, quality of life, and more luck or fortunate coincidences (Maslow,
1968; 1971; Alexander et al., 1990; Torbert, 1991; Harung et al., 1996; Travis et al., submitted).
Extensive research shows that self-development is rare after the age of 17-20 (Flavell, 1970; Piaget,
1972; Loevinger et al., 1985; Alexander et al., 1990; Chandler et al., 2005); that such growth is
generally not affected by higher education, which frequently involves competitive sports (Loevinger
et al., 1985; Torbert, 1991; Cook- Greuter, 1999); and that adults end up at a wide range of growth
stages (Loevinger et al., 1985; Torbert, 1991). Of course, sport activity may cause a developmental
shift in children and even in adults. Yet, in conclusion, self-development appears to be the causal
variable that may be a key inner factor underlying outer success in any field of life, all other factors
being similar, i.e., in sport physical fitness and technical skills being similar.
This Study
We apply several psychological and physiological measures to peak-performing and averageperforming athletes. We studied athletes since their competitive performance is a reliable
classification of their level of excellence. By constantly breaking performance boundaries, worldclass athletes may play an important role in bringing individuals and society in general to higher
levels of accomplishment.
Brain Integration in World-class Athletes.
9
We hypothesized that athletes who have excelled in competition, in comparison to athletes who
have not reached the top, should have higher scores on the Brain Integration Scale and on a measure
of habituation to irrelevant stimuli; higher score on self-development and moral development; and
more frequent peak experiences. We also carried out an in-depth interview of both groups, but this
research will be reported later elsewhere.
Method
Subjects
The National Olympic Training Center (Olympiatoppen) in Norway and the Norwegian
University for Sports Sciences (Norges Idrettshøgskole) selected 59 athletes who met three criteria:
1) placing among the 10 best performers in major competitions (Olympic Games, World
Championships, World Cup, or similar) for at least three seasons; 2) normally being active on the
top level within the last five years, and 3) At least 25 years of age (see below). Out of this group,
thirty-three individuals agreed to participate in the study. They were the World-class Performance
group and included 10 females and 23 males, average age of 34.0±1.2 years.
The authors then selected 33 control athletes who had been active in training and competition at
the senior level for at least three seasons, but did not normally place amongst the top 50 % in the
Norwegian Championships. This group, called the comparison group, also contained 10 females
and 23 males, average age of 34.8±1.3 years.
In addition to age and gender, the world-class and comparison athletes were matched for type of
sport: 1) Endurance sports (e.g., cross-country skiing, orienteering1, biathlon, and long-distance
running), 2) Technical sports (e.g., down-hill skiing, shooting, and offshore boat racing), and 3)
Team sports (soccer and handball). Most pairs of subjects competed in cross-country skiing (7) or
1
Orienteering is a complex sport that involves both mind and body to the fullest extent. The purpose is to, as fast as
possible, navigate (using map and compass) and run through a course consisting of a number of predefined check points
(controls).
Brain Integration in World-class Athletes.
10
orienteering (7). Three pairs competed in kayaking; two competed in running, skating, soccer, and
free style swimming. One pair participated in combined Nordic, Tae Kwando, offshore boat racing,
shooting, biathlon, handball, down-hill skiing, and rowing.
Procedure
Athletes came in for two hours of testing. First, they completed a consent form. They
continued filling out the three psychological tests while physiological sensors were applied. Thirtytwo EEG active-sensors were applied using the BIOSEMI ActiveTwo system (www.biosemi.com).
Linked ears signals were also measured for calculating an average ears reference offline.
Brainwaves were digitized on line at 256 points/sec, with no high or low frequency filters, and
stored for later analyses using Brain Vision Analyzer. To measure skin potential, a Ag/AgCl sensor
was attached to palm of the hand, using the saline and Unibase recipe recommended by Fowles
(Fowles et al., 1981). This sensor was referenced to a sensor on the forearm after first abrading the
site, and using EC2 crème. Following application of sensors, the athletes were given three
computerized tasks while their physiological and performance data were recorded.
EEG protocol. EEG was recorded during two paired reaction-time tasks and a computer task of
executive brain functioning. The first two tasks were Contingent Negative Variation (CNV) tasks.
CNV is an event-related potential occurring between a warning stimulus (S1) and a second
imperative stimulus (S2) requiring a response (Walter, 1964). Early CNV, measured in the 500-800
ms window after S1, reflects automatic, orienting processes (Tecce et al., 1993). Late CNV,
measured in the 200 ms window before S2, reflects proactive preparatory processes, including
mobilization of motor (Brunia, 1988; van Boxtel et al., 1994), perceptual, cognitive, and attentional
resources (Tecce et al., 1993). Different patterns in late CNV amplitudes during simple and choice
tasks differentiated self-development levels in previous work (Travis et al., 2002).
Brain Integration in World-class Athletes.
11
The first CNV task was a 3-minute paired simple reaction-time task – a warning asterisk (150
ms duration, 1 cm in height) in the center of a computer screen, followed 1.5 s later by a continuous
computer-generated tone (1200 Hz, 85 dB.). Subjects were asked to press the button in their right
hand as soon as they heard the tone. The second CNV task was a 5-minute paired choice reactiontime task – a one- or two-digit number (150 ms duration, 1 cm in height), followed by a 1.5-second
blank screen and then another one- or two-digit number (150 ms duration, 1 cm in height),. Subjects
were asked to press a left- or right-hand button to indicate which number was larger in value.
The third task was a measure of frontal executive functioning, patterned after the Connor’s
Performance Task Identical Pairs (CPTIP) task (Cornblatt et al., 1988). Subjects were presented
capital letters every .8 sec for 2 ½ minutes (1 cm in height, 300 ms duration). They were instructed
to press a left button every time a letter appeared, except when it was a repeat of the previous letter;
in the case of a repetition, they were asked to press the right button. This task is highly challenging
because 80% of the letters requires a left-hand button press. Thus, subjects develop a response bias
for left hand responses. For the rare right-hand responses, the frontal executive system has to
inhibit the left-hand response-bias and instead initiate the correct response.
Skin potential habituation protocol. Skin potential responses were counted in the 3-sec
windows following the sixteen 90 dB tones during the simple reaction time task. This interval is the
recommended window for calculating skin conductance response (Levinson and Edelberg, 1985).
Trials to habituation comprised the number of skin potential responses before the subject stopped
responding to three consecutive tones. The criteria for “no response” was a skin potential response
< .02 uS. Fast habituation rates reflect higher neural efficiency. The efficient physiology responds
initially to any novel stimulus, but then stops responding once the stimulus is recognized as being
non-threatening or irrelevant.
Test Instruments
Brain Integration in World-class Athletes.
12
Psychological Tests
Self-development. Subjects were administered the SCTi-MAP – the expansion of Loevinger’s
(1976) Sentence Completion Test by Susanne Cook-Greuter (1999) – which includes sentence
stems that tap more mature developmental stages. The SCTi consists of a set of 36 sentence
beginnings such as “Raising a family…,” A good boss…,” When I get mad…,” that the subjects are
to finish as they like. The SCTi is based on the projective use of language, that is, on its automatic
and unconscious properties in revealing people’s reasons, thoughts, and feelings most readily. The
SCTi takes up to 45 minutes to complete and up to an hour to assess.
Highly trained and certified raters (1 year certification course) next analyze each SCTi for
developmental clues that make up each individual’s underlying meaning-making system, that is, of
a person’s stage of self -developmental. Cook-Greuter (1999) found that for SCTi the Pearson
correlation for inter-rater reliability of trained raters was as high as r = .79 to r = .84, while
Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was as high as (r = .95).
Moral Reasoning. Gibbs Socio-Moral Reflection Measure – Short Form (SMR-SF) – presents
moral statements and asks subjects to describe why a moral act may be important to them. For
instance: “Keeping promises is important because...”, or “Helping one’s friend is important
because...” Gibbs has written an extensive reference manual to aid in categorizing responses into
moral maturity levels (Gibbs et al., 1992).
The SMR-SF can be group administered as a pencil-and-paper test, takes 15-20 minutes to
complete, and can be scored in 25 minutes. A scorer can gain competency in 25-30 hours of selfstudy. Gibbs’s SMR-SF has high test-retest reliability (r = .88), and high Cronbach alpha
coefficients (r = .92). Scores on the SMR-SF are highly correlated with scores on Kohlberg’s Moral
Judgment Interview (r = .70; Gibbs et al., 1992), which is much more intensive to administer and to
score.
Brain Integration in World-class Athletes.
13
Survey of Peak Experiences. The peak experience instrument consists of four questions on
higher development derived from Eastern and Western traditions:
1. Experiences of TC during rest with eyes closed:
“During practice of relaxation, meditation, prayer, or any other technique – or when
you have relaxed or had a quiet moment – have you then experienced a completely
peaceful state; a state when the mind is very awake, but quiet; a state when
consciousness seems to be expanded beyond the limitations of thought, beyond the
limitations of time and space?”
2. TC during waking activity:
“Have you experienced that while performing activity there was an even state of
silence within you, underlying and coexisting with activity, yet untouched by
activity? This could be experienced as detached witnessing even while acting with
intense focus.”
3. TC during sleep.
“During deep sleep, have you ever experienced a quiet, peaceful, inner wakefulness?
You woke up fresh and rested, but with a sense that you had maintained a continuity
of silent self-awareness during sleep?”
4. Luck or fortunate coincidences:
“Have you experienced that your desires are fulfilled in a way that seems to be
caused by coincidence or luck? You may have experienced that the circumstances
arrange themselves to fulfill your desires without your direct action.”
For each question the subject is asked to indicate frequency of the experience – ranging from
“never to my knowledge” (0) to “all the time” (11). In addition, for each question the subjects were
asked to write down sample descriptions of such experiences, using their own words – this to bring
Brain Integration in World-class Athletes.
14
out particulars of the glimpse and to aid the scorer in assessing if the experience was appropriate
and/or genuine.
Data Analysis: Psychological Tests
The Survey of Peak Experiences was scored using standard templates. Loevinger’s Sentence
Completion Test and Gibbs’s moral reasoning protocols were sent to trained scorers.
Data Analysis: Physiological Measures
Brain Integration Scale. Frontal coherence, relative alpha power, and the simple-choice
difference scores were empirical factors that distinguished groups in our earlier work (Travis et al.,
2002). These values were added to the normative database, converted to z-scores, and summed to
yield a single value representing the Brain Integration Scale score for each individual.
Skin potential analysis: Habituation. The number of responses was counted before three
consecutive non-responses to the loud sound during the simple task.
Statistical Analyses
A factor analysis was performed on the two variables from the SCTi (raw score and stage
number), the single variable from Gibb’s social reflection questionnaire, the single variable from the
Brain Integration Scale, the single variable from the habitation rate, and the four variables from the
peak experience questionnaire. This yielded nine variables with 66 subjects, which is greater than
the minimum of five subjects/variable needed for a stable factor analysis (Hair et al., 1992). The
variables loading .60 or more on each factor were converted to z-scores and combined into a factor
score. MANOVA and individual ANOVAs were conducted on the factor scores.
Results
A factor analysis was conducted with a varimax rotation to maximum variance between
variables. Factor analysis groups different measures according to their patterns of correlation.
Factor analysis is often used as it is here, to explore the relationships between different measures.
Brain Integration in World-class Athletes.
15
Three variables resulted from the factor analysis, accounting for 65.3% of the variance. These three
factors were: 1) Peak Experiences: Three of the four variables on this instrument (Luck, the fourth
variable did not load uniquely high on any of the factors). 2) Physiological Integration with scores
on the Brain Integration Scale and rate of habituation to loud stimuli, and 3) Development with
scores on the self-development and moral reasoning instruments. The rotated Component Matrix is
presented in Table 1.
Table 1.
Component matrix (Varimax rotation) for the eight psychological and physiological variables
Variables
1. Peak
experiences
.038
.075
.341
-.123
.753
.339
.723
2. Physiological
integration
.793
-.734
.011
.387
-.113
-.002
-.224
3. Selfdevelopment
.032
.005
.747
.449
.140
.494
.066
Brain Integration Scale
Habituation to Loud Stimuli
Self-development
Moral Reasoning
TC during Waking
Luck
Transcendental consciousness
(TC)
TC during Sleep
.191
.050
.765
Group differences (F(1,55)
ns
p = .001
p = .021
Note: The eight variables loaded on three factors, called 1) Peak Experiences, 2) Physiological
Integration, and 3) Self-development. Luck did not load on a particular factor. Significantly higher
values were seen in the World Class athletes in Factor 2 (Physiological Integration) and Factor 3
(Self-Development).
Three factor-scores were created by transforming the measured variables into z-scores and
summing the measures, weighted by their factor loadings. Conversion to z-scores standardizes
scores on measures that may be in different units and different magnitude. A MANOVA was
conducted on these three factor-scores. MANOVA is a form of analysis of variance in which group
differences are calculated on the sum of the measures recorded. There was a significant main effect
Brain Integration in World-class Athletes.
16
for World-class Performers collapsing across the factor scores (Wilk’s Lambda F(4,48) = 13.0, p <
.0001).
Individual ANOVAs were conducted. There were significant differences between the Worldclass Performance group and the comparison group for Development factor scores (F(1,55) = 5.6, p
= .021) and Physiological Integration factor scores (F(1,55) = 32.7, p < .0001). Figures 1, 2, and 3
present the result of the factor analysis with Brain Integration Scale scores, habituation rates, and
self/moral development scores for the two groups. These are raw scores for better interpretation of
group differences.
Figure 1: Brain Integration Scale scores
Brain Integration in World-class Athletes.
17
Number of Skin Potential Responses
Skin Potential Habituation
12
10
8
p < .0001
6
4
2
0
World Class Performers
Comparison Athletes
Figure 2. Skin conductance habituation
Stage Development: Self and Moral Reasoning
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Self Development (Stage)
World Class Performers
Moral Reasoning (Stage)
Comparison Athletes
Figure 3: Self Development and Moral reasoning. (p < .021)
Brain Integration in World-class Athletes.
18
An examination of the Pearson correlation table revealed that the Brain Integration Scale
significantly correlated with moral reasoning (r = .306). Also, self-development correlated with two
variables on the survey of peak experiences (TC during waking r = .284; and TC during eyes closed
resting, r = .302).
Discussion
The two groups of athletes, who differed significantly in level of performance during
competitions, also differed in scores on the Brain Integration Scale; in habituation rates to a loud
tone; and in scores on self-development and moral reasoning. These cross-sectional data suggest
that self-development and Brain Integration Scale scores may be important factors in success during
competitions. Future longitudinal research could include interventions that increase Brain
Integration Scale scores, moral development, and self-development in the training program of
promising junior athletes, and assess whether more of those athletes reach the top in their sport.
Consideration of Group Differences
Higher scores on the Brain Integration Scale. Higher scores on the Brain Integration Scale
were seen in the World-class Performers in this study. This could indicate that the World Class
Performers – in comparison to the controls – have a more expanded awareness, which gave them a
mental edge in competition. Our former research with 22 world-class performers in a wide range of
professions reported “… an association between world-class performance and more frequent
experiences of an expanded, alert, and settled state of consciousness, even while engaged in
dynamic activity” (Harung et al., 1996).
Faster habituation to a loud stimulus. The skin potential response is an automatic marker of
stimuli that are novel, significant, or deviant. The response itself has survival and performance
value. However, once the stimulus is no longer novel, the body does not need to continue to
Brain Integration in World-class Athletes.
19
respond. This is habituation. Habituation of response allows the body to conserve resources and to
allocate attention to other tasks that are more salient.
The World-class Performers habituated more rapidly to the tone than the comparison athletes.
