The Guide: A-Level History at Pocklington
http://pocklingtonhistory.wikispaces.com/
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History
A Level Study Skills Pack
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Contents
AS unit content
page 4-5
A2 unit content
page 6-8
AS schemes of assessment
page 9
A2 schemes of assessment
page 10
Assessment Objectives
page 11
Unit F961
page 12-17
Unit F964
page 18-20
Unit F965
page 21-26
Unit F966
page 27-34
General advice (essays/notes)
page 35-45
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AS Unit F961 Option A - Study Topic 1: From Anglo-Saxon England to Norman
England 1035–87
Key Issues
Indicative Content
How effectively did Edward the
Confessor deal with his problems as
king?
Cnut’s successors, the reasons for instability, the powers of
the monarchy, the personality and upbringing of Edward the
Confessor, his handling of taxation, government, law and
military organisation, Edward‘s Norman connections.
What part did the Godwin family play
in the reign of Edward the Confessor?
The Earl Godwin, Edward’s marriage to Edith, the crisis of
1051–52, Harold Godwinson and his brothers.
What were the reasons for the
succession crisis at the end of Edward
the Confessor’s reign?
Rival claims to the throne, the succession to Edward the
Confessor, the events of 1064–66.
Why did William of Normandy win the
Battle of Hastings?
William of Normandy’s invasion preparations, the
Scandinavian landings in Hastings, Saxon preparations and
roles at Hastings, the roles of William and his army at
Hastings.
How did William I deal with opposition
to his rule?
William I’s suppression of rebellions, his military qualities,
castle building and the new Norman elite, the harrying of the
North.
How far did William I change the
government and administration in
England?
Change and continuity in government and administration
during the reign of William I, the
fate of Anglo-Saxon earls, the role of the Norman barons and
knights, the extent to which England became ‘feudal’,
evidence of change and continuity, towns, rural areas,
Domesday Book.
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Unit F961 Option B
Study Topic 6: Post-War Britain 1951–94
Key Issues
Why did the Conservatives remain in power from
to 1964?
Indicative Content
Macmillan as Prime Minister, social
1951 changes and comparative prosperity of the
1950s, problems of the Labour party.
Why did the Labour party win the 1964 election?
How successful were the Labour governments of 1964–
70 and 1974–79?
How far did Heath change the Conservative party?
Evidence of the declining fortunes of the
Conservatives, Conservative scandals, the
succession to Macmillan, the appeal of Wilson
as party leader.
Wilson and Callaghan as Prime
Ministers, economic problems and policies,
relations with the trades unions (‘In Place of
Strife’), divisions in the Labour party.
Heath as party leader and Prime
Minister, aims and policies, membership of the
EEC, economic measures, industrial relations,
miners’ strike.
Why was Thatcher a controversial Prime Minister in
domestic politics?
Election victories, Thatcher and her
ministers, reasons for support and opposition,
economic and social policies, unemployment,
trade unions.
Why did Ireland remain a problem (to 1994)?
Issues between nationalist and loyalist
groups, terrorism, Conservative and Labour
policies, the failure of power-sharing, the Anglo–
Irish Agreement (1985), Downing Street
Declaration (1993), IRA and Loyalist
declarations of ceasefires (1994).
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AS Unit F964 Option B - Study Topic 5: The USA and the Cold War in Asia 1945–75
This option examines the basis of US involvement in Asia after 1945 and the changing nature of its policy to
contain Communism in China, Korea and Vietnam. Candidates will need to understand why this failed in
some areas (China and Vietnam) yet had more success in others (Japan and South Korea). With Vietnam,
the focus is on the relative importance of the reasons for a growing US involvement, from Truman to Nixon,
and the problems of failure and disengagement. A detailed knowledge of Chinese and Soviet policy is not
required except insofar as they affected US policy during this period.
Key Issues
Indicative Content
How successfully did the US seek to contain Communism The reconstruction of Japan, the failure to
in Asia to 1950?
prevent a Communist victory in China in
1949 and its consequences, support for
South Korea, the defensive perimeter
strategy, the NSC68 (change or continuity
of policy?).
How far did the Korean War and its origins (1950–53)
change the US conduct of the Cold War in Asia?
The origins of the Korean War; the role of
the UN, US, USSR and China; disagreements
between Truman and MacArthur; the
consequences of the Korean War (military,
strategic and financial).
Why and with what results did the US become involved
in Vietnam to 1968?
Eisenhower and the end of French control
in Indo-China 1954, the rise of the
Vietminh, the Geneva Agreement, the
domino theory, the US and the fall of
Diem’s regime, the NLF 1960, Kennedy
1961–63 (aid, military advisors and
interventions), Johnson and the Gulf of
Tonkin incident, the decision to enter the
war, the results to 1968.
Why did the US fail to win the Vietnam War?
The role of the US military, the Vietcong
and guerrilla warfare, the Tet Offensive
1968, opposition to the war in the US, the
Draft, Nixon and the bombing campaign,
the Paris peace talks 1968–73, Northern
victory and the fall of Saigon 1975.
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A2 Unit F965: Historical Interpretations and Investigations
Russian Revolutions 1894–24
Focus: the reasons for the revolutions in Russia and the outcome of the establishment of a
Communist government.



