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The classic Greek mythological story of Orestes and his search for revenge against his
mother for killing his father has been told many times in many different versions. The most
renowned accounts are those of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. This paper will explore the
application of justice in ancient Greece as told by these authors, as well as compare the
involvement of the gods in such matters. Each story is unique in its own way, but there are
several overlapping elements that this paper will point out, in addition to highlighting the actions
of justifications of the main characters.
Aeschylus’ The Libation Bearers
Aeschylus wrote his tale of Electra as a trilogy, entitled The Oresteia. By doing so, he
was able to explore the background and context of Electra and Orestes as well as provide a sort
of epilogue. The introductory play, Agamemnon, tells of Agamemnon’s homecoming and his
unforeseen demise upon entering his front door. The middle play, The Libation Bearers, is the
story shared by Euripides and Sophocles, narrating the story of Electra and Orestes’ plot to
avenge their father and murder their mother. The Eumenides, the final play, addresses what
happens to Orestes after he commits matricide, a grave crime in ancient Greece (and today).
Aeschylus is the only author of the three to stage the trial and the Furies.
Aeschylus’ tale is vastly different from the other two in several ways. First, the play is
very emotional, especially in the word choice of the characters. Unlike Sophocles’ political
portrayal centering around justification, Aeschylus address more of the emotions and heartache
behind each character’s story. Another notably different element is the direct involvement of the
gods. Out of the three versions, this one exhibits the most direct involvement of the gods and
other immortal beings. Instead of a character impassively citing the gods as justification, this
time the gods are directly instructing the characters on what to do and how to act.
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The gods most involved in Aeschylus’ rendition are Apollo, Athena, and the Furies.
Hermes is also briefly mentioned, and is associated with the title of Lord of the Dead. This title,
usually reserved for Hades, is utilized to relay Hermes’ role in guiding the dead between worlds,
as well as traveling between worlds himself. Orestes calls out especially to Hermes, asking him
to watch over his father whenever he is in the Underworld. Since Hermes is only mentioned
briefly throughout the play, however, he does not have a major impact on the events leading up
to Clytemnestra’s demise. Similarly, the Furies are not mentioned very often throughout the
piece, but they do play a crucial role in Greek mythology1, and also in this story. While they are
not staged, any mention or thought of them reflects their power and influence over seeking
justice for the dead, as well as seeking those whose time has come. In Aeschylus’, and in
Euripides’, version of the tale, the furies come seeking Orestes’ blood, sent to justify the death of
Clytemnestra. Like every other character, they too have their justifications for why their actions
are acceptable. Here, they cite revenge for matricide, a most heinous crime. Their looks reflect
their methods as well2. Throughout mythology, the Furies have been feared for their brutality,
mercilessness, and ugliness. Like many before him, the Furies hunt Orestes down, chasing him
from Argos to the temple of Apollo, and eventually to Athens where they go on trial against
Orestes.
Apollo is the deity most often called on and referred to in Aeschylus’ tale. Orestes claims
throughout the play to be following the orders of the gods, most especially Apollo, when he
avenges the death of his father and kills his mother. He claims that the gods’ reasoning was not
to be questioned, only to be executed as they said something was to be done3. Throughout the
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The Furies work for Hades, god of the Underworld, as deities of vengeance. They seek Orestes’ blood after he
commits matricide and murders Clytemnestra to avenge his father, Agamemnon.
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Aeschylus describes them as serpent-like, resembling to Gorgons, and shrouded in black.
3
Libation Bearers, lines 272-311
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course of the play, Orestes goes forward with his actions in accordance with his fate, with Apollo
continually guiding him. Apollo later confirms this claim when he accepts the blame for the
heinous act in front of Orestes’ jury. He confirms that it was he who instructed and guided
Orestes whilst he was seeking his revenge and, to the great anger of the Furies, aided Orestes in
escaping extreme penalty for murdering his mother.
In The Eumenides, the final installment to the story of Electra and Orestes, Apollo acts as
Orestes’ defense and wins. The path is not taken entirely unscathed, however. Not only does
Apollo manipulate what is said during the trials, but the laws laid down by Athena at the
beginning of the hearing seem to lose their application to her, ignoring her own laws and
allowing herself to do as she pleases. She set up the trial to be conducted in fