Shambhala and Prester
John's Realm as
Historical Kingdoms
Few legends have stirred the imagination like Shambhala and the
kingdom of Prester John.
Tibetans believe Shambhala is a hidden kingdom where great spiritual
masters rule idyllic realms.
In medieval Europe, Prester John was the title of a priest king who
reigned over a mysterious kingdom in the Indies. There were some
though who came to believe Prester John was really the emperor of
Ethiopia.
Was there any historical reality to these stories? Originally they were
not considered fables at all, and many historians have offered theories
explaining these mystical kingdoms.
Another theory will be offered here which suggests that Shambhala
and the kingdom of Prester John were one and the same. Furthermore
they can be identified with the contemporary historical realms known
as Sanfotsi to the Chinese, Suvarnadvipa to the Indians and Zabag to
the Muslim writers.
The articles listed below are arranged in order ending with the
conclusion. Enjoy and please give us your feedback.
Sincerely,
Paul Kekai Manansala
Great Shambhala
The Tibetan people have many stories about the kingdom of
Shambhala, where the mystical Kulika kings ruled.
No doubt there is a spiritual component to Shambhala which
transcends any historical reality, which we shall not explore. What is of
interest for this work is the actual physical kingdom that was the basis
for the historical accounts of Shambhala.
The core of our argument lies in the identification of Shambhala as the
source of the Buddhist tantric doctrine known as Kalachakra.
The Kalachakra tantra is central to Tibetan Buddhism. However, it
wasn't the first form of Buddhism brought to the country. It arrived
only around the 11th century from India. The Kalachakra, or at least
the developed form of the doctrine, came less than a century earlier to
India from Shambhala.
Tradition says that the Buddha first conveyed the Kalachakra to the
Shambhala king Sucandra in the southern Indian state of Andhra
Pradesh. From there it was brought by the king back to Shambhala
and preserved there, and only there, until its return to India in the
11th century.
Kalachakra in Suvarnadvipa
A close examination of Tibetan history concerning the origin of the
Kalachakra is somewhat divergent.
One version credits the Indian holy man Tsilupa with bringing the
doctrine from Shambhala to India in 966 or 967 AD. This is known in
Tibet as the Rva Tradition.
The opposing version is known as the Dro Tradition and it credits the
Shambhala king Sripala with bringing the Kalachakra to India at about
the same time mentioned in Rva Tradition.
The Tibetan scholar Geshe Lhundub Sopa theorizes that the
Shambhala king Sripala may have been from the area known in Indian
texts as Suvarnadvipa1. He notes that Sripala is said to have been
from the "southern ocean," which in Indian geography refers to the
eastern Indian Ocean and South China Sea.
Suvarnadvipa was the Indian term for what we know today as insular
Southeast Asia.
Sopa's theory is not all that far-fetched when one considers that when
the great Indian guru Atisha visited Suvarnadvipa, he found the
Kalachakra Tantra already well established there.
Inscriptions and artifacts from insular Southeast Asia verify the
presence of Kalachakra doctrine in the region although they don't tell
us exactly when they first appeared there.
The Kalachakra Tantra is always found within the context of Vajrayana
Buddhism and we know this form of Buddhism flourished in the region
for centuries before Atisha's time.
The idea of the Shambhala king Sripala, also known as Kalki Sripala as
he belonged to the Kalki or Kulika lineage, hailing from the Southern
Ocean is supported by traditions popular in Tibet.
The traveller Nicholas Roerich mentions these traditions that place
Shambhala "far beyond the ocean."
Shambhala in the "North"
Another view, especially popular in the West is that Shambhala is
located somewhere to the north of Tibet.
These views seem to stem mainly from passages in Tibetan texts that
mention Shambhala as located north of the river Sita, or that state
travel to the region started by going in a northern direction.
Those who place Shambhala to the north equate the Sita with some
river to the north, usually the Jaxartes in present-day Xinjiang.
However, there is also a very strong argument for the river Sita being
located to the east of India.
The Sita is often said to run through the island known in Indian texts
as Sakadvipa. A number of important sources state quite explicitely
that Sakadvipa is located to the east of India2. Futhermore, they give
an idea of a tropical location lush with tropical flora and fauna.
The idea of traveling north to reach Shambhala need not be
problematic if one considers that most of the ancient itineraries to this
destination mentions several changes of direction on the way to the
fabled kingdom. Including in some of these guidebooks is the mention
of voyages across the ocean.
The early texts that mention voyages to Shambhala tell of students
and pilgrims who stay there for prolonged periods of time before
returning to Tibet. They no doubt spoke of a real rather than a
mythical place. In latter texts, the voyages become rare and more
fantastic in nature. They tend to appear only in texts not written in a
historical fashion.
At some point, it appears that the real voyages to Shambhala ceased
for some reason.
However, during the period of historical contact we know that a direct
southern route to Suvarnadvipa would have probably been more
difficult than taking the Silk Road to the north.
From there one could take a ship from ports on the East Asian coast
particularly off South China. We know that this was the route taken by
many European travellers during the 13th and 14th centuries including
Marco Polo.
There is one strong argument for a northern location though -- the
mention of the snow-capped mountains around the capital of
Shambhala. We will deal with this problem in the conclusion when we
offer a theory on a more precise location for the kingdom.
A tropical paradise?
In contrast to the mention of snow mountains, there are indications of
a southern location for Shambhala as well.
There is a garden there known as Malaya, which is lush with tropical
vegetation including sandalwood trees. Of course, the word "malaya"
or "malay" is a common placename in insular Southeast Asia.
Some sources tell of visitors to Shambhala returning with mangoes or
other tropical products.
The many points of coincidence between Shambhala and the
descriptions of the kingdom of Prester John also allow us to look
toward a tropical location in the "Indies."
Links with Prester John's land
The most important document concerning the historical Prester John is
the letter from that fabled monarch to the the kings of Europe
including the Byzantine and Holy Roman Emperor.
While it is popular these days to dismiss the letter as a hoax, there is a
strong argument of authenticity as well. We will discuss this in the
section on Prester John's kingdom.
If we accept the description given in Prester John's letter, we first note
that he claims his kingdom extends over the "Three Indias."
The idea of Three Indias first appears in Europe in the Ravenna
Cosmography which was written in the 7th or 8th century. The concept
conforms to that of the Islamic view of the three Indies -- Hind, Sind
and Zanj.
These were known respectively in Europe as India Major, extending
from Malabar to India extra Gangem (East Indies), India Minor, from
Malabar to Sind, and India Tertia, the coast of East Africa, specifically
the Tanzania region to the Muslims (Zanj).
The idea of a Central Asian or Siberian region as part of the the "Three
Indias" was not found at this time, so we can see the southern
direction of the kingdom of Prester John
There a number of interesting correspondences between the kingdoms
of Prester John and Shambhala, which are listed below:
 Prester John was a priest king. The ruler of Shambhala was a king
and lama. A lama is a religious teacher whose duties cover those of
the priest in the Western church.
 Both kings were described as emperors ruling over a large number of
subject kingdoms. The Shambhala king ruled over 96 minor kings,
while Prester John was said to have 72 subject sovereigns.
 Kings from both regions are said to be involved in a future dualistic
"final battle" that would usher in a golden age. The 25th Shambhala
king is prophesied to fight in a future battle against a "barbarian"
people known as the Lalos. In Prester John's letter he mentions that
he controls the nations of Gog and Magog which will be loosed in the
endtimes to ravage the world including Rome. After an alliance of 15
nations led by Gog and Magog are defeated, the letter speaks of a
descendant of Prester John victoriously rescuing Europe:
"These accursed fifteen nations will burst forth from the four quarters
of the earth at the end of the world, in the times of Antichrist, and
overrun all the abodes of the Saints as well as the great city Rome,
which, by the way, we are prepared to give to our son who will be
born, along with all Italy, Germany, the two Gauls, Britain and
Scotland. We shall also give him Spain and all the land as far as the
icy sea. The nations to which I have alluded, according to the words of
the prophet, shall not stand in the judgment, on account of their
offensive practices, but will be consumed to ashes by a fire which will
fall on them from heaven."
An account related in the Chronicle of Otto, Bishop of Freising in 1145
appears to allude to a passage in the Book of Revelation that tells of
the drying of the Euphrates River to open the "way of the Kings of the
East." The chronicle states that Prester John was attempting to make
his way to rescue Jerusalem.
 Each kingdom was associated with a lens or mirror that allowed the
king or other user to see everything that was happening throughout
the realm3.
 The idea of a sacred talismanic stone: the cintamani in Shambhala,
and the Holy Grail stone of Parzival. Another legend states that among
the gifts sent by Prester John to the Holy Roman Emperor included the
Philosopher's Stone.
 In Tibetan and Mongolian traditions, Shambhala is associated with
subterranean tunnels and caves. In the letter of Prester John, there is
an interesting comment for comparison:
"Near the wilderness trickles between barren mountains a
subterranean rill, which can only by chance be reached, for only
occasionally the earth gapes, and he who would descend must do it
with precipitation, ere the earth closes again."
 Each kingdom is described as "Fortunate Isles" in terms of natural
abundance and fertility. Shambhala is one of the Buddhist "purelands"
where people of good karma are reborn and live happily and virtuously.
The kingdom of Prester John is likewise blessed and contains nothing
less than the original Garden of Eden. The people live virtuously as
stated in the king's letter: "With us no one lies, for he who speaks a lie
is thenceforth regarded as dead ; he is no more thought of, or honored
by us. No vice is tolerated by us."
 Both regions are known for their tamed elephants, another clue
pointing toward the "Indies."
What is equally of interest is the fact that we first hear of Prester
John's kingdom in Europe about a century after the Kalachakra begins
to spread to India and Tibet.
Land of Pilgrimages
From the historical perspective, Shambhala is a real land from whence
the Kalachakra came to India and Tibet. The only candidate that we
know of that could fit the bill is Suvarnadvipa.
However, Shambhala continued to be an important destination for
pilgrims and students long afterward.
Tibetan annals not only describe, in a matter-of-fact fashion, Tibetans
going to visit, stay and return from Shambhala, but likewise visitors
from Shambhala are said to come regularly to Tibet! so we know for
sure that there was a period of historical contact between the two
regions.
Insular Southeast Asia again fits the bill here and better than any
region in the world.
During the relevant centuries, the region was the premier learning
center in the world of Buddhism. As early as the 7th century, we hear
from the Chinese pilgrim I-Ching about a place in insular Southeast
Asia known as Foshi.
I-Ching wrote that at Foshi "the level of the sciences has reached such
a state, that one can say all the knowledge of the world flows from this
island4." He recommended that Buddhist scholars from China should
first come to Foshi and stay for a year or two before going to India.
In the early 11th century as already mentioned, the great Indian
scholar Atisha came to study under the Buddhist master teacher of
Suvarnadvipa known as Serlingpa or Dharmakirti.
We also learn that the inhabitants of Suvarnadvipa were also
interested in traveling and promoting Buddhism in far-off places. Kings
and scholars from this region ventured into India and donated
monasteries and other gifts particularly in the 10th and 11th centuries.
So Suvarnadvipa in the "southern ocean" fits very well when we
consider that Shambhala was also know as a great place of pilgrimage
that sent its own pilgrims as well. It was likely the home of King
Sripala who came from the same ocean and is credited in the Dro
Tradition with bringing the Kalachakra to India.
Footnotes
Geshe Lhundub Sopa, Roger Jackson, John Newman, Beth Simon.
The Wheel of Time: The Kalachakra in Context. Snow Lion Publications,
1991
1
2
Mahabharata XII.14.23. See also Brihat Parasara Horasasta.
See Edwin Bernbaum. The Way to Shambhala. Random House, Inc.
2001 and Wolfram von Eschenbach's Parzival.
3
Hui-li. The life of Hiuen-Tsiang. Westport, Conn., Hyperion Press,
1973.
4
The Kingdom of Prester
John
Prester John wrote in his letter to the kings of Europe that his
dominion extended over the "Three Indias."
As mentioned in the previous section, at the time of this letter the
Three Indias referred to India Major, from Malabar through the East
Indies, India Minor, from Malabar to Sind, and India Tertia, the east
coast of Africa.
This tripartite division comforms to the contemporary Muslim concept
of Hind, Sind and Zanj with the last India referring specifically to the
area around present-day coastal Tanzania.
Wolfram von Eschenbach, in the epic poem Parzival, which was written
about half a century after Prester John's letter, confirms the location of
Prester John in the Indies. He links the ruler with a kingdom known as
Tribalibot in India 'near the Ganges.'
Hoax or history?
While it is popular today to claim that the correspondence of the Pope
and European kings with Prester John was an elaborate hoax,
substanial scholarship in the area suggests something quite different.
Prester John's intial letter addressed to Manuel of Byzantinum,
Frederick Barbarossa and others did not just simply suddenly appear in
circulation throughout Europe. It was brought to the courts of the
Byzantine and Holy Roman emperors by actual ambassadors from the
court of Prester John himself in 11651!
Later in 1177, Philippus the physician of Pope Alexander III brought
another letter addressed to the Pope from Prester John after meeting
with representatives of the king2. There is some dispute over whether
Philippus actually claimed to have visited Prester John's court.
The letter to the Pope contained requests to build a church in Rome,
an altar in Jerusalem and to receive instructions regarding the Catholic
religion.
Alexander III responded by sending Philippus back with his reply to the
kingdom of Prester John. No information is available as to whether
Philippus succeeded in his mission.
So not only was there correspondence between Prester John and the
emperors and Pope, but representatives of the King of the Indies
appeared in Europe. Also, Philippus himself may have visited Prester
John's court. Knowing these facts, it is hard to come to any conclusion
other than one giving the kingdom involved in this correspondence an
historical basis.
Indian empires of the 12th century
Was there any historical empire of the 12th century that indeed
extended over the Three Indias?
There was one maritime empire that could possibly fit if one only sees
the dominion extending to parts of the Three Indias. It was known in
Chinese texts as Sanfotsi and among the Muslims as Zabag.
Sanfotsi/Zabag could fit the bill if one accepts the historical texts at
their word, which not all modern scholars are willing to do.
Chinese geographical texts like the Chu-fan-chi (1225) of Chau Ju-Kua
mention that Sanfotsi ruled over numerous kingdoms within insular
and mainland Southeast Asia. They further extend the rule of this
kingdom to Si-lan or Ceylon.
The Muslim geography of al-Masudi confirms this latter claim when it
states that Zabag, widely considered the equivalent of the Chinese
Sanfotsi, ruled over Sirandib, the Arabic name for Ceylon.
Furthermore, the geography of Ma Tuan-lin (circa 1200) states that
Chou-lien, was a vassal of Sanfotsi, verifying the same claim in the
Sung-shih (960 - 1279). Chou-lien was the Chinese name for the
Chola empire of India3. Again, the Chinese claim is verified by Arab
geographers who state that Kalikut was among the dependencies of
Zabag.
The Chola emperor Rajendrachola claimed to have made some
conquests himself in the East Indies. However, his statements have no
support from independent sources, i.e., Chinese, Muslim or other
historians. Even Rajendrachola's son only claimed one of these
victories -- that of Kadaram, possibly the state of Kataha in Malaysia.
The Chinese and Muslim accounts gain support from substantial
evidence of royal influence from insular Southeast Asia in India at this
time. Pali texts from 13th century Ceylon mention "Savaka" princes on
the island.
As mentioned earlier, Sanfotsi/Zabag was known by the Indians as
Suvarnadvipa:
"the eastern islands in this ocean (Sea of Champa), which are nearer
to China than India, are the islands of Zabaj, called by the Hindus,
Suvarnadvipa, i.e. the gold islands... because you obtain much gold as
deposit if you wash only a little of the earth of that country."
(Al-Biruni, 1030 AD)
The monarchs of Suvarnadvipa were very active among the Cholas. In
1005, a Suvarnadvipa king built a Buddhist vihara in the Chola state,
which the Chola king granted revenues4. In 1014-1015, gifts were sent
for a Hindu temple5, and again in 1018-10196. In the 1080s, the king
of Suvarnadvipa built the foundation for a Buddhist temple in South
India7.
If we accept the historical claims of the Chinese and Muslim texts, then
two of the three Indias would be covered so far. Or at least we can say
that Sanfotsi/Zabag extended over significant parts of these two Indias.
But what about the third India in East Africa?
We know that at an earlier period, Austronesian seafarers from insular
Southeast Asia settled on the island of Madagascar forming the
Malagasy-speaking population of the island. However, not many
people are aware of the fact that during the medieval period, both
regions maintained substanial contact with each other.
The Book of the Wonders of India, written by a Muslim author
mentions in 945 an expeditionary raid off the East African coast by a
fleet of 1000 ships from the East Indies. Centuries later in 1154, the
Arab geographer Idrisi wrote in Kitab Rujjar that "the people of the
isles of Zabag come to the land of Zanj on small and large ships...for
they understand one another's languages." He also states: "The
residents of Zabag go to the land of Sofala (near Beira, Mozambique)
and export the iron from there supplying it to all the lands of India. No
iron is comparable to theirs in quality and sharpness."
Idrisi, whose patron was Roger II of Sicily, also states about trade
expeditions to Zanj: "The people of Komr (Khmer) and the merchants
of the land of the Mihraj (ruler of Zabag) come among them (the Zanj)
and are well received and trade with them."
Tanzanian traditions suggest that there was a settlement around
Pemba and Zanzibar of a people they called the Debuli from “Diba”
and Jawa8. They were supposed to be responsible for planting the
coconut palms and mangoes along the Tanzanian coast. As we will
examine in the section on the spice routes the relationship between
the Tanzanian coast and the East Indies may extend back into deep
antiquity. There are different theories as to where Diba and Jawa refer,
but one possibility is that Diba is a form of Dabag, thought to be a
Nestorian corruption of Zabag. Jawa can refer to any number of East
Indian locations such as Java, Sabah, Davao, Toubok, etc. The Debuli
were said to be a seafaring people whose ships had sails of coconut
palm fiber.
That the kingdom of Sanfotsi/Zabag extended over a vast region that
might be said to span the "Three Indias" we have this quote from
Mas'udi:
"In the sea of Champa (eastern South China Sea) is the empire of
Maharaja, the king of the islands, who rules over an empire without
limit and has innumerable troops. Even the most rapid vessels could
not complete in two years a tour round the isles which are under his
possesssion. The territories of this king produce all sorts of spices and
aromatics, and no other sovereign of the world gets as much wealth
from the soil."
(Mas'udi, 943)
Prester John, The Christian King
The greatest obstacle to equating the kingdom of Prester John to
Sanfotsi/Zabag come from that king's professed Christian religion.
However, we should note that even in Prester John's letter, he explains
that there are many "Gentile" nations in his empire, and that later
explorers into Asia had noted that his domains had quickly ceased to
be Christian.
The problem might be solved by delving into the history of the
Nestorian Christian church in Southeast Asia and also the syncretic
practices that once abounded there.
In Asian tradition, it was common that if a king adopted a new religion,
so did his whole domain to some extent. However, before the advent
of Abrahamic faiths, a new religion did not mean necessarily discarding
old beliefs. A king and his subjects could patronize many religions at
once, non-exclusively.
In a similar way, we find in modern Japan, that many people may
follow simultaneously the teachings and rituals of Shintoism, Buddhism
and Confucianism. In fact, the same people might at the same time
celebrate Christmas and opt for a Christian wedding ceremony.
In this sense, if a particular monarch decided to patronize the
Nestorian church, he could rapidly implement this religion throughout
his kingdom without the same kind of disheaval that would be
expected if the adoption was exclusive of other faiths.
Researchers like S.H. Moffett and John England note that there is
substantial textual and artifactual evidence of the presence of at least
some Nestorian Christians throughout Southeast Asia prior to 1500.
As early as the 6th century, Cosmas Indicopleustes mentions
Nestorians from Siam. In his work, Descriptions of Chronicles and
Monasteries of Egypt and some neighbouring countries, the Persian
Abu Saliah mentions during the 7th century, a Nestorian church at
Fansur, the Muslim name given to a kingdom in the Malay archipelago
(probably Borneo or Sumatra).
Moffett has noted the theory of a number of researchers that the rapid
acceptance of Christianity in the Philippines may have been due to the
previous presence of Nestorian influence9. Early Roman Catholics in
the Philippines reported many findings of apparently Nestorian
Christian images in the country. The Filipino scholar Pedro Paterno has
done research on the evidence of Christian theology in pre-Hispanic
Philippine thought and language10.
The closest notice we have from the region in the time frame we are
discussing is that of John of Marignolli who mentions a "few Christians"
at Sabah, a location he visited on his way to India from China11.
Obviously one possibility is that he was referring to the current place
called Sabah in northeast Borneo. By this time, however, the Chinese
and Arab writers seem to agree that Sanfotsi/Zabag had faded away.
Therefore, our theory is that Nestorian Christianity may have taken
sway for a short while in the empire of Sanfotsi/Zabag, but not in a
way that excluded other religions. Furthermore, the new faith may
have faded away when the patronizing monarch passed on. The
supporting evidence, here, is difficult at best, but overweighted by the
fact that this kingdom otherwise is the only real candidate for Prester
John's historical realm.
Parallels between Sanfotsi/Zabag and Prester John's kingdom
Many European travelers who ventured to eastern Asia during the 14th
century painted a picture of Prester John's kingdom that pointed to a
location in the present-day East Indies12. The Behaim Globe of 1492
showed Prester John's kingdom lying along the coast and
archipelagoes of Ptolemy's Sinus Magnus, the most eastern sea in the
world.
 Both are located in the "Indies" during the same time period
 Pygmies are found in both instances13
 Cannibals are present in both kingdoms14
 Both kings have brahmins included among their subjects15
 The use of fire-proof clothing is mentioned in both cases16
 Prester John's kingdom like Shambhala is associated with a
subterranean zone. There is a similar story given regarding Sanfotsi by
Chau Ju-Kua:
"There is an old tradition that the ground in this country once suddenly
gaped open and out of the cavern came many myriads of cattle, which
rushed off in herds into the mountains, though the people all tried to
get them for food. Afterwards the crevice got stopped up with bamboo
and trees and disappeared."
 Both kings ruled over extensive empires
 Each kingdom was known for its fabulous natural wealth
 Tamed elephants were found in both empires
 A great bird capable of carrying away large beasts was found17.
Indian tradition places the great bird Garuda on an island in the Milky
Ocean southeast of India.
 Prester John mentions the phoenix living in his kingdom, while a bird
known as samandal capable of living in fire, was found in the land of
Wak or Wakwak, which was contiguous with Zabag.
 Adultery is strictly prohibited by both kings18. In contrast, adultery
was often reported to be treated very liberally by European and
Muslim standards in other parts of the Indies.
 Prester John says that Amazons are subject to him. Von Eschenbach
notes that Prester John's land was ruled by Queen Secundille. The
Muslim writers mention a queen ruling the land of Wak. The Chinese
texts mention Queen Sima of Toupo, which was likely the same as the
Arabic Wakwak. If the land called Tawalisi by Ibn Batutta in the 14th
century was included in the older Zabag, an amazonian princess and
tradition is mentioned there also.
 Prester John ruled as priest and king. The Tibetan texts record that
the great guru Serlingpa was 'Lord of Suvarnadvipa," and at another
instance state that he is of princely descent.
 Gog and Magog, the nations of the Anti-Christ are located within the
domain of Prester John. Muslim traditions locate Bratayil the island of
Dajjal, the Islamic Anti-Christ, among the possessions of Zabag19.