The tone was an irrelevant stimulus. By habituating, the athletes were able to quickly return and
maintain their focus on the factors that are essential for successful performance. This could explain
the frequently described experience by the athletes in our study of what they call “the tunnel.” In
this state, which is often related to peak performance, the athletes are able to focus only on factors
relevant to their successful performance, and exclude all irrelevant input, e.g., irrelevant thoughts of
the past, present, and future, and irrelevant input from the environment.
Higher scores on self-development and moral reasoning. The World-class Performance group
had statistically significant higher levels of self-development and moral reasoning (p = .021) than
the control group. In terms of self-development, more of the control group exhibited Stage 5 (Expert
– the most common stage of self-development today) characteristics versus the top athletes group
who had more people at Stage 6 (Achiever), a growth stage that is at the end of the conventional
range and above average in contemporary society (Loevinger, 1976; Torbert, 1991). Two of the
World-class Performers scored in the post-conventional range, while none of the controls did. Thus,
the hypothesis of this research study that there is a correlation between an athlete’s level of personal
development and their success in sports is supported.
Further research is needed to determine how exactly physiological and psychological aspects
influence each other. It is possible that the intense physical conditioning, discipline, and
concentration that athletes have to invest in their sport helps brain integration and correspondingly,
mature self-control. On the other hand, several researchers have found that self-development is rare
after the age of 17-20 years (Flavell, 1970; Piaget, 1972; Loevinger et al., 1985; Alexander et al.,
1990). A correlation of age versus Brain Integration Scale scores of all non-meditating subjects in
Brain Integration in World-class Athletes.
20
our database (N=128) yielded a very low correlation between these two variables since age
accounted for less than 1% of the variance in BIS scores (r = .08). Maslow (1968, p. 166) writes that
"Self-knowledge and self-improvement is very difficult for most people. It usually needs great
courage and long struggle..." All this provides evidence that psycho-physiological refinement may
be causal to performance. Therefore, it is probable that being at a comparatively later stage than a
control at the beginning of their sport career, helps an athlete to navigate more skillfully the many
intra- and interpersonal challenges that top-level competition requires.
Moral Reasoning. Basically, there appears to be two alternative motivational modes associated
with high performance (Maslow, 1968): Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, where intrinsic is
associated with higher development. When an athlete is intrinsically motivated, external rewards
such as winning, money, or media coverage are often not the most important factor. Instead the
primary purpose may be to improve one’s performance and/or to get a peak experience:

The Norwegian world-class cross-country skier Thomas Alsgaard – who won 11 Gold
medals during Olympic or World Championships – reports several instances where he has
won a competition, but has been dissatisfied with his performance (Boes et al., submitted).
For instance, it could be that he for some time had been working on a technical detail, but
was unable to implement the improvement in this competition.

World-class athletes like Billie Jean King and Thomas Alsgaard have stated that having a
peak experience is the primary purpose of training and competing. For example, Billie Jean
(King & Chapin, 1974, p. 199) writes “It almost seems as though I’m able to transport
myself beyond the turmoil on the court to some place of total peace and calm. Perfect shots
extend into perfect matches … I appreciate what my opponent is doing in a detached
abstract way. Like an observer in the next room … It is a perfect combination of [intense]
action taking place in an atmosphere of total tranquillity. When it happens I want to stop the
Brain Integration in World-class Athletes.
21
match and grab the microphone and shout that’s what it’s all about, because it is. It is not the
big prize I‘m going to win at the end of the match or anything else.” Similarly, the “joy
runner” Thomas Alsgaard tells about several instances where he simply quit when he was
not enjoying a competition. On the other hand, during peak experiences he reports that
“when everything is at the very highest level, then I feel invincible. The up hills are not long
enough nor steep enough; extremely good sensation. I won the Norwegian championship
with over 2 minutes’ margin. Obviously, I feel invincible then” (Boes et al. submitted).
In contrast, an extrinsically motivated person has the primary focus on external rewards, such as
sport being a means to get rich or become famous. This approach may often involve more struggle
and a “no pain, no gain” and “winning at any cost” thinking – where it can be easier to justify
harming others, overtaxing own body, and taking dope. Through extensive practice, extrinsic
motivation may also lead to high performance. However, intrinsic motivation tends to be associated
with more enjoyment and high performance in a wider field of life and for longer time (Harung et
al, 1996).