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Why there was a revolution in 1905 and why the Tsar survived.
The reasons for the revolutions in 1917 and for the eventual success of the Bolsheviks.
The reasons why Lenin and the Bolsheviks were able to maintain themselves in power up
to 1924.
To what extent was Lenin merely a dictator who took and held power by force.
There are two elements in the assessment:
a. Interpretations: One piece of work up to 2,000 words long, based on the examination of a number
of historians’ interpretations in the context of the candidate’s knowledge of the area of debate. All
candidates in a centre may study the same area of debate. Interpretations tasks will be conducted
on the above topic: Russian Revolutions, 1894-1924
The Interpretations element requires candidates to comprehend, analyse and evaluate the ways in
which the past has been interpreted in debates between historians. This may be historiographically
based or it may reflect different emphases and approaches by different historians, some of whom
may have been writing in widely different periods. The passages on which the questions are based
are taken from the work of recognised historians and are long enough to provide plenty of
opportunity for candidates to assess and evaluate the arguments using their analytical skills and
their knowledge of the topic. They can show that they can discriminate between different
interpretations to reach a supported judgement on the issue into which they are making their
enquiry.
b. Investigations: One piece of work up to 2,000 words long, comprising a personal investigation by
the candidate. This will be based on a problem or issue about which there is a variety of views.
The Investigations element gives candidates some choice over the topic to be investigated as long
as they do not choose topics which they have already studied at AS or which they are studying for
the Themes Unit. Candidates will choose either an approved OCR Investigation question related to
the topic selected for their Interpretation element, or they will adapt a generic OCR question so
that they can study a particular area of personal interest. Candidates need to make a choice which
ensures their studies for this unit are coherent.
The investigation is problem-based and questions conform to this requirement. They focus on
recognised historical debates or on issues where different viewpoints can be put forward and
candidates can reach an argued conclusion based on analysis in relation to the historical context.
There are appropriate resources for the topics so that all candidates can have access to them. The
nature of the questions means that candidates will be appropriately challenged in writing their
answers.
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A2 Unit F966 Option B - Theme 5: Civil Rights in the USA 1865–1992
This theme focuses on the struggle of citizens in the United States to gain equality before the law without
regard to ethnic origin, gender or wealth. Candidates should understand the factors which encouraged and
discouraged change during this period.
Candidates are not expected to demonstrate a detailed understanding of the specification content but are
expected to know the main developments and turning points relevant to the theme.
Content
African Americans:
Their position in 1865; the role of African Americans in gaining civil rights (eg Booker T. Washington,
Dubois, Martin Luther King, the Black Panthers); the roles of Federal (Presidents, Congress and
Supreme Court) and State governments in the struggle; the role of anti- and pro-civil rights groups;
the Civil Rights Movement to 1992.
Trade Union and Labour Rights:
Union and labour rights in 1865; the impact of New Immigration on union development; the role of
Federal governments in supporting and opposing union and labour rights; the impact of the World
Wars on union and labour rights; the significance of the 1960s.
Native Americans:
Their position in 1865; the impact of the Dawes Act 1887, of the acquisition of US citizenship 1924, of
the New Deal, of the American Indian Movement in the 1960s and 1970s; Native Americans and the
Supreme Court; Native American pressure groups.
Women:
Their position in 1865; the impact on women’s rights of the campaign for prohibition, the campaign
of women’s suffrage, the New Deal, the World Wars, the rise of feminism and its opponents, Roe v
Wade 1973, the campaign for the Equal Rights Amendment, and changing economic and
employment opportunities.
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AS Schemes of Assessment
_____________________________________________________________________________________
F961: From Anglo-Saxon to Norman England 1035-1087 or Post-War Britain 1951-1994

50% of the total AS GCE marks 1.5h written paper 100 marks

The question paper for each option contains three essay questions. Each will target a
different Key Issue (or part of a different Key Issue) from the Study Topic, but each may
draw from more than one Key Issue.

Candidates answer 2 questions.

Each question is worth a maximum of 50 marks.
F964: The USA and the Cold War in Asia, 1945-1975

50% of the total AS GCE marks 1.5h written paper 100 marks

This is a document studies unit. In order to pose a 'problem' for candidates to solve, four or
five sources are set for each exercise; at least four of the sources are primary, and are
'unseen'. Mainly written sources are used, but information in numerical or pictorial form
may also be used for one of the sources. The sources total a maximum of 500 words.

The question paper for each option contains a two-part document study question for each
Study Topic:
[a] A comparison of two sources (requiring use of the candidate’s own knowledge
purely for context) worth a maximum of 30 marks.
[b] The testing of an assertion against all of the given sources and the candidate's
own knowledge. Worth a maximum of 30 marks.
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A2 Schemes of Assessment
_____________________________________________________________________________________
F965: Russian Revolutions 1894–24

20% of the total Advanced GCE marks

This unit consists of two extended essays, allowing each candidate the opportunity to
investigate critically a particular historical problem of their own choice. The extended essays
should be up to 2,000 words in length each (excluding only the footnotes and bibliography).
In addition, a small number of diagrams, statistical tables and illustrations can be included in
a small appendix if they need to be used regularly. One essay focuses on historical
interpretations and the other on historical investigations.

This unit offers an opportunity for candidates to undertake and present their own critical
investigation of a particular historical problem. Central to any successful investigation must
be analysis of evidence and the construction of argument based and built on the critical
evaluation of source material (primary and/or secondary) and/or of historical debate, for
which specific provision is made in the mark scheme.

Each extended essay is worth a maximum of 40 marks.
F966: Civil Rights in the USA 1865–1992

F966: 30% of the total Advanced GCE marks 2h written paper 120 marks

This unit is a synoptic part of the specification and seeks to develop understanding of
connections between different elements of the subject. It draws together knowledge,
understanding and the values of diverse issues centred upon Key Themes.

The topics are based on Key Themes covering an extended period of at least one hundred
years with an emphasis on continuity, development and change within the topic. The
emphasis is on developing a broad overview of the period studied. Unit F966 is a historical
perspectives unit so concern is centred on links and comparison between different aspects
of the topics studied.

Assessment is not by a traditional outlines paper so there is no requirement for detailed
depth of knowledge. Rather, candidates are required to show breadth of historical
understanding.

The question paper for each option contains 3 essay questions for each Study Topic.
Candidates answer 2 questions.

Each question is worth a maximum of 60 marks.
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Assessment Objectives
__________________________________________________________
There are two assessment objectives, AO1 and AO2. Candidates are expected to demonstrate:
AO1: Knowledge and Understanding
AO1a: Recall, select and deploy historical knowledge appropriately, and communicate knowledge
and understanding of history in a clear and effective manner.
AO1b: Demonstrate their understanding of the past though explanation, analysis and arriving at
substantiated judgements of:

Key concepts such as causation, consequence, continuity, change and significance
within an historical context.

Context- the relationships between key features and characteristics of the periods
studied.
AO2: Analysis, Evaluation and Application
AO2a: As part of an historical enquiry, analyse and evaluate a range of appropriate source material
with discrimination.
AO2b: Analyse and evaluate, in relation to the historical context, how aspects of the past have
been interpreted and represented in different ways.
AO weightings in Advanced GCE
Unit
F961
F964
F965
F966
% A Level
AO1b
AO2a
13
0
5
11
3
7
20
0
AO1a
12
4
3
10
70%
AO2b
0
5
7
0
30%
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Essay planning for Unit F961
Common wording of questions and what to do






How far do you agree …
Explain why …
To what extent …
Assess …
Analyse …
Why was … more successful …
The question may be agreed with or rejected
Assess – goes further than description because it requires answers to weigh the importance of different factors
How important – how does the given factor compare with other factors
Why – you must give reasons as to why your factor is relevant to the question
How far do you agree – weigh the importance of different factors
Other advice

Take a few minutes to plan your answer

Deconstruct the question
o Highlight key words e.g. any given factors, significance, importance etc.
o Stay focussed on answering the question

Check the dates! This lets you know what the examiner is and is not looking for in your answer
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ANALYTICAL