 The Muslim writers mention an island at the eastern reaches of
Zabag where a volcano continously erupted. Some think that Prester
John's letter refers to volcanoes as mountains that issue rivers of
stones:
"Three days' journey from this sea are mountains from which rolls
down a stony, waterless river, which opens into the sandy sea. As
soon as the stream reaches the sea, its stones vanish in it, and are
never seen again."
The description of a "sandy sea" associated with this river matches
descriptions of the seas in insular Southeast Asia after volcanic
eruptions (i.e., Krakatoa and Pinatubo) which become clotted with
lahar and debris:
"In our territory is a certain waterless sea consisting of tumbling
billows of sand never at rest. None have crossed this sea -- it lacks
water all together, yet fish of various kinds are cast up upon the beach,
very tasty, and the like are nowhere else to be seen."
 Prester John claimed to have descended from the "race of the Three
Magi." The Muslim writers describe the inhabitants of Zabag and
Wakwak as majus "fire-worshippers."
At this point we should also look at the parallels between
Sanfotsi/Zabag and Shambhala:
Parallels between Sanfotsi/Zabag and Shambhala
 The Kalki kings of Shambhala held sway over matters both temporal
and sacerdotal. The description of Serlingpa of Suvarnadvipa is very
similar. Also, we might note that one Shambhala king, Sripala, is said
to come from the Southern Ocean, which usually means the South
China Sea. There are those who think that Sripala and Serlingpa are
the same person.
 Both kings were known as founts of great knowledge. The Muslims
considered the Mihraj of Zabag as the most knowledgeable of kings in
the world. The Shambhala kings were known as Rigden "knowledge
holders."
 Tibetan texts state that the Kalachakra Tantra was important in each
kingdom (Shambhala and Suvarnadvipa) from at least the 10th to
14th centuries.
 Both kings are said to have ruled over empires of many kingdoms
during about the same period.
 Sanfotsi/Zabag and Shambhala were both known for their great
natural wealth and abundance.
 In both kingdoms, succession to the throne was not determined by
primogeniture. However, the test for the heir was different. In
Shambhala the heir to the throne was said to be determined by a 'rain
of flowers' at birth20. In Sanfotsi, the heir was chosen among the son
who was best able to bear the tall and heavy golden crown with
'hundreds of jewels.'21 The letter of Prester John states "our crown is
the greatest in the world, for it is richer than silver and gold and
precious stones and pearls."
 The name Gser-Ling "Golden Country is associated with Shambhala.
Suvarnadvipa means literally "the Golden Islands," and Shambhala is
also said at times to be an island. Gold was apparently abundant in
both places. The palace of the Shambhala king was made partly of
gold. The empire of Zabag was described as an El Dorado.
 Both regions were known for their tamed elephants.
 Subterranean zones were found in each kingdom (see list above).
Footnotes
1
Chronicle of Albericus Trium Fontium. 1241.
J. Brampton. Criticas Historico-Chronologica, in Baronius, Annales
Ecclesiastici, iv, 650. Chron. Joh. Bromption ap R. Twyaden, Hist. Angl.
Scriptores X, London, 1652.
2
The Chola empire encompassed most of South India and extended as
far as present-day Orissa on the east and Goa on the west. See Ma,
Tuan-lin, Ethnographie des peuples étrangers à la Chine : ouvrage
composé au XIIIe siècle de notre ère / par Ma-Touan-Lin ; traduit pour
la première fois du Chinois avec un commentaire perpétuel par le
marquis d'Hervey de Saint-Denys. Paris, 1876-83.
3
K. Aiyangar and R. Sewell, Historical Inscriptions of Southern India.
Madras, 1932, pp. 57-58; Epigraphia Indica 22, no. 34.
4
5
Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy 1956-57: 15. nos. 161 and 164.
6
Annual Report of Indian Epigraphy 1956-57: 15, no. 166.
7
Nilakanta Sastri, The Colas. pp. 271-72; Epigraphia Indica 22: no. 35.
John Gray, “The Wadebuli and the Wadiba,” Tanzania Notes and
Records, XXXVI, 1968, 22-41; W.H. Ingrams. Zanzibar, Its History and
Its Peoples, 2nd ed. London, 1967, 125; Godfrey Dale. The Peoples of
Zanzibar. New York, 1920, 13 and 25.
8
Samuel H. Moffett. A history of Christianity in Asia. San Francisco,
1992, 461.
9
Pedro A. Paterno, El Cristianismo en la antigua civilization tagalog;
contestacion al M.R.P. Fr. R. Martinez Virgil de la Orden de
predicadored obispo de Oviedo. Madrid, 1892.
10
11
Sir Henry Yule. Cathay and the way thither, being a collection of
medieval notices of China, translated and edited by Sir Henry Yule.
Lichenstein, 1967.
12
Friedrich Zarncke. Der Priester Johannes. Leipzig, 1883.
See the Letter of Prester John and the voyages of Sindbad in the
Thousand and One Nights, also Buzurg ibn Shahriyar. The book of the
wonders of India : mainland, sea, and islands, edited and translated
by G.S.P. Freeman-Grenville. London, 1981.
13
14
Ibid.
15
Ibid.
In his letter, Prester John describes "silk" spun by salamanders that
live in fire. The clothing from this cloth is fire-proof and are cleaned
with fire. The Chinese had similar tales regarding fire-proof clothing
and the salamander, see Berthold Laufer, "Asbestos and Salamander."
T'oung Pao magazine, 1915, pp. 299-373. Fire-proof clothing is
mentioned coming from the "Fire Mountain" near the home of the king
of Zabag and in other areas of insular Southeast Asia.
16
The bird was called Ruk by the Muslims and was located in both
Zabag and Wakwak.
17
Prester John's letter and: Chau Ju-Kua. Chau Ju-Kua: his work on
the Chinese and Arab trade in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries,
entitled Chu-fan-chï, tr. from the Chinese and annotated by Friedrich
Hirth and W. W. Rockhill. St. Petersburg, 1911, 61.
18
This tradition is mentioned in the One Thousand and One Nights and
also by Buzurg Shahriyar, Wasif-Sah and Ibn Khordabzbeh.
19
John R Newman."A Brief History of the Kalachakra" in The Wheel of
Time. The Kalachakra in Context. Madison, 1985.
20
21
Chau Ju-Kua, 61.
The Spice Routes
“He who controls the spice, controls the universe.” Such were the
words uttered by the main character of the movie Dune based on the
Frank Herbert science fiction epic of the same name. In the story, the
spice was the lifeblood of a vast empire. For the leaders of this empire,
it was essential that at all times ‘the spice must flow.’
The spice trade of the Dune movie was no doubt inspired by the
historical trade in aromatics from ancient times to the present. At
various periods in history, spices have been as valuable as gold and
silver. According to a 15th century saying: “No man should die who
can afford cinnamon.”
The aromatic substances were even more mysterious as they were
connected in many cultures with the idea of a faraway paradise -Eden. The Muslim writer al-Bukhari wrote that Sumatran aloeswood
known as `Ud in Arabic filled the censers of Paradise. Ginger was the
other major aromatic of Paradise in Muslim tradition. In the Travels of
Sir John Mandeville it is said that the aloeswood of the Great Khan
came from Paradise.
We will show that the famed spices which traveled from Africa to the
Arabian traders and from thence to the markets of the classical
Mediterranean world had their ultimate origin in Southeast Asia. The
aromatic trail known as the “Cinnamon Route” began somewhere in
the Malay Archipelago, romantically known as the “East Indies,” and
crossed the Indian Ocean to the southeastern coast of Africa.
The spices may have landed initially at Madagascar and they
eventually were transported to the East African trading ports in and
around the city known in Greco-Roman literature as Rhapta. Merchants
then moved the commodities northward along the coast. In Roman
times, they traveled to Adulis in Ethiopia and then to Muza in Yemen
and finally to Berenike in Egypt. From Egypt they made their way to all
the markets of Europe and West Asia.1
The beginning of the trade is hinted at in Egyptian hieroglyphic
inscriptions during the New Kingdom period about 3,600 years ago.
The Pharoahs of Egypt opened up special relationships with the
kingdom of Punt to the south. Although the Egyptians knew of Punt
long before this period, it was during the New Kingdom that we really
start hearing of important trade missions to that country that included
large cargoes of spices. Particularly noteworthy are the marvelous
reliefs depicting the trade mission of Queen Hatshepsut of the 18th
Dynasty
The idea of an ancient trade route to the east for spices and also
precious metals like gold and silver is not new. The Jewish historian
Josephus, writing in the first century AD, offered his explanation of the
Biblical story of Solomon and Hiram’s joint trade mission to the distant
land of Ophir. In his Antiquities of the Jews, he said the voyages which
began from the Red Sea port of Ezion-geber were destined for the
island of Chryse far to the east in the Indian Ocean. Ezion-geber was
near the modern city of Eilat in Israel and the trade voyages took
three years to complete according to the Old Testament account2.
Where then was the island of Chryse mentioned by Josephus? Greek
geographers usually placed it east of the Ganges river mouth. Medieval
writings placed it near where the Indian Ocean met the Pacific Ocean.
In modern times, Chryse has been equated by scholars with the land
known in Indian literature as Suvarnadvipa. Both Chryse and
Suvarnadvipa mean “Gold Island.” The latter was also located in
Indian writings well to the east of India in the “Southern Ocean” and is
identified by most scholars with the Malay Archipelago (“the East
Indies”).
Josephus’ theory of voyages to Southeast Asia was supported
indirectly about a half-century later by Philo of Byblos who translated
the History of Phoenicia by Sanchuniathon. This translation was
originally considered a fraud by modern scholars, but discoveries from
Ras Shamra in the Levant indicate Philo’s work was authentic. They
are important because they come from a different historical source
than the Old Testament account.
Philo records the Phoenician version of Solomon and Hiram’s trade
mission to Ophir. What is interesting is how Philo’s account allows us
to interpret some arcane Hebrew passages. He outlines journeys into
the Erythraean Sea (Indian Ocean) that took three years to complete.
The items brought back from the journey were apes, peacocks and
ivory all products of tropical Asia and all included along with other
goods in the Biblical account.
Philo’s interpretation of Sanchuniathon’s history uses words for the
products of the voyages which clearly point to tropical Asia unlike the
strange terms used a thousand years earlier in Solomon’s time. The
romantic idea of distant Ophir may have inspired the explorer Magellan
on his circumnavigation voyage around the world in the 16th century.
The explorer replaced geographical locations in his reference books
with the names “Tarsis and Ofir,” the equivalent in his time of Biblical
“Tarshish and Ophir.”3 He actually set a course on the latitude of one
of these locations before reaching the islands of the Visayas from the
East.
In the medieval and early colonial period, commentators on classical
Greco-Roman literature first began hinting that the Cinnamon Route
might trace eventually from Africa to the east in Asia. Many of the
terms used for spices in early works are obscure and can be difficult to
identify. The commentators interpreted these terms into the
contemporary language at a time when the knowledge of the world
had greatly increased. In most cases, we can confidently associate
these latter spice names with species that we know today.
Thus, when the ancient writer Pliny mentions tarum as a product of
East Africa we understand it as aloeswood because later commentators
translate tarum with a word that is no longer obscure: lignum aloe
“aloeswood.” By the time of the commentators, the source of the
aloeswood was already well-known. Pliny mentions tarum as coming
from the land that produced cinnamon and cassia in Africa. But the
commentators give it an identity which clearly indicates a tropical
Asian origin in their time.
So why were these Asian products turning up in African markets? Pliny
is the only writer who attempts an explanation and the related
passages have been the source of much scholarly controversy. The
details will be discussed later in this book, but the historian James
Innes Miller was possibly the first modern scholar to use Pliny and
other evidence to suggest that Austronesian traders had brought
spices to African markets via a southern maritime route. Miller
connected the spice route with the prehistoric settlement of
Madagascar by Austronesian seafarers. Spices from southern China
and both mainland and insular Southeast Asia were brought by
Austronesian merchants whom he associates with the people known to
the Chinese by the names Kunlun and Po-sse.
Miller’s book was the defining work of his time and it still has a
profound influence on historians of trade and seafaring. However,
classical historians, philologists and other scholars had mixed views on
Miller’s thesis. A number of alternative theories sprung up and Miller
was criticized, sometimes rightfully so, with using too many looselyestablished ideas to support his argument. One of our main goals will
be to use newer evidence along with some apparently missed by Miller
to show that, for the most part, his idea of a southern transoceanic
route was correct.
In addition to Miller’s Cinnamon Route, there also existed a “Clove
Route” to China and India.
The evidence for these early spice routes comes from every available
field including history, archaeology, linguistics, genetics and
anthropology. For example, we can show by a process of elimination
that a southern route for tropical Asian spices into Africa is historical.
The exact details of this route are not known to us from history but the
route itself is the only reasonable conclusion given the historical
sources at our disposal. We can then bolster the testimony of history
by bringing in supporting evidence from other fields.
One way we do this is to show that certain cultural items that came
from Southeast Asia, or at least tropical Asia, were diffused first to the
southeastern coast of Africa before moving northward at dates that are
supportive of our thesis. One example is the diffusion of the domestic
chicken (Galllus gallus) to Africa. The oldest archaeological remains of
this species may date back to 2,800 BCE from Tanzania.4 The earliest
similar evidence in Egypt is not earlier than the New Kingdom period
about 1,000 years later. To support this finding, there is additional
evidence provided by the presence of the double outrigger5, barkcloth,
various types of musical instruments6 and other cultural items present
on the southeastern African coast. Possibly also the distribution of the
coconut crab7, the world’s largest land-based invertebrate also
provides evidence for this early southern contact.
An important factor in ascertaining the old spice routes from Southeast
Asia is the trail of cloves from Maluku and the southern Philippines
north to South China and Indochina and then south again along the
coast to the Strait of Malacca. From there the cloves went to India and
points further west. This north-south direction of commerce through
the Philippines has recently been recognized by UNESCO as part of the
ancient maritime spice route. The Philippine-Maluku hub persisted into
Muslim times and is chronicled in Arabic historical and geographic
writings.
While the clove route started in the south, cinnamon trade began in
the north. The cinnamon route started in the cinnamon and cassiaproducing regions of northern Indochina and southern China and then
likely proceeded from South China ports southward during the winter
monsoon down the Philippine corridor. The route likely turned
southeast at that point to Sumatra and/or Java to pick up different
varieties of cinnamon and cassia along with aloeswood and benzoin.
From southwestern Indonesia the voyage then took the Austronesian
merchants across the great expanse of the Indian Ocean to Africa.
Linguistically the clove route is supported by the distribution of names
for ginger in the Malay Archipelago. These appear to have followed the
clove route from China through the Philippines to the rest of insular
Southeast Asia.
In the medieval Chinese and Muslim texts we first get specific details
about these routes although they probably were unchanged from the
ones used centuries or thousands of years earlier. The Chinese records
in particular give detailed itineraries including directions and voyage
length for each stop along the way to the southern spice markets. Of
particular importance are the entrepots known to the Chinese as
Sanfotsi and Toupo. The same marketplaces were likely known to the
Muslim geographers likely by the names of Zabag and Waqwaq
respectively.
Like Chryse of the Greeks and Suvarnadvipa of the Indians, these
entrepots were a source of wonder and literary romance. In the One
Thousand and One Nights, Sinbad travels to Zabag on one of his
voyages and the islands of Waqwaq are the setting for the adventure
of Hassan of Basra. Indian literature also abounds in tales of voyages
to the islands of gold by those in search of treasure, either material or
spiritual.
From the Arabic literature, we start to learn of first-hand accounts of
trade and other voyages by mariners from Southeast Asia to Africa.
Previously, we had only the vague accounts of Solomon’s journey and
Pliny’s brief descriptions of long sea voyages from or to the cinnamon
country. The Muslim works tell us of ships and people from Zabag and
Waqwaq coming to African ports for trade and even on occasion to
conduct military raids. The records give the impression of wellestablished trade relationships, but just how long did these longdistance ties exist before the Muslim writings?