In the present study, the range was similar in moral reasoning scores for both groups, but the
mean scores for the World-class Performers were consistently higher than the comparison group.
Why do the Norwegian world-class athletes exhibit higher moral reasoning than averageperforming controls when research in USA for example suggests that professional participation in
sport may be associated with low levels of moral reasoning (Shields & Bredemeier, 2001; Long et
al., 2006)? We suggest several complementary explanations of this apparent difference:
1. The social atmosphere is important for moral reasoning in sports (Shields & Bredemeier,
2001; Long et al., 2006), and there are differences in the national (and consequently sport)
culture of Norway and USA. Norway is a country of high performance in sports (especially
Brain Integration in World-class Athletes.
22
when considering that the population is only 4.7 millions), more equality, highly developed
social security, smaller social differences, high quality of life, and widespread exercise and
outdoor life. In contrast, USA is characterized by high creativity, world-class performance in
many fields, high competitiveness, large gap between rich and poor, extensive money in
sports, high crime, and frequent obesity. The OECD (2007) reports that the salary
differences in Norway are the lowest in 20 OECD countries, while it is highest in Hungary
and USA. These social differences between USA and Norway could contribute to the
motivation of top-level athletes, i.e., those attracted to sports may be more intrinsically
motivated in Norway while extrinsic motivation may be more prevalent in USA. Also,
unethical behaviour in sports, such as doping, may be less tolerated in the Norwegian culture
than in the American setting.
2. Very little research has focused on moral reasoning in elite athletes. Fortunately, Long et al.
(2006) studied 10 elite male athletes that had been enrolled in national and international
competitions. These researchers concluded that these athletes were associated with the
lowest, self-centric phase of moral reasoning in Haan’s model (Haan, 1983), a model that is
similar to Gibb’s model used in this research. However, Long’s athletes were only 15-18
years old, an age range where moral development is still taking place. Instead, we
deliberately studied athletes of more than 25 years of age, since this is the age limit when
development of both the self and the brain with few exceptions has peaked. Furthermore,
our world-class athletes are on an even higher performance level than those of Long and
colleagues, and it could be that to become – and remain for several seasons – a true worldclass athlete sound moral is an advantage.
3. Long et al. (2006) studied only team sports (soccer, rugby, and judo), where there generally
are many spectators with strong expectations, a heated atmosphere, and a lot of money,
Brain Integration in World-class Athletes.
23
fame, and media coverage (frequently world-wide for soccer). Since there is extensive
physical contact between the players in team sports, there are many more opportunities for
unethical behaviour than in individual sports. It could be that these factors – especially the
many opportunities for faults – influence both the performers and spectators in team sports.
Although we included a few team players (soccer and handball) in our study, the
majority of subjects were involved in individual sports like cross-country skiing and
orienteering. Cross-country skiing receives considerable attention and media coverage in
many of the countries involved and there are substantial financial rewards for a few at the
very top internationally. In most orienteering competitions the runner disappears into the
forest, only to return 1-2 hours later. To make orienteering more spectator-friendly, sprint
orienteering and street orienteering have been introduced in the World Cup. However, on the
whole there is little money and only modest media coverage. Therefore, orienteering
definitely stimulates intrinsic motivation!
Overall, it could be that individual sports are more related to sound moral than team
sports. Shields and Bredemeier (2001) for example found that swimmers scored higher than
basketball players on moral reasoning.
Peak experiences. A person in the conventional and more so in the post-conventional range may
have glimpses of higher development (Maslow, 1968; Loevinger, 1976), as we have found through
the questionnaire on peak experiences. However, on the four measures of peak or ego transcendence
experiences reported in this paper there was no significant difference between the two groups. What
surprised us was that the frequency of such experiences was similar in both categories, i.e., over 70
% in both groups reported at least one glimpse of higher development in their life (excluding the
question on luck), often in association with best performance. This high frequency illustrates the
need to study and bring out such rewarding experiences. Regular physical exercise, good routine of
Brain Integration in World-class Athletes.
24
rest, good food – common to both groups – may help foster elevated experiences. In another study
we have found a significant difference between top-level managers and lower level managers on all
these four questions (Travis et al., submitted).
Several inspiring glimpses of higher development – akin to those described by Billie Jean King
– came out of the in-depth interviews, as can be illustrated by the following examples:

Glimpse of transcendental consciousness during eyes-closed rest:
I have quite a lot of times experienced a state where I am completely inside myself and
everything else disappears. This is a form of relaxation …. And there is nothing that
can touch me. It feels very good. It is not that those periods are so very long. But it is
beautiful to have them, once a week or once a day. Just sit down and feel that now it is
only me that matters.
— Heidi Tjugum, A world-class handball goal keeper

Glimpse of peak experience during waking tasks:
I feel quite safe in some way … And all the things I’m doing are in some way just
sitting in the background. Mentally, in orienteering we have map-reading but it’s going
automatic ... When I’m in this mode, there are no negative thoughts. It’s like sitting in a
car with an automatic pilot and just sitting watching. I notice something happen in front
of me and I need to do something and then back again, and you just sit there. When [in]
the race, this is quite simple. It’s the way getting to know how to practice this, which is
most difficult.
─ Bjørnar Valstad, A world champion orienteer
Valstad is here describing his inner experiences when he won the 2004 classic distance
in the world orienteering championships. Like Billie Jean, he reports on being an
observer to his own activity. “No negative thoughts” and “this is quite simple” show
that Valstad experienced inner happiness and ease of functioning (Maslow, 1968). The
sense of spontaneous right action, often associated with the above experience, was
reported by Valstad when he referred to map-reading “going automatic.” He has
explained that it was as if running a market route, while orienteering in reality involves
thousands of decisions to successfully navigate through a race lasting more than an
hour.
Brain Integration in World-class Athletes.
25
The relation between higher development and high performance in these data brings up
the obvious question; How can we train for higher self- development? Meditation
techniques, such as the Transcendental Meditation technique are reported to systematically
enhance self-development (Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, 1963, 1969).. For instance, a ten-year
comparative investigation of self-development (Chandler et al., 2005) found that meditating
subjects that scored on the self-actualizing stage increased from 9 % at pre-test to 38 % at
post-test, compared to 1 % of control samples (1 % is today’s norm; Cook-Greuter, 1999).
Other studies on the TM technique have found substantial improvements in a wide spectrum
of areas, including reduced stress and improved health, creativity, academic performance, job
productivity, and leadership capacity (e.g., Alexander et al., 1990; Harung, 1999).
Conclusion
This matched study of professional athletes highlights the importance of inner development
on outer success. Inner development in these data was associated with higher Brain Integration
Scale scores. Both mind and body of these athletes were tuned to success. The world-class
athletes’ psychological skills and abilities appeared to be the edge that enabled them to excel in
their sport.
Perspective
Self-development may be the next frontier of training for excellence in sports. The hand
moves; but who moves the hand? Sense-of-self underlies how we make meaning of daily
experiences, and is reflected in success of planning, thinking, and behaving. Higher levels of selfdevelopment provide a broader context for behavior—ranging from impulsive behavior to
conformist behavior to respect for individual rights and acceptance of ambiguity. Higher levels of
self-development are associated with higher quality of life and higher ethical values and behavior in
other data. In these data, World-Class athletes had higher levels of self-development, higher levels
Brain Integration in World-class Athletes.
of moral reasoning and brain integration, and reduced sympathetic reactivity. Methods for
enhancing level of self-development may therefore be critical for becoming a champion. Inner
development could give the added edge for outer performance. These data provide an objective
measure of self-development—the Brain Integration Scale. This scale may provide a objective
measure to allow athletes and coaches to monitor growth of self-development, and by inference
performance potential, as the athletes actualize their athletic career game plan.
26
Brain Integration in World-class Athletes.
27
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