Avoid answering questions in the narrative – BE

Make sure your answer is
factor/statement

Try to

Use primary evidence where possible to support your answer
o E.g. Bayeux Tapestry, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Domesday Book, Orderic Vitalis, William of Poitiers etc.
balanced i.e. considers several factors, for and against the given
link factors together, especially when considering importance/priority
Remember to always get a:
F
E
E
L
actor
xplanation
vidence
ink
for your essay!
...
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
Essay Planning Frame
Argument
Introduction
Structure of
essay
Argument
Key sentence
Section 1
Evidence
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Mini-ccl
LINK SENTENCE
Argument
Key sentence
Section 2
Evidence
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Mini-ccl
LINK SENTENCE
Argument
Key sentence
Section 3
Evidence
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Mini-ccl
LINK SENTENCE
Draw strands
together
Conclusion
Final
judgement
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Handling the documents at F964
1 hour 30 minutes document paper
[a] Compare these sources [two sources cited] as evidence
for...
1.
This question involves three assessment objectives:
A01a: Recall and deployment and communication of knowledge
A01b: Analysis by comparing two sources within the historical context set by the question
AO2a: Evaluation of content and provenance [NOP] within the wider historical context
2.
Max. Mark
[6]
[8]
[16]
[30]
Suggested [i.e. this does help so use it!] structure and advice
Intro, two paragraphs [Content, NOP], conclusion
a. Introduction [optional depending on time but preferable]
Broad introduction summarising the similarities/differences of the two sources in terms of content
and provenance
b. Make direct comparisons to highlight either similarity and/or difference between the sources
Look for clear themes [i.e. areas where comparison can be made] and try to signpost them
effectively using paragraphing. Look for gaps/omissions between the sources.
Look for similarity and/or difference in terms of fact, opinion, language and tone.
e.g. A says that... whereas/on the other hand/by contrast....B says...
Qualify the degree of similarity/difference- ‘largely’, ‘completely’, ‘partly’ etc.
e.g. A partially agrees with B that...however it strongly disagrees with B over the issue of...
c. Assess provenance of each source i.e. ‘as evidence’.
Looking for the following:



Authenticity- is it truthful? [Look at nature, origin and purpose, as well as language and
tone.]
Completeness and typicality- does it give the whole picture/is it representative of the
majority view? [Look at origin and purpose.]
Consistency- is it clear, structured and gives a consistent message? [Look at content,
language and tone.]
In order to fully assess provenance you must explain the historical context surrounding the
source. This means using your own knowledge of the period to explain motive and purpose i.e.
contextual detail in support of your argument.
e.g. Communist views might focus on ‘wars of national liberation’ whereas a US position may view
communist aggression as part of a wider Kremlin conspiracy [NSC-68] etc.
d. Conclusion
Summarise your findings- often more important than an introduction in bringing your thoughts
together and influencing the examiner. You should contain a final judgement. Perhaps one is better
evidence than the other- but only historical context can fully justify such a conclusion.
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[b]
1.
Use your own knowledge to assess how far the sources support the interpretation that...
This question involves four assessment objectives:
A01a: Recall and deployment and communication of knowledge
A01b: Demonstrate understanding of the past though explanation, analysis and
arriving at substantiated judgements.
AO2a: Evaluation of content and provenance [NOP] within the wider historical context
A02b: Evaluation of interpretation using sources and own knowledge
Max Mark
[10]
[12]
[28]
[20]
[70]
2.
Suggested structure and advice
This question asks you to assess whether the sources support a given interpretation [AO2b], using your
own knowledge, NOT whether you agree or not with a given interpretation [using the sources and
your own knowledge].
You will need to critically evaluate the sources [NOP] within the wider historical context to show
whether the source can be seen as reliable and therefore useful with regards to the interpretation
offered.
a. Introduction
Outline the main argument of your essay- you may want to agree that the sources on the whole
support the interpretation or alternatively that they don’t and therefore give an alternative
interpretation or interpretations. You may say they all agree!
b. Deal with ‘given’ interpretation
Discuss whether the sources support the given interpretation. You will be given 5 sources so clearly if 3
agree with the interpretation then on balance they do. Therefore you must qualify the extent to which
the sources support the interpretation given. However you must also assess provenance [see note C
on previous page] of the sources supporting the given interpretation to evaluate how reliable the
evidence is with regards the given interpretation [utility]. You must also use contextual knowledge to
elaborate on the interpretation and assess each source’s utility.
A good structure to use is the following:
Evidence- use the sources that agree with the given interpretation
Evaluate- evaluate these sources in terms of NOP and cross-references with other sources
Own knowledge- apply own knowledge to back up the points made by the sources or use own
knowledge to question to evidence in terms of the evaluation of the source.
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c. Consider other interpretations
Consider other interpretations in the sources and add your own if not dealt with by the sources. You
may wish to conclude that on balance the majority of the sources support an alternative interpretation
to the one given. However you will need to evaluate the sources once again to assess utility. [You may,
for example, conclude that a majority of the sources do not support the given interpretation but that
since they are unreliable or unrepresentative then the strongest argument supports the given
interpretation because those sources are more reliable and therefore useful!]
Again use the structure suggested: Evidence-Evaluation-Own Knowledge
d. Conclusion
Always a good idea to conclude, especially if you have not introduced your answer. Bring your
thoughts together and conclude. Again discuss the degree of support for the given interpretation and
discuss reliability etc.
So... for example
Do the pupils support the interpretation that homework is due in on Monday?
4 of the 6 students [the sources] say that the homework is due in on Wednesday. However
these four students are extremely untrustworthy and lazy. This evidence is supported by
independent research conducted by Hughes who states they regularly fail to hand in work on
time and several have been arrested for shoplifting in town.
By contrast the 2 remaining students state that homework is due in on Monday. These 2 are
renowned for being diligent in their work and trustworthy. This assessment is supported by
the fact that they are prefects, gain merits for every piece of work, and have never as yet
missed a homework assignment. This last point is verified by Taylor’s research who concludes
‘they are without doubt super students!’
So on balance and in conclusion, given the provenance of the sources, the majority of the
sources do not support the interpretation that homework is due in on Monday, but the more
reliable do! One can therefore conclude that homework is indeed to be handed in on
Monday.
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F965
Understanding HOW to critically evaluate sources
According to Bloom’s Taxonomy [1956] evaluation is at the pinnacle of higher order
thinking skills:
In terms of source analysis this is the ability to…
Recall and describe information and/or data from a source
Understand the meaning of a source and translate it into one’s own words
Apply knowledge from a source to show or demonstrate an argument
Select appropriate information from sources, identify inconsistencies,
errors, make inferences, compare or deconstruct
Group sources together into an argument or structure
Judge a source or group of sources in terms of their value to a given
argument or proposition
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The mark scheme assesses three components for each 2000 word piece: [To give a total of 80 marks]
AO1a: Recall, select and deploy historical knowledge appropriately, and communicate knowledge
and understanding of History in a clear and effective manner
6 marks
AO1b: Demonstrate understanding of the past through explanation, analysis and arriving at
substantiated judgements
6 marks
AO2b: Analyse and evaluate, in relation to the historical context, how aspects of the past have
been interpreted and represented in different ways. [Interpretations]
28 marks
As part of an historical enquiry, analyse and evaluate a range of appropriate source material
with discrimination [Investigations]
The examiner will therefore ask 4 key questions of your work?
Is it relevant- does it answer the question?
Is there knowledge?
Is there understanding?
Is there source evaluation?
You will need to:
1. Understand and comprehend the meaning of each source- the thrust
2. Critically evaluate by applying well selected contextual knowledge to a passage [synthesis] from which a
judgement as to its value emerges. [Critical evaluation may assess a source on its own merits using NOP- but
this is of little use without contextual knowledge- beware the stock evaluation!]
3. Construct a coherent argument that answers the question by grouping mutually supportive sources together
[cross-referencing or corroboration] - this is a synopsis. Primary may be cross-referenced with secondary or
vice versa- but avoid tertiary sources. The answer needs to be passage led.
4. Communicate clearly and coherently.
Do not:
1. Simply describe the sources without evaluation.
2. Use the passages as merely illustration of a larger argument.
3. Re-hash debate/schools of thought without advancing the argument
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Critical Evaluation: Some key words
supported by...
contradicted by...
correct...
wrong....
discriminates effectively...
indiscriminate in its use of...
overly optimistic...
unduly pessimistic...
balanced...
unbalanced...
highly convincing...
not convincing...
consistent...
inconsistent...
successful in assessing
unsuccessful in assessing....
valid...
invalid...
assesses well...
fails to assess...
explains well....
fails to explain...
objective...
subjective...
impartial...
partial...
reliable...
unreliable...
substantiated by...
unsubstantiated...
goes far enough...
goes too far...
well
evidenced...
lacks evidence...
strong...
weak...
hard to question...
questionable...
developed...
undeveloped...
states accurately...
understates/overstates...
unproblematic...
problematic...
authentic...
authenticity can be questioned...
typical...
untypical...
corroborated by...
lacks corroboration...
mentions...
fails to mention...
includes...
omits...
accurate...
inaccurate...
Consider the following- which is most effective?
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Highlight Evaluation of sources
Passage A
‘However there were attempts at cooperation at Yalta in Feb 1945 and Potsdam in
July/August 1945, although cracks appeared at the latter. At Potsdam it was clear that each
leader had their own concerns, as stated in Source C, ‘Roosevelt’s most cherished
objective…Stalin’s overriding concern was the security of the Soviet Union.’ These concerns
could both be achieved through compromise such as the percentages agreement in 1944
which saw Churchill and Stalin agree to areas of influence in Europe. This is supported by
Source D, ‘Deals were possible, especially…on percentages of influence in the Balkans.’
Sources C and D would seem post-revisionist interpretations of the breakdown, that neither
east nor west wanted a breakdown of the alliance while Source B would keep to a
traditionalist view. That the break-up of the Grand Alliance was inevitable, this supports
Source A hugely.
Comment:
Passage B
Pasco believes that communication had a key role in the Battle of Trafalgar; however he
places a lot more significance on the famous signal that is ‘England expects that every man
will do his duty’ because he believes that it roused the men to a new level of battle fever,
due to excitement, loyalty or courage. Excitement because of the possibility of a battle and
prize money, loyalty to the sailor’s ship, friends, captain or Nelson himself…Bennett