We believe is a strong case for this trade opening up by at least the
New Kingdom period in Egypt. At that time, voyages to the divine land
of Punt became more frequent with large fleets bringing back
impressive hauls of tribute for the Pharaoh. While the hard evidence is
still fragmentary, the quantity and quality of this evidence is still
comparable to those of other established theories. We simply come to
the most logical conclusions based on the historical records, and how
these records should be interpreted based on the evidence.
Rome’s discovery of the monsoon trade winds did not have any
significant impact as the Roman ships mainly plied the waters between
the Ptolemaic port of Berenike and the ports along the coast of eastern
Africa and western India. The Romans apparently did not interfere
much at these ports and only established minor trading colonies if any
in these areas. The wave of Islam into East Africa was probably the
strongest factor in closing the southern spice route.
Muslim traders managed to convert the local populations, and in the
process, must have greatly complicated preexisting trade relationships.
The Muslim merchants in their dhows moving eastward would have
eventually discovered the sources of cinnamon and cassia. Then it was
only a matter of time before the caliphate would be able to eliminate
the African ports in favor of direct import to Arab entrepots. This was
not an immediate process though.
The Muslim geographers and historians still record trade activity
between Africa and Southeast Asia in aloeswood, tortoise-shell, iron
and other products centuries after the Arabs had established
themselves on the Tanzanian coast. By the time the Portuguese
reached this area though it appears this trade had disappeared. All
that was left were traces of the Austronesian contact including the
local boats with their outriggers and lateen sails made of coconut fiber.
With the end of the cinnamon route and the advent of the European
control of the spice trade, the Austronesian component of this
commerce almost completely faded away. However, some three
thousand years of spice trade from the New Kingdom to the late
Muslim period left a lasting legacy that reshaped the world. The vision
of an El Dorado of gold and spices tempted romantics and kings alike.
For centuries, the Arabs had controlled the Mediterranean part of the
spice trade by keeping secret the monsoon sources of the precious
commodities. Eventually the Roman empire discovered the monsoon
routes as opposed to earlier costly voyages that involved closely
following the shoreline. However, it took some time before they could
discover the real sources of the spices they treasured so much.
When the Alexandrian merchant Cosmas Indicopleustes ventured to
find these sources in the sixth century ACE, many of these secrets
were just coming to light. However, it was a little too late. The
meteoric rise of Islam closed off any further European exploration or
exploitation of the spice routes. Conversely, a whole new world was
opened up for the merchants of the Muslim world. Their newly found
power allowed them to venture deep into Asia as never before. The
Islamic texts give the first detailed descriptions of the emporiums of
the East. By at least the ninth century, a massive trade ensued
between the two regions greatly enriching the Islamic caliphate.
Magnificent cities and buildings were constructed throughout the
Muslim lands at the same time that Europe sunk into the dark ages.
The Arabic writers also tell of great kingdoms and empires of the East
including the fabled cities of the Khmers and the island domains of the
Mihraj (Maharaja) of Zabag.
Europe would get another chance centuries later when a charismatic
leader arose out of a hitherto unknown nomadic tribe of the steppe.
Chingiss Khan, also known as Genghis Khan, rode out of the
wastelands of Central Asia with his Mongol armies on epic conquests.
Among the empires destroyed in the Great Khan’s path was the
Islamic Caliphate. The fall of Baghdad again opened the Silk Road and
the maritime Spice Route to the merchants and adventurers of Europe.
One of the first to take up the challenge of the East was Marco Polo.
The records of his travels along with those of other Europeans who
ventured east rekindled the urge to link with the long-lost spice Eden
of the east. The Portuguese were the first to take up the gauntlet
establishing bases at Goa in India and Malacca on the Malay Peninsula.
Others followed including the powerful Dutch East Indian Company.
The quest for spices and precious metals ushered in what is known as
the Age of Exploration. Magellan’s personal documents indicated his
desire to find the golden islands of Tarshish and Ophir. The explorer
Sebastian Cabot was appointed as commander of an expedition “to
discover the Moluccas, Tarsis, Ophir, Cipango and Cathay.” The fight to
control the flow of cloves, nutmeg, black pepper, gold, silver and other
commodities led to the circumnavigation of Africa and the world, and
the exploration of the Western hemisphere and the Pacific Ocean.
The coming of the Europeans nearly completely excluded the native
Austronesian merchants from the trade. The same people who in the
Muslim annals were sailing to East Africa to engage in commerce now
where often prevented even from participating in merchant activity
from city to city or island to island in their own region. Only after
Southeast Asia freed itself from Western colonialism has this ancient
wonderland of entrepots regained direct control its own trade again.
Today, the nations of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN) have formed a unique organization designed to enhance
commerce in the region. Indeed, ASEAN is really the model for the
entire Asian region. Even developed Asian nations like Japan and
South Korea have looked to ASEAN as the model for regional trade
cooperation.
Today, manufactured goods from sneakers to computers are more
important exports that spices or precious metals, although these latter
items continue to hold their own. The region has also come to be a
leader in a completely different type of trade – the human trade.
Southeast Asia is the world’s largest exporter of human labor.
Seafarers , nurses, doctors, domestics, constructions workers,
computer programmers and almost every other kind worker including
those in illegal trades come from the Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia,
Cambodia or other nations in the area and can be found in almost
every country of the world.
Many analysts believe the geopolitics of the area will again bring
Southeast Asia to the center of the world’s stage. Most of the goods
shipped around the globe still travel by sea, and Southeast Asia is the
main hub for trade between Asia and the rest of the world. The volume
of trade activity has been growing faster here than any other area of
the world and most expect this trend to continue. The region’s great
natural diversity may again come into play as the ageing populations
of the developed world look for new medicines and natural cures from
Southeast Asia’s biological resources.
According to one theory, the great Austronesian migrations of
prehistory began with the flooding of the Sundaland continent, which
also created the islands of the Malay Archipelago. The region’s natural
treasures provided the wayfaring Austronesians with items of the trade
that became valued in distant lands. Then, as now, a combination of
natural forces thrust the people of Southeast Asia into a crucial role in
the course of world history.
The Clove Route
According to Chau Ju-Kua, cloves and nutmeg were grown in two kingdoms found in
Toupo, southeast of southern China.
Ships coming from Toupo to China sailed for twenty-five days on a northwest course
before arriving at Sanfotsi, and from there proceeded either due to north to reach Tsu'anchou (Fuzhou or Xiamen) or a bit northwest to reach Canton.
So it is clear and logical that the clove route went through the Philippines, where Sanfotsi
was located and this also was the most direct course for the trade between the clove and
nutmeg-bearing regions with the Chinese coast.
Footnotes
James Innes Miller. The spice trade of the Roman Empire, 29 B.C. to
A.D. 641. Oxford, 1969.
1
2
1 Kings 10:22; II Chronicles 9:21..
Charles E. Nowell. Magellan's voyage around the world; three
contemporary accounts [by] Antonio Pigafetta, Maximilian of
Transylvania [and] Gaspar Corrêa. Evanston [Ill.] Northwestern
University Press, 1962.
3
From a personal correspondence from Dr. Felix Chami, a leading
expert on Tanzanian and East African archaeology.
4
Alfred C. Haddon and James Hornell. Canoes of Oceania. Honolulu,
1975.
5
6See
the following webpages (From: Roberts, Helen Heffron, "Ancient
Hawaiian music" IN Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin 29 . Honolulu,
The Museum, 1926.):
http://asiapacificuniverse.com/pkm/mimap1.JPG
http://asiapacificuniverse.com/pkm/mimap2.JPG
http://asiapacificuniverse.com/pkm/mimap3.JPG
http://asiapacificuniverse.com/pkm/mimap4.JPG
Eric De Muylder. "Coenobitidae," Land Crabs of the Seychelles
Islands. http://www.geocities.com/ericdemuylder/coenobit.htm.
