EDUC 2112 Foundations of Education
Chapter 11: Educational
Theory in American Schools:
Philosophy in Action
Philosophy Provides the Foundation
for Educational Theories
Dr. Stewart
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Philosophy -- Theory
z Educational
theory is the application of
philosophy to the classroom.
z Organization of Curriculum
z Manner of Instruction
z Character of school environment
z Grading and testing (assessment)
z Varies from school to school and state to state
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Authoritarian / Nonauthoritarian
z Idealism /
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Convergent / Divergent Thinking
z One
Realism
z Pragmatism / Existentialism
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Possible Answer
z Possibility of Many Answers
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Authoritarian
Authoritarian
z Purpose
z Attention
of education is to train pupil’s
minds so they can deal with intellectual
concepts of life.
z Mastery of facts and information
z Any child can learn any subject at any level
if the subject matter is properly presented
z “Mastery Teaching”
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to test scores
level achievement
z P.A.S.S
z Accountability
z More traditional teaching strategies
z Convergent Thinking—One answer to
question, and the teacher has it!
z Grade
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Authoritarian--Idealism
z Learning
Focus—subject matter of physical
world: math, science
z Curriculum goal—Mastery of laws of the
universe
z Teaching method—mastery of information
and skills: lecture, recitation, demonstration
z Character development—rules of conduct
z Aesthetic development—study of design in
nature
Focus—subject matter of the
mind: literature, history, philosophy,
religion
z Curriculum goal—same education for all
z Teaching method—lecture, discussion
z Character development—imitation
z Aesthetic development—study of
masterworks, values of past heritage
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Nonauthoritarian
is not just a muscle to be developed
(John Dewey)
z Human beings are problem solvers who
profit from experience
z Importance of the individual and personal
awareness
z Interest aroused through student inquiry
z Divergent thinking—possibility of multiple
answers to question
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Nonauthoritarian--Pragmatism
z Mind
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Authoritarian--Realism
z Learning
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z Learning
Focus—social experience
of new social
z Curriculum goal—creation
order
z Teaching
method—problem solving, project
method and development
z Character development—group decision
making in light of consequences
z Aesthetic development—participation in art
project based on cross-culture and universal
values
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Nonauthoritarian--Existentialism
z Learning
Focus—subject matter of personal
choice
z Curriculum goal—personal freedom and
development
z Teaching method—Individual exploration:
discovery method
z Character development—development of
individual responsibility
z Aesthetic development—personal view of
the world, self-initiated activities
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Relationship of Philosophies
to Educational Theories
Eight Educational Theories
z Perennialism
z Essentialism
z Behaviorism
z Positivism
z Progressivism
z Reconstructionism
z Humanism
z Constructivism
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z Principles
of knowledge are enduring -“Everlasting”
z Stress the time-honored ideas, the “Great
Works”, and the ability to reason
z The intellect must be nourished by contact
with ideas
z Truth resides in the nature of the things
rather than n the sensory aspects of things.
z Realism
– Behaviorism & Positivism
z Pragmatism
– Progressivism & Reconstructionism
z Existentialism
– Humanism & Constructivism
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Perennialism-(Idealism)---Basic
Basic View
Perennialism--(Idealism)
z Idealism
– Perennialism & Essentialism
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Perennialism--Curriculum
Perennialism--Focus of Learning
z Early
schooling best directed toward
preparing children for maturity--3Rs
z Secondary school level directed more
toward “intellectually elite”
z Vocational training for less gifted
z Strong use of Great Books Program
z Discipline
the mind
z Learner assumed to be rational and
spiritual person
z Reading, Writing, Recitation,
Computation are considered important
z Stress “Higher-Order Thinking Skills”
– Hutchins and Adler
– Studying the works of the leading scholars of
history is the best way to a general education
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Essentialism--Basic View
Essentialism-(Idealism)---Basic
Basic View
Essentialism--(Idealism)
z Formulated
z “Back
z Common
z Not
by William C. Bagley--1938
Core of information and skills
to the Basics”
so intent on transmitting underlying
basic truths
z Advocate teaching that will help a person
live a productive life today
z Therefore this “core” of information can
and will change
needed
z Three basic principles of Essentialism
– Core of information
– Hard work
– Teacher-centered instruction
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Essentialism--Focus of Learning
z Transmit
z Develop
cultural heritage
good citizens
z emphasize
core of fundamental
knowledge and skills
z develop sound habits of mental discipline
z demand respect for authority in a
structured learning situation
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is a place where children come to
learn what they need to know, and the
teacher is the person who can best instruct
students in essential matters
z Role of teacher is “imparter of knowledge”
z Role of student is “learner”
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z Truth
matter of symbol and content
(Idealism)—laws of nature and universal
truths of the physical world
z Literature, history, foreign language,
religion
z Lecture, required reading, memorization,
recitation, examinations
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Essentialism--Curriculum
z Subject
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Essentialism--Focus of Learning
Essentialism--Curriculum
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z School
z How?--
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is defined as observable fact,
therefore field trips, laboratories, A/V
materials and nature studies
z Subject matter is the core of education
z School is the curator of knowledge
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Essential Schools Movement
Behaviorism-(Realism)---Basic
Basic View
Behaviorism--(Realism)
z Theodore
Sizer
away the nonessentials
z Focus on students “using their minds well”
z Does not specify what specific content is
essential
z Essential schools required to analyze what
curriculum should be and change the
curriculum to emphasize this core.
z Strip
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Behaviorism--Basic View
z Share
common belief that a student’s
misbehavior can be changed and reshaped
in a socially acceptable manner by directly
changing the student’s environment.
z All people will attempt to avoid
experiences and stimuli that are not
pleasing and will seek experiences that are
pleasing and rewarding.
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z “Control
the environment and you will
control the individual’s behavior”
z B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
z followed Pavlov
z suggested that human behavior also could
be explained as responses to external
stimuli
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of Facts
evidence is essential--Scientific
methodology
z Develop learning environments that lead
to desired behaviors in students for which
they are rewarded and will be motivated
to continue
z Empirical
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Behaviorism--Focus of Learning
z Behavior
is determined by environment,
not heredity
z School environment highly structured
z Curriculum based on behavioral
objectives
z Knowledge is best described as behaviors
that are observable
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Behaviorism--Reinforcement
Behaviorism--Curriculum
z Mastery
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z Positive
reinforcement
z Negative reinforcement
z Some believe negative reinforcement is
ineffective
z Punishment
z “Extinguished”
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Positivism (Realism)
Behaviorism--Reinforcement
z Auguste
z Not
concerned about the cause of
student’s problems
z Discover what is happening in the
classroom environment and change it to
allow student’s behavior to change
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Positivism—Focus of Learning
Comte (kont) (1798-1857)
thinking of humankind into three
historical periods—each characterized by
distinct way of thinking
z Theological era—people explained things
by reference to spirits and gods
z Metaphysical era—explained by causes,
essences, and inner principles
z Positive period—do not attempt to go
beyond observable, measurable facts
z Divided
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Progressivism-(Pragmatism)---Basic
Basic Views
Progressivism--(Pragmatism)
z Acquisition
of facts based on empirical
observation
z Schools must develop content standards that
represent understandings of experts
z Students are encouraged to master these
understandings and to develop their own
skills of observation, classification, and
logical analysis
z Objective testing—all tested with same
objective set of criteria
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z Pierce
(1839-1914) founded Pragmatism--1800s
z Need for people to be able to adjust to
change
z Alvin Toffler--”Future Shock”
– First wave--agriculture
– Second wave--industry
– Third wave--information
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z William James
(1842-1914)--Pragmatism-theory of truth
– Meaning and value of ideas only found in
practical results
– Satisfactory working of an idea constitutes
its whole truth
z John Dewey (1859-1952)--founder of
Progressivism
– Ideas must always be tested by experiment
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Progressivism--Focus of
Learning
Progressivism--Basic Views
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z Educational
theory that emphasizes that
ideas should be tested by experimentation
z Learning is rooted in questions developed
by the learners
z Progressivists favor human experience as
basis for knowledge
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Progressivism--Focus of
Learning
Progressivism--Curriculum
z Encourages
divergent thinking
z Experience-centered curricula stresses
process of learning rather than the results
z Interest in an intellectual activity will
generate the practice needed for learning.