disagrees entirely with Pasco, because he states that the only use of communication is to
get the fleet ready and as such it did not have effect on the battle itself.
Comment:
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Passage C
The following quote backs up Stampp’s viewpoint that slavery was extremely cruel; the
source shows under no circumstances were slaves unable to be excuse work. ‘It was never
too hot or too cold; it could never rain, blow, hail or snow too hard for us to work in the
field. Work, work, work.’ This quotation by Douglass, a well known ex-slave, shows how
under no circumstances was work to be left; these extreme conditions shoe the harsh
reality of work for the slaves. I believe that this source is useful as it shows the extreme
conditions that the slaves had to work in, I feel that the source is reliable as it was
published in Douglass’ autobiography which he wrote after he escaped from slavery and
Douglass had first hand experienced slavery and knew what life really was like.
Comment:
Passage D
Matthew brings attention to the financial achievements of Gladstone’s administration. He
mentions how tax-payers were pleased ‘when expenditure on defence spending fell
dramatically’ in 1869 and 1870. He also talks of the ‘marked increase in national wealth’,
and ‘splendid surpluses in 1872 and 1873’. There was, as Matthew suggests some
satisfaction amongst taxpayers. However he does not bring to attention the bungling of
Gladstone’s chancellor, Robert Lowe, who made several failed proposals [including a tax on
matches, which was very unpopular and misjudged] and was forced to raise income tax to
cover his costs at one stage. Matthew’s positive overview of Gladstone’s financial
policy...fails to convey that Gladstone had nothing like the popular acclaim he had with the
free trade budgets of 1853 and 1861, and failed to make fiscal prudence the backbone of
his administration, as he had hoped.
Comment:
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Passage E
The burghs can be seen to have aided the success of Alfred against the Vikings as they
facilitated the creation of a new ‘burgher’ class with loyalty to the King and their burgh over
that to their ealdormen and thegns. As such, the burghs provided a crucial centre of
support for Alfred, providing manpower in time of war, as troop numbers often depended
on the political persuasion of Alfred’s subjects. Indeed, Brooks goes so far as to state that
Alfred was attempting ‘a major colonising enterprise’. However it is perhaps going too far
to suggest that a redistribution of the population to the new towns in order to create
support was the main reason for the construction of the burghs. Instead it is clear that this
programme was designed primarily to create centres for permanent garrisons in order to
combat the Viking threat, and was not solely a programme of town building as Asser uses
the Latin ‘arx’ or ‘castellum’ when referring to the burghs, clearly distinguishing them from
the remaining Roman towns for which ‘civitas’ is used.
Comment:
Passage F
Scooby Doo is arguably the greatest comic cartoon crime fighter ever to have graced the TV stage.
Discounting the acclamations of Scrappy Doo that Scooby is ‘the greatest’ as the words of an unreliable
cartoon adolescent, one can nevertheless marshal an impressive weight of evidence to support Snoopy’s
contention that ‘with perhaps the exception of Hong Kong Fuey, Scooby’s instinctive grasp of the dangers
posed by UFOs and out of body experiences is unparalleled.’ Shaggy’s assessment certainly supports this
theory by some impressive use of statistical data: crimes solved by Scooby running to 75% of TV shows
broadcast, of which over 60% were the direct result of Scooby’s ability to sniff out and unmask the all-toohuman villain hidden beneath the bandages or directing the holographic projections. One could possibly
question Shaggy’s evidence as overly partial, based on the fact that he was one half of the gluttonous duo.
However his important work has been corroborated by Thelma’s and Daphne’s research into the
paranormal- citing only the human agents Mulder and Scully getting anywhere close to Scooby’s record on
detecting para-normal crime. Their research seems all the more reliable given the fact that they
themselves stand to lose out in the reputation stakes by accrediting Scooby with most of the scoops!
Perhaps an independent assessment from Lassie gives the most compelling evidence: ‘Quite simply Scooby
was for me an icon, a role model and an inspiration to dogs, drawn or not, across the canine world.’
26
Unit F966 Option B: Modern 1789–1997
Civil Rights in the USA 1865–1992
The Historical Themes unit is a synoptic part of the specification that seeks to develop an understanding of
connections between different elements of the subject and for candidates to draw together knowledge,
understanding and skills of diverse issues centred upon a common theme. The topics are based on
Themes covering an extended period of approximately one hundred years with an emphasis on continuity,
development and change appropriate to the topic. The emphasis is on developing and interpreting a broad
overview of the period studied. The modules are historical perspectives, so concern is focused on making
links and comparisons between different aspects of the topics studied and of testing hypotheses before
reaching a judgement. This unit, simply, is assessing change and continuity over time.
Example questions:
Key Theme: Civil Rights in the USA 1865-1992
1 How far did US presidents hinder rather than help the development of African
American civil rights in the period from 1865 to 1992? [60]
2 To what extent were the 1890s the main turning-point in the development of trade
union and labour rights in the period from 1865 to 1992? [60]
3 ‘The concept of the “melting pot” did not apply to Native Americans throughout the
period from 1865 to 1992.’ How far do you agree with this view? [60]
27
What the examiner is looking for in each example question:
1.How far did US presidents hinder rather than help the development
of African American civil rights in the period from 1865 to 1992?
Focus: Assessment of the role of US presidents in the development of
civil rights
Candidates have the opportunity to discuss the role of US presidents in
the development of African American civil rights. They can mention the
role of Andrew Johnson who impeded the development of Radical
Reconstruction which planned to offer full rights to AAs; under Grant
Reconstruction saw the implementation of the 14th and 15th amendments
and the suppression of White Supremacist groups such as the Ku Klux
Klan. Hayes saw the end of Reconstruction and the imposition of white
supremacist rule in the South. Under presidents Cleveland through to
Wilson the development of segregation took place in the South without
presidential interference. Changes occur under FDR with AAs receiving
better rights under the New Deal agencies and in WWII; Truman
desegregated the armed forces and made AA civil rights a government
priority. Eisenhower tried to avoid supporting AA rights unless forced to
do so. JFK and LBJ openly aided AA rights and were very important in
supporting the civil rights movement. Nixon upheld 1960s legislation and
court ruling which aided AA rights. Nixon’s role was continued by Ford,
Carter and Reagan.
2.To what extent were the 1890s the main turning-point in the
development of trade union and labour rights in the period from
1865 to 1992?
Focus: Evaluation of the 1890s compared to other moments of change
Candidates will be expected to explain the importance of the 1890s in
the development of trade union rights. The majority of candidates may
refer to the Homestead and Pullman strikes of the 1890s. These quite
rightly can be regarded as watershed events. Homestead Strike, for
example, ended the trade union claim for the concept of workers’ rights
within US companies. Both strikes stand out as examples of the use and
support of Federal and State power against trade unions. The 1890s
also saw the mass arrival of new immigrants from Europe. This helped
split the US trade union movement between Old and New Immigrants. It
also saw the growing division between skilled and unskilled labour.
Finally, the 1890s saw the growth of trade union militancy, which
resulted in the creation of the International Workers of the World (IWW).
Candidates could counter the assertion in the question with reference to
other potential main turning points such as:- the 1920s when Big
Business with Federal Government support introduced no strike (yellow
dog) contracts on unions. Unions faced Supreme Court and Federal
Courts’ judgements against collective bargaining. The New Deal era saw
the Wagner Act give unions recognition and collective bargaining rights.
The National Labour Standards Act gave unions arbitration rights, and
the COI was created in 1936. The Second World War saw full
employment and the war effort gave unions a major role in war industries
under Federal protection. As a result union membership increased to its
highest proportionate level in US history. Some candidates may refer to
the 1960s and 1980s as alternative turning points but these must be set
in the wider context of the whole period.
28
3.‘The concept of the “melting pot” did not apply to Native Americans
throughout the period from 1865 to 1992.’ How far do you agree
with this view?
Focus: Evaluation of the significance of the melting pot for Native
Americans.
Candidates will need to understand ‘melting pot’ as it applied to US
history in the period (the concept that the USA successfully integrated
people from a wide variety of ethnic backgrounds into the mainstream of
US society). Answers may mention that, at the start of the period, Native
Americans stood outside US society. US governments regarded each
tribe as an independent, sovereign nation. As a result, Native Americans
did not have civil rights like other Americans. In 1887 the Dawes Act
gave citizenship to the Plains Indians, such as the Oglala/Dakota Sioux
and Cheyenne. After 1887, attempts were made to integrate some
Native Americans into US society through church schools. Many Native
Americans were confined to Tribal Reservations. In 1924 all Native
Americans were granted the right to claim US citizenship. However,
social and economic exclusion remained – an issue picked up by the
American Indian Movement in the 1960s and 1970s. By the 1990s some
Native Americans had integrated into US society but others remained on
the Tribal Reservations.
29
How to do the CCOT – F966
The CCOT – Change and Continuity Over Time
This is, and is supposed to be, the hardest unit of your History A-Level. It asks you to analyze what has
changed and/or remained the same during a certain time period (often one era, sometimes more than
one), in a certain region(s) while focusing on a particular theme(s):
Consider events in history. Is there a pattern in these events? Patterns are not simply a set path for events
to take, but rather a process involved. In a CCOT essay you need to identify the patterns (or big picture) for
a theme during a specific time period, but also use the events (small picture) as evidence to support your
claim as to what the pattern is. To do this well it is important to be familiar with periodization (the key
dividing points among and within eras), and context (the Big Picture: the situation at these points in time).
For a CCOT, you are required to consider the history of certain themes – how have those areas changed or
remained the same throughout time? Has there been a smooth progression? [Rarely the case] Have there
been any interruptions or reversals/roll backs? What has remained the same despite these changes? [This
is harder to do and most often refers to obvious and often unremarkable events] After identifying the
patterns, you need to determine why these changes or continuities have occurred.
It helps to consider CCOT analysis akin to describing ripples or waves of water, which produces a more
complete approach. Depending on the theme, the process described can involve tidal waves, the regular
ebbing and flowing of waves, the impact from a large rock or meteor in the ocean, or ripples from the
throw of a pebble in a pond. You can consider events at the beginning, middle and end of the time period
and you should consider:
• What started the ripples or waves?
• What are the sizes of the waves? [What is the significance of the changes?]
• Do the waves/ripples flow in any set pattern that would help analyze the changes/continuities?
o Are they cyclical? [e.g. do the same patterns seem to develop over a medium period of time?]
o Does the same kind/size of rock [event] produce the same results? [Or is there something different
about the specific event that makes its impact greater?] (it is clear that not all African-American Protest
groups have the same effects, so why?)
o Do the waves/ripples affect other waves/ripples in the same time period?
In this process you are forced to address causation – what caused the initial change? Did anything
accelerate it, what and why? Did anything change the direction it was taking, what and why? Was it
delayed, by what and why? (This might be political expediency/foreign policy/emergency events/public
emotion, etc.)
30
How to approach CCOT
1. Recognize Topic: Correctly recognize the general topic/theme. Consider all that could be included
under that topic category and look for references across the topic areas (African-Americans/Labour
Rights/Native Americans/Women’s Rights).
2. Identify Correct time period: read the question very carefully – do not stray out of the parameters
given.
3. Determine Significance of Dates: Determine the significance given of the dates, both the start date
and the end date. Be sure to consider events all the way until the end date and all the way from the
beginning date but not beyond either. E.g. the era 1917-1945 is clearly indicating the defining period of
Civil Rights between both World Wars and US involvement therein. N.B. It is ok to draw upon events
before and after to help give structure to your essay but do not write more than the briefest of references.
4. Identify Changes: Compare periods of time, namely conditions at the beginning of the given time
period, with those at the end and determine what is different (changes). As with any comparison, the
description of just one of those (i.e. the situation at the end of the given time period) is not enough, you
need to identify from what it changed to have done a complete comparison. Make sure you give concrete
examples of how they changed.
5. Identify Continuities: Establish what remained the same during the time period or the continuities (so
the similarities of the comparison), not just what changed (the differences). Again, give concrete examples
of how they remained the same.
6. Identify Key Steps in Process: Consider the process that took place during this time. That is - were
there any major developments that are relevant that occurred between the beginning date (the baseline)
and the end date (the end point)? Sometimes, when the time period specified in the question is between
eras, the era dates are good mid-way point(s) to consider. More often than not though, the time period
specified is within one era and finding a relevant mid-point(s) of events that would have had an impact on
the topic is a bit harder.
7. Analyze the Changes and Continuities (including reasons for them): Analyze the processes identified.
The pace of change, the manner of change/continuity, comparative changes/continuity, and results or
effects of the changes/continuities. Make sure you also analyze why did things change or remain the
same?
8. Include Global Context: Make sure to include the relevant world historical context in some of your
analysis of the changes and continuities over time, including reasons for them, where possible and
appropriate.
31
Tips for Writing the CCOT
·
Your thesis must include your argument (what changed, what remained the same, and why did it
happen this way), the geographic focus of the question (the places identified), and the time frame
specified in the question (the dates).
·
When asked to discuss or even analyze changes or transformations, do not describe them as positive
or negative, but rather describe specifics about the actual continuity or change/transformation.
·
Be sure to provide evidence to support your description of the continuity and
changes/transformations which should be different than your actual description of them.
· Be sure to focus on analyzing the continuities and changes over time, rather than just listing events in the
order they occurred or narrating what happened in the “story line.”
Terms to use for changes: previously, before, until that time, up to that time, formerly, from that point
forward, over time, as things evolved, in the [fill in the blank] century, or then comes the period of time
when [such and such happened].
You can also use the terms radical or completely to describe a change, but be careful as you will need to
address a similarity and usage of these terms might make that harder or even impossible.
Terms to use for continuities: throughout this period, continued to, persistent, lasting, enduring, ongoing,
constant, sustained, or maintained.
Also, permanent, undying, unrelenting or undeviating, but be careful with these terms as they can corner
you into an argument you might not be able to defend.
Terms to use to indicate analysis: ‘because’, ‘as a result,’ ‘therefore’, ‘due to’, ‘as a consequence of’.
For example, the following is not analysis: “The Roman Empire grew very large and hard to defend. The
emperor divided it into two parts. Barbarian invaders won.”
This is analysis: “The Roman Empire grew so large that the emperor divided it into two parts. Because it
was hard to defend, barbarian invaders won.”
32
Possible/Common CCOT Essay Structures
Below are some common essay structures that students use for the CCOT (omitting the mention of
Introductory Paragraph and Conclusion obviously). The Topical is probably the universally best structure
and the Changes/Continuities structure is the least sophisticated. Depending on the exact wording of the
question other structures might seem preferable on occasion.
1. Topical (Best)
·
Subtopic #1 - Context, Changes, Continuities, and analysis of process of change/continuity and
relationship to context
·
Subtopic #2 - Context, Changes, Continuities, analysis of process of change/continuity and
relationship to context
·
Subtopic #3 - Context, Changes, Continuities, and analysis of process of change/continuity and
relationship to context
2. Chronological
1. Beginning Situation (start date)
·
Context
·
Category #1, w/ analysis of process of change/continuity & relationship to context
·
Category #2, w/ analysis of process of change/continuity & relationship to context
2. Cause(s) of Change(s) (Repeat as many times as necessary)
a. There might be a specific date of the cause, event, or “turning point,” or
b. A specific date when the change is observable, but the cause of the change was gradual with no
specific date of onset, or
c. A series of factors leading to change, each with different onset dates or no clear onset date of all,
which caused gradual change in an un-dramatic fashion.
·
Context
·
Category #1, w/ analysis of process of change/continuity & relationship to context
·
Category #2, w/ analysis of process of change/continuity & relationship to context
3. Date by which Change is Observable (end date)
·
Context
·
What were the changes in contrast with the Beginning Situation, analyze reason why.
·
What were the continuities from the Beginning Situation, analyze reason why.
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3. Changes / Continuities (simple structure)
·
Changes - Category #1; Category #2;
Analysis of analysis of process of change & relationship to
context
·
Continuities - Category #1; Category #2; Analysis of analysis of continuity & relation to context
34
General History - Study Advice
Paragraphing and Signposting
History is not a murder-mystery suspense where the culprit is
unmasked by the sleuth on the last page, to gasps of horror and
recrimination, followed by a mad escape, chase and fatal shooting
or suicide bid. History is the art of telling the examiner who the
murderer is on page one and then outlining the evidence in a
logical and structured argument. Like a lawyer you create a case
which demolishes rival theories and presents your own in a clear
and unchallengeable way. For this you need signposting! You
need to signpost the overall argument in the introduction and
then outline then signpost each factor in each paragraph.
Follow some general rules:

One point per paragraph

Each paragraph contains four elements: The PEEL formula
P
POINT
Statement of opinion- the signpost [see next section]
E
EXPLANATION
Development of statement
E
EVIDENCE
Illustration and evidence
L
LINK
Conclusion and linkage
35
Consider the following paragraphs as they relate to the question: Why did Johnson commit ground troops?
Which one works best and why?
Paragraph One
In 1963 Diem was assassinated. South Vietnam’s government was unstable and his death was followed by a series of
weak military dictatorships. The US had played a hand in Diem’s assassination. The South Vietnamese were not loyal
to their government- there had been Buddhist protests in 1962 and 1963. The ARVN was a weak military force and
was threatened by VC infiltration. It lacked morale and fighting spirit. McNamara’s fact-finding mission in 1964
concluded the VC controlled over 40% of the South Vietnamese countryside. The strategic hamlet programme had
also failed to isolate villagers from VC influence and served only to alienate the peasants. American attempts to build
up the ARVN failed and Johnson became increasingly frustrated. Pressure from North Vietnam and Russia seemed to
be mounting. In 1965 he sent in ground troops.
Paragraph Two
The American decision to escalate and send ground troops to Vietnam in 1965 was largely a result of their
assessment that by 1964 the South Vietnamese regime was on the verge of collapse and would be therefore
replaced by a communist system. This was due first to the failure of the US policy of nation building and the inherent
weaknesses of the South Vietnamese government. By 1964 the US policy of nation building was in tatters. The
assassination of Diem in 1963 led to a string of weak military dictatorships all equally unpopular to the majority of
the peasant population. The strategic hamlet programme had also failed to isolate villagers from communist
influence and merely increased resentment at US policy. Finally US advisers had failed to create a viable military
force in the ARVN to counter the VC. The force was poorly trained, lack discipline and morale and riddled with
communist infiltrators. This failure links to the second reason- the strengths of the communists in South Vietnam. As
McNamara concluded in 1964 on his fact finding mission- the VC controlled over 40% of the South Vietnamese
countryside.
Paragraph Three
By 1963 the South Vietnamese regime was on the verge of collapse. Diem’s assassination led to a string of weak
military dictatorships. There were Buddhist protests in 1962-3 against the government. The ARVN was weak- riddled
with VC infiltrators, poorly trained and lacking in fighting spirit. The strategic hamlet programme only served to
alienate the peasants. McNamara’s fact-finding mission highlighted the fact that the VC had a hold on over 40% of
the South Vietnamese countryside. It seemed that support for the VC had increased from North Vietnam and the
USSR. As a result of this instability Johnson decided the only course of action was to send in ground troops in 1965
and escalated US involvement.
36
Ten Commandments of Good Historical Writing
by Theron F. Schlabach
With apologies to the Author of the original ten
I. Thou shalt begin with an outline that buildeth thy entire paper around thy central ideas.
An outline built around a THESIS AND SUBTHESES will do the job much better than one that only
categorizes information or puts it into chronological order--although topical analysis and narrative also have
their uses. In any case, whether you organize by thesis-subthesis, topic, or narrative, your central task is to
ask penetrating, interpretive questions of your sources. Therefore structure your outline to let incidental facts
recede as supporting evidence, and to emphasize answers to intelligent questions.
Facts and details should always support the main ideas in evident ways.
Do not relegate the real point (or points) of the paper to the conclusion.
II. Thou shalt avoid self-conscious discussion of thy intended purposes, thy strategy, thy
sources, and thy research methodology.
Draw your reader's attention to the points you are making, not to yourself and all the misery and sweat of
your process of research and writing. Keep the focus on what you have to say, not on the question of how
you hope to develop and say it. Do not parade around in your mental underwear. Show only the well-pressed
and well-shined final product.
Avoid self-conscious-sounding phrases such as: "now let us turn to"; "I will demonstrate that"; "now we see
that"; even "I think that", or (even worse) "I feel that".
Avoid use of first person.
If you must discuss methodology, do it in a preface; discussing sources is fine, but in a bibliographical
essay.
Phrases that tell your reader explicitly what you intend to do or to do next, or that tell explicitly where to see
emphasis, are crutches. They indicate weaknesses in your paper's implicit development and emphasis.
The above does not mean that you offer the reader no cues and clues. Yes, it is important, in the opening
paragraph or two of a paper or a section, to lay out the essential question(s) you will address and often to
hint at the answers you may find. But do it artistically, not with a heavy hand.
In the cases of historiographical papers and book reviews you may of course discuss sources. Those cases
are exceptions. There may be other exceptions.
37
III. Thou mayest covet other writers' ideas but thou shalt not steal them.
Document EVERY quotation, paraphrase, or crucial idea that you borrow from a source.
Document those facts which you cannot consider common textbook knowledge--especially those which
could be controversial or which are crucial to the development of your argument, analysis, or narrative.
If there get to be too many footnotes, combine some or all that refer to a given paragraph. However, never
make one footnote cover material in more than one paragraph. When in doubt, footnote.
IV. Thou shalt strive for clarity above cuteness; thou shalt not use jargon when common
language will serve, nor a large word when a small one will serve, nor a foreign term when
an English one will serve, nor an abstract term where a vivid one is possible.
Learn first of all to write lean, tough, logical, precise prose. After you have learned that, you may begin to
experiment with metaphors, allusions, and fancily turned phrases. But use these only if they add to
communication and do not clutter it up.
Never use more words when you can make the point with fewer.
Trying to impress your reader with obscure vocabulary, erudition in foreign or specialized verbiage, and all
such pretension, is absolutely out.
Take special care to keep verbs in their active, verb form, rather than changing them into abstract nouns,
usually with "tion" endings. ("She helped organize." Not: "She helped in the organization of." "He was one
who used Marx's ideas." Not: "He participated in the utilization of the ideas of Marx.")
V. Remember thy paragraph to keep it a significant unity; thou shalt not fragment thy
discussion into one short paragraph after another, and neither shalt thou write a
paragraph that fails to develop a topical idea.
Think of the paragraph as an instrument to develop an idea. The paragraph should have a recognizable idea,
usually as a topic sentence.
Usually, three sentences are minimum for a good paragraph, and most paragraphs should have more. Short
paragraphs seldom develop ideas or nuances. They are for people with very short attention spans (which
partly explains why journalists use them).
Maximum length for a good paragraph is roughly one typed, double-spaced page, although a paper full of
such long paragraphs will be tiring. A good length for most is 1/2 to 3/4 page.
There are times to violate the no-one-or-two-sentence-paragraph rule, especially: to make a succinct
statement stand out sharply for emphasis; or, to make a transition to a new section of the paper.
38
VI. Thou shalt write as if thy reader is intelligent--but totally uninformed on any
particular subject: hence, thou shalt identify all persons, organizations, etc., and shalt in
every way try to make thy paper a self-sufficient unit.
Here, the chief temptations are: to plunge into a subject without adequately establishing time, place, and
context; and, to refer to authors and to obscure historical events as if everyone knew of them. The motive
may even be snobbery, showing off one's esoteric knowledge.
So, do not refer to facts in language that implies that the reader is already familiar with them, unless you
have first established the facts. To do so may make the reader feel dumb. Often this rule means: using "a" or
no article at all instead of using "the" or a possessive pronoun; and, not putting the reference in a subordinate
clause.
In the first reference to a person, organization, or whatever, give the complete name (not only initials).
Thereafter, unless a long space has elapsed, you may refer to a person only by last name (seldom the
familiarity of only the first name). In the case of an organization, after the first reference you may use an
acronym (e.g., CIA for Central Intelligence Agency) if you have made the meaning of the acronym clear.
VII. Thou shalt use quotations sparingly and judiciously, only for color and clarity; if thou
must quote, quotations should not break the flow of thine own language and logic, and thy
text should make clear whom thou art quoting.
Effective quotation is a literary device--not a way to transfer information unprocessed and undigested from
your sources to your reader.
Quoting does NOT add authority, unless you have already established that the source carries authority. Even
then, paraphrasing may do as well or better. (Often, you should be able to write better than did the original
author!)
Usually, for art's sake, do not quote whole sentences. Your language will flow better, without strange
sentence structure and abrupt shifts in style, if you quote only short phrases and merge them nicely into your
own stream of language.
Indented block quotations are out! If a quotation gets beyond about four lines (heaven forbid!), break it up,
paraphrase, do something--but do not make notches at the edge of your paper that signal a coming mass of
undigested material.
VIII. Thou shalt not relegate essential information to thy footnotes
Normally, discursive footnotes should be very few. If the information is important enough to print, get it into
the text; if not, save the paper.
39
IX. Thou shalt write consistently in past tense, and in other ways keep thy reader firmly
anchored in time.
The "historical present" causes more confusion than it is worth. Sense of time and context is first among the
historian's contributions. Writing of past events in the present tense is usually evidence that the author
lacked appreciation for historical setting.
Historical essays and book reviews present special problems. But even the author's act of writing a book
took place in the past, even if only a year or two ago. Thus, Hofstadter ARGUED, not "argues", in his Age of
Reform. Hofstadter is now dead, and presumably cannot argue (present tense). Even if he were still living,
we do not know that he has not changed his mind; authors do change their minds. On the other hand, the
book, if it is the subject of the verb, does always continue to make the same point, so that you do use present
tense. Thus, Hofstadter's Age of Reform "argues," not "argued".
As you write, frequently intersperse time phrases: "in 1907", "two years later", whatever. If the date is the
more important, state the date; if time elapsed is the more important, use a phrase such as "two years later".
Perfect tense is very helpful, indeed often necessary, for keeping the time line clear--especially when you
shift or flash forward or backward from some reference point in time. ("In August, 1893 Smith met Jones at
the World's Exhibition in Chicago. Three years earlier they had met in London. Now they met as old
friends.") Note "had met".
X. Thou shalt not use passive voice.
Passive voice destroys clarity because often it does not make clear who did the acting. ("The order was
given.") In such cases, it fails to give complete information. Or even if it does give the information ("The
order was given by Lincoln.") it gives it back-end-forward. Why not: "Lincoln gave the order."?
If you write many sentences in passive voice, check whether your language is not generally abstract and
colorless. Passive voice almost always goes with a style that lacks vigor and clear, direct statement.
Some people have the notion that passive, colourless writing shows scholarly objectivity. The idea is pure
rot.
40
How to Take Notes
Introduction
Note taking is a very important skill. Faced with a large body of text your task is to condense the
information down to something that is meaningful, concise and able to be revised from or incorporated into
an essay.
At best it is well organised, clearly laid out and should answer a question. This question needs to be set by
yourself. At worst it is a pointless copying out of the text with little real condensing. Notes such as these are
rarely used in an essay and usually contribute towards a narrative approach.
Some general principles:
1. Scan read the text you are to note first.
This is an important technique- it gives you a clear indication of the content of the passage and
allows you to pose some questions. Note taking should be the PRODUCT not the PRELUDE to
thought.
2. Makes notes around a core question..
Narrative or descriptive information on its own is of little use. Focus on the core questions:
WHY?
HOW?
You also need to focus on key historical concepts such as:
CAUSATION
CONSEQUENCE
CHANGE
CONTINUITY
3. Set out notes clearly.
Some general principles should help:
Use headings and sub-headings
Number points
Use space and indent
Use colour/capitals/underline etc.
Abbreviate
4. Revise and condense
Type up your notes- this will allow you to re-order, remove repetition, condense further etc. It will also
help the memory process.
41
Noting Styles
There are in fact many ways to set out notes:
Linear Notes: These are the most common type of notes- information is written down on the page in
much the same way as a history textbook.
Advantages: They are relatively easy to do and are familiar to you. They look neat and logical.
Disadvantages: They can encourage you to copy out material and are not as flexible in terms of linking
and connecting information.
Mind Maps: This is a way of arranging notes spatially with the core idea at the centre with ideas and
factors radiating out.
Advantages: They allow recall and revision to be made rapidly. The use of colour and pattern stimulate
memory. They establish relative importance and allow you to boil many words down to one key word or
concept.
Disadvantages: They don’t carry great quantities of information and may therefore oversimplify.
Connecting lines to show links might not indicate the full nature of the relationship.
Time Lines: These allow you to arrange information chronologically. At best they allow you to compare
what was happening at different times in different places.
Advantages: An overview of what was happening and when in a clear diagrammatic way.
Disadvantages: they don’t include analysis and if used on their own would lead to narrative history.
Tables: Tables are useful for sorting out information into for example long term and short term causes,
or social, political, economic, religious, military etc. consequences.
Advantages: They are an effective way to separate information out clearly
Disadvantages: They don’t always develop connections between factors and can lead to a fragmented
view of the historical process.
Diagrams: This is a way of arranging information in a single unifying picture
Advantages: They can be fun to construct and help memorise information in a visual way
Disadvantage: Hard to do if you are not a talented artist! Can be simplistic.
42
The best file of notes uses ALL of these techniques.
Example: K Ruane: War and Revolution in Vietnam, Page 71
Read the extract below and then look at the three contrasting ways to take notes:
Style 1
1965- starting point of the war- when US took over role from ARVN- Americanisation.
Political process took place earlier- help Saigon resist neutralisation and increased their
commitment to war.
Neutralisation had attractions- termination of US presence, end to insurgency, NLF participation in
government, freedom to choose destiny.
Support also for negotiation.
But US did not want neutralisation- would lead to control by North then domino theory- under
control of Chinese. Therefore US opposes neutralisation- helped coup against Diem and supported
military coups against politicians in support of neutralisation. E.g. Van Minh, January 1964
Style 2
Why did many South Vietnamese favour neutralisation?
1. End US occupation [independence]
2. End VC insurgency/bloodshed
3. Freedom to choose destiny
Why did US oppose neutralisation?
1. Lead to control by NV
2. Trigger Domino Effect- eventual control by China
Impact on US policy?
1. Support politicians opposed to neutralisation- support for Diem’s assassination
2. Weak military dictatorships- hence Americanization of war- 1965 ground troops
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Style 3
US out
Domino Theory
End to blood
Freedom
NV
Neutralisation
Advantages for SV
Disadvantages for US
China
US policy
therefore...
Supports coups [Van Minh Jan64]
Rolling Thunder [Feb 65]
Ground troops [March 65]
Which style most closely reflects your note taking?
Which is the most effective style for you?
44
“Do not applaud me. It is not I who speaks to
you, but history which speaks through my
mouth.”
- Fustel de Coulanges
45