7
The Medieval Geography of
Sanfotsi and Zabag
The great kingdoms of Sanfotsi and Toupo (Shopo) mentioned in the
Chinese geographical works of Chau Ju-Kua, Chou Ku-Fei and Ma
Tuan-lin are often located inareas of the West like Sumatra, Java and
Malaysia. However, a close analysis of the texts give directions that
point decidely further East. Thus, scholars like Roland Braddell and
Paul Wheatley have looked further East, specifically to the region of
Northern Borneo. Some other researchers, though, like J.L. Moens,
from the Leiden school, M. Yang-ouen-hoei, D'Harvey de St. Denis and
Austin Craig asserted that either Sanfotsi or Toupo were located
among the Philippine islands.
Sanfotsi, Entrepot of the South
Here is a paraphrased excerpt of the translation of Chau Ju-kua's Chufan-chi by Hirth and Rockhill regarding Sanfotsi. Notice the directions
given for voyages to that country:
"Sanfotsi lies between Chenla and Toupo. Its rule extend over fifteen
chou. It lies due south of Tsu'an-chou. In the winter, with the
monsoon, you sail a little more than a month and then come to
Lingyamon (Lingayen?), where one-third of the passing merchants
before entering this country of Sanfotsi.
A large proportion of the people are surnamed P'u (Apu?). The people
either live scattered about outside the city, or on the water on rafts of
boards covered over with reeds, and these are exempt from taxation.
They are skilled at fighting on land or water. When they are about to
make war on another state they assemble and send for the such a
force as the occasion demands. They appoint chiefs and leaders, and
all provide their own military equipment and the necessary provisions.
In facing the enemy and braving death they have not their equal
among other nations.
During most of the year the climate is hot, and there is but little cold
weather. Their domestic animals are very much like those of China.
They have wine of flowers, wine of coconuts, and wine of areca nuts
and honey, all fermented, though without any yeast of any kind, but
they are so intoxicating to drink."
Chou Ku-fei has pretty much the same thing to say about Sanfotsi:
"Sanfotsi is in the Southern Ocean (South China Sea). It is the most
important port-of-call on the sea-routes of the foreigners from the
countries of Toupo on the east and from the countries of the Arabs and
Kulin (Thailand?) to the west; they all pass through on the way to
China.
The country has no natural products, but the people are skilled in
fighting. When they are about to fight, they cover their bodies with a
medicine which prevents swords wounding them (anting-anting?). In
fighting on land or on water none surpass them in impetousity of
attack; even the Kulin people come after them. If some foreign ship,
passing this place, should not enter here, an armed party would
certainly come out kill them to the last."
Examining the accounts above we find that Sanfotsi was to the south
of China, and was, in fact, due south of the port of Ts'uan-chou. This is
supported by an official historical document describing the trade routes
of the South, which mentions the voyage from Sanfotsi to China.:
"Sanfotsi is an important thoroughfare on the sea-routes of the
foreigners on their way to and fro. Ships (leaving it for China) sail due
north, and having passed the Shang-hia-chu islands and the sea of
Kiau-chi (Tongking), they come within the limits of China."
If we study the map below (not to scale), we see that Ts'uan-chou is
located by most geographers on the South China coast adjacent to
northern Taiwan. It is generally reated either with present-day Fuzhou
or Xiamen at about 120 degrees East longitude.
Obviously, if we head due south of Ts'uan-chou, we will be heading on
a course for the Northern Philippines, or at least the northeast coast of
Borneo. It may be that in this same area was the land known as Foshi
by the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, I-Ching. Foshi is often related
linguistically to Sanfotsi, and it was reached by a 20 day journey to the
south from the ports of Canton or Ts'uan-chou during the winter
monsoon. This closely matches the description of travel to Sanfotsi.
Here is the description of the voyage to Foshi by Kie Tan:
"From Kuang-chou (Canton) towards the southeast, travelling by sea
for 200 li, one reaches Mount T’un-mon. Then, with a favourable wind
going westward for two days, one reaches the Kiu-chou rocks (Hainan).
Then southward, and after two days one reaches the Siang-shi, or
Elephant Rock. Then southward after three days, one comes to Mount
Chan-pu-lan, this mountain is in the sea at 200 li east of the country
of Huan-wang (Tongking). Then southward, after two days journey,
one reaches Mount Ling. Then, after a day’s journey one comes to the
country of Montu. Then after a day’s journey one comes to the counry
of Ku-tan; then after a day’s journey one reaches the territory of Ponto’o-lang. Then after two days journey one comes to Mount Kun-t’unung. Then after five days journey one comes to the strait the
Barbarians call Chi. From the south to the north it is 100 li.. On the
northern shore is the country of Lo-yue, on the southern coast is the
country of Foshi."
Toupo, Entrepot of the Southeast
Toupo was Sanfotsi's main competitor in the South China Sea. Both
were great island empires that thrived on trade. Here is a description
of the journey from Toupo to China from the official Chinese
documents:
"Ships coming from Toupo go a little northwest but when they have
passed the Shi-ir-tzi rocks, they take the same route as the Sanfotsi
ships from below the Shang-hia-chu isles."
Thus, the ships from Toupo sailed northwest toward Sanfotsi, which
after passing, they headed due north along with ships from that port.
Chau Ju-kua states about Toupo:
"The kingdom of Toupo also called P'u-kia-lung is in a southeasterly
direction from Ts'uan-chou, whence ships start, as a rule, during the
winter, for sailing continually with the north wind, they arrive within
about a month."
The winter monsoons mentioned for travel both to Sanfotsi and
Toupo blow from South China towards the southeast, the opposite
direction of the typhoons of the rainy season during the summer.
According to most Chinese geographical works, the journey from
Toupo to the China coast first involved a journey of about two weeks
heading northwest before reaching Poni (Panay?), then you resume a
northwest heading arriving in a about a week at Mai (Mindoro), from
here the journey still continues northwest before reaching Sanfotsi in a
few days. From here you head either due north for Ts'uan-chou or a
bit northwest for Canton. Clearly, Toupo was well to the southeast of
the South China coast. J.L. Moens believed that the capital of Toupo
was the city of Toubouk, the old name of Cotabato in Mindanao.
While Sanfotsi was considered the major port of the South, and Toupo
of the Southeast, ports at Tongking and Cambodia were considered
the major markets of the Southwest from the port of Canton near
modern Hong Kong. Clearly from this we can see that both Sanfotsi
and Toupo are located to the east of Cambodia and Tongking.
The Muslim Accounts of Zabag and Wak-wak
The Chinese accounts of Sanfotsi and Toupo started from about the
10th century and 5th century respectively, and both continued up until
about the late 1200's. During most of this time, the Muslim
geographers also wrote on the same area, basing their accounts on
the tales of merchants, ambassadors, etc., to the region. Most scholars
are in agreement that Sanfotsi was known to the Muslims as Zabag,
while Toupo was known as Wak-wak.
Al-Biruni, a noted writer during this period who travelled to India wrote
that Zabag was placed on the eastern side of the Sea of Sanf (Champa
or coastal central/south Vietnam). This is confirmed by another
famous geographer, Mas’udi, who stated Zabaj was oriented toward
Khmer, which comprises modern Cambodia and South Vietnam,
as Ceylon is oriented toward Madurai in South India. It was
known as an island rich in gold mines.
Mas'udi noted that this kingdom had on its east side an ocean of
unknown extent, which was basically the same as the Great Eastern
Ocean-Sea of the Chinese. The latter ocean was also located to the
east of Sanfotsi and Toupo, and it was here that the weilu was located,
where waters began to go "downward." It is interesting to note that
the Muslim writers mention some interesting flora and fauna when
describing the main island of the kingdom of Zabaj. Among them were
the dwarf buffalo, the python and the giant camphor tree. Now the
dwarf buffalo must be either the tamaraw of Mindoro, or the anoa of
Celebes. The python is native to both the Philippines and Borneo, as
are the giant camphor trees, although these are more common in
Borneo.
The Muslims had much to say about these islands but we will confine
ourselves to a few quotes:
"In the sea of Champa (off central/south Vietnam) is the empire of
Maharaja, the king of the islands, who rules over an empire without
limit and has innumerable troops. Even the most rapid vessels could
not complete in two years a tour round the isles which are under his
possesssion. The territories of this king produce all sorts of spices and
aromatics, and no other sovereign of the world gets as much wealth
from the soil." (Mas'udi, AD 943)
"the eastern islands in this ocean (Sea of Champa), which are nearer
to China than India, are the islands of Zabaj, called by the Hindus,
Suvarnadvipa, i.e. the gold islands*... because you obtain much gold
as deposit if you wash only a little of the earth of that country." (AlBiruni, 1030 AD)
"On its shores (i.e. of the sea of Sanf or Champa), are the dominions
of a King called Mihraj, who possesses a great number of populous and
fertile islands, covered with fields and pastures, and producing ivory,
camphor, nutmeg, mace, clove, aloeswood, cardamom, cubeb..."
(Idrisi, 1150)
"The gold is plentiful, the horse bits, the chains and necklaces of
monkeys, dogs and other beasts are of gold. The chiefs used golden
bricks for their houses and forts and official decrees are engraved upon
golden paper." (Hordadzbeh)
"Some people told me they had seen a man who had been to Wak-wak,
to do business there. He had told of the riches of the country and the
islands. I do not mean that their country is so important, but that the
people of Wak-wak are numerous. Among them are men who look like
Turks. Of all God's creatures none are more capable or clever in the
arts; but they are sly, cunning, deceitful and very quick and
knowledgeable in everthing they undertake." (Shariyar, 10th century)
*On the subject of the gold of Wak-wak, Pigafetta stated that when he
reached the Philippines that even the common people had massive
gold ornaments and that everyone ate from gold plates and partly
covered their houses with gold. The Philippines still has world-class
gold reserves.
References
Most of the translations of Chinese texts are quoted from Hirth and
Rockhill, while the translations of Muslim texts come mostly from
Majumdar.
CHAU JU-KUA, Chau ju-kua: his work on the Chinese and Arab trade in
the twelfth and thirteenth centuries : entitled Chu-fan-chi, translated
from the Chinese and annotated by Friedrich Hirth and W. W. Rockhill.
Taipei : Literature House, 1965.
MAJUMDAR, R.C., The history and culture of the Indian Peoples,
Bombay, 1951.
__,Suvarnadvipa: ancient Indian colonies in the Far East, Delhi, 1986.
MOENS, J.L., "Srivijaya, Yava en Kataha," Journal of the Malaysian
Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol XVII, 1940.
The Location of the
Kingdom
In the previous articles we have attempted to show the general
location of medieval Sanfotsi/Zabag, which we also equate to
Shambhala of the Tibetan texts and Prester John's kingdom as
mentioned in the medieval letters.
Now we will try to narrow down the location. As already mentioned, we
believe the principal port of Sanfotsi/Zabag was Lingayen in the
Philippines. In the Chinese records, the name is rendered Ling-ya-mon
and located about a month's sea journey due south of Tsu'an-chou.
Lingayen is located in northwest Luzon in the province of Pangasinan
and is perfectly situated as a transit route for trade between China and
points south and southeast, including the clove and nutmeg-bearing
regions of Toupo.
However, the actual location of the king of Sanfotsi/Zabag may have
been different than Lingayen. Indeed, Ling-ya-mon was said to be a
port of call before entering Sanfotsi proper.
The capital of the empire was described by both Chinese and Muslim
writers as a sort of Venice of Southeast Asia, with people living on
boats or homes built over the water. The capital furthermore appeared
to be located in a delta area frequented by ships. According to Abu
Zayd the city of the Mihraj, the ruler of Zabag, was situated on an
"estuary resembling the Tigris River which passes Bagdad and Basra,
and brings in salt water during the high tide and sweet water during
low tide."
Sulayman said that the capital of the Mihraj was located at a
freshwater port easily accessed from the sea. It was also said to "face"
the southern coast of China, i.e. it's location would be on the western
side of an island opposite (east/southeast of) the south China coast.
The nearest delta area to Lingayen is the Pampanga River system that
runs into the northern Manila Bay. The area was highly influential
during the Spanish conquest of the Philippines, and was the scene of
heavy resistance that eventually forced the Spanish into a pacification
treaty.
When the Spanish arrived in the Philippines, related peoples lived from
the Pampanga River delta region northward to the Gulf of Lingayen.
The people living in the region were still at that time conducting long
distance trade throughout Asia.
While the delta towns of Macabebe, Lubao and Betis boasted strong
rulers and garrisons, there is evidence that in earlier times a
flourishing trade center existed further north.
Prior to the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo around the 14th century, the area
around San Marcelino and Porac in the north had connection with the
sea. In 1992, after the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo, evidence of a trading
post including an old boat hull associated with Chinese ceramics and
stone anchors was found. Interestingly, these finds are in a region
known by the name Sambal1.
According to geologists, before the medieval eruption of Pinatubo the
sea extended much closer to this region and presumably as the lahar
filled in the existing areas southward the delta civilization moved
accordingly to maintain their maritime trading enterprise.
However, the eruption apparently brought the trading civilization to a
temporary halt around the 14th century. The dating corresponds very
well with the time that Sanfotsi drops out of sight from Chinese
historical literature.
The descriptions of Zabag tell of a constantly erupting volcano near the
kingdom. Something similar may be hinted at in the letters attributed
to Prester John which speak of rivers of sand or stone flowing from a
mountain range into a sea of sand/stones. The description resembles
what happens when lahar flows from a volcano to the ocean creating
what looks like a "sea of sand."
The resemblance of the name Sambal to Shambhala has additional
geographical significance in that the area consists of a mountainous
range. The snow-covered peaks of Shambhala even have a possible
explanation. The modern eruption of Pinatubo left the Sambal
mountain peaks capped with grey/white layers of volcanic ash given a
resemblance of snow. This might explain how Shambhala could at the
same time have snow-covered peaks and lush tropical vegetation.
Chau Ju-Kua mentions that most people in the region had the surname
"Pu." In the Pampanga region, the honorific "Apu" is used before
someone's name as a sign of respect. The Chinese whose own
surnames come at the beginning of their names might have confused
the honorific with a surname.
The medieval texts state that Sanfotsi/Zabag like Toupo to the
southeast consisted of a loosely confederated kingdoms that bonded
together for specific purposes. Interestingly, the system in this region
at the time of the Spanish arrival consisted of autonomous datus and
rajas. These independent entities though consulted with a special
authority accepted by all when it came to making new laws or
addressing regional security concerns. This authority not only
approved new laws by the datus and rajas but also the regulations of
the native priests. Thus, he combined both temporal and sacredotal
powers.2
There is substantial archaeological and linguistic evidence of Indic and
specifically Buddhist influence in the Luzon region in general although
admittedly much more work needs to be done. Most interesting are
the examples of Tantric jewelry that have been discovered in the
Philippine region.
And there still needs to be confirmation regarding influence of
Nestorian Christianity in this area.
However, from the geographical and historical aspects, the Sambal
region and the Pampanga River delta are the best bets for the location
of the capital of Sanfotsi/Zabag with Lingayen as it's main port.
Footnotes
1Christopher
G. Newhall, Arturo S. Daag, F.G. Delfin, Jr., Richard P.
Hoblitt, John McGeehin, John S. Pallister, Ma. Theresa M. Regalado,
Meyer Rubin, Bella S. Tubianosa, Rodolfo A. Tamayo, Jr., and Jesse V.
Umbal. "Eruptive History of Mount Pinatubo," FIRE and MUD: Eruptions
and Lahars of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines:
http://pubs.usgs.gov/pinatubo/newhall/index.html; Jesse V. Umbal
and Kelvin S. Rodolfo. "The 1991 Lahars of Southwestern Mount
Pinatubo and Evolution of the Lahar-Dammed Mapanuepe Lake," FIRE
and MUD: Eruptions and Lahars of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines:
http://pubs.usgs.gov/pinatubo/umbal/.
2Conrado
121.
Benitez. History of the Philippines. Boston, 1929, pp. 120-