z Emphasize
learning how to think rather
than what to think
z Should actively prepare students for
change
z Flexibility is important in curriculum
design
z Life experience determines content
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Progressivism
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Progressivism
z Sees
the learner as an experiencing,
thinking, exploring individual
z Goal is to expose the learner to the subject
matter of:
z social experiences,
z social studies,
z projects,
z problems, and
z experiments that…..
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z when
studied, by the scientific method, will
result in functional knowledge from all
subjects.
z Books are tools of learning—not a source of
indisputable knowledge.
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z Founded
by Counts, Rugg, and Brameld
that Progressivism had made
advances beyond Essentialism in the area
of teacher-pupil relations and teaching
methodology
z However--Progressivism fixated too
heavily on needs of the child and failed to
develop long-range goals for society
z Calls
for new social order that will fulfill
basic democratic ideals
z People should control institutions and
resources
z This can happen if international
democracy of world government
z Recognized
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Reconstructionism--Basic
Views
Reconstructionism-(Pragmatism
Reconstructionism--(Pragmatism
& Existentialism)-Basic Views
Existentialism)--Basic
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Reconstructivism--Focus of
Learning
Reconstructivism--Curriculum
z Critical
z Critically
analyze world events
z Explore controversial issues
z Develop vision for new and better world
z Promote programs of cultural renewal
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– Provides students with critical thinking tools
z Public
Education should be the direct
instrument of world reformation
z Use moral dilemmas to direct attention
toward social and world reform
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Humanism--(Existentialism)-Basic Views
z Based
on the writings of Jean Jacques
Rousseau (1712-1778)
all things good; man meddles with them
and they become evil.”
z Humans are born free and “good” at birth
z Become enslaved by institutions
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with enhancing the innate
goodness of the individual
z Rejects group-oriented educational
system
z Believe that most schools de-emphasize
the individual and the relationship
between the teacher and the student.
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z Goal--complete
should be a process of
developing a free, self-actualizing person,
centered on the feelings of the student.
z Education does not start with great ideas,
the world, or humankind, but with the
individual self.
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Humanism--Curriculum
z Education
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Humanism--Basic Views
Humanism--Focus of Learning
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z Concerned
z In “Émile,” Rousseau states “God makes
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Pedagogy
– Unites theory and practice
autonomous person
z Education should be without coercion or
prescription
z Students should be active and encouraged
to make their own choices
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Humanism School
Environments
Humanism--Curriculum
z Instruction
z “We
based on student interest,
abilities, and needs
z Students determine rules, books, and
exercises
z Divergent thinking is completely
honored
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are people, not numbers!”
z Nel Noddings—”an environment of
caring”
z A.S. Neil--Summerhill
z Block Scheduling
z Open classrooms
z Area Vocational Centers
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Constructivism
(Existentialism)
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Constructivism
(Existentialism)
activity-based teaching & learning
z Considers students as “active” learners who
should be given opportunities to construct
their own frames of thought.
z “True” learning is the active framing of
personal meaning rather that the framing of
someone else’s meaning.
z Encourage
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z Hands-on,
development of critical thinking
of big ideas rather than
mastery of factual information
z Teach “how to learn” rather than facts
z Students learn by shaping their own
understandings about their world
z This does not “fit” with current school
structure.
z Understanding
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The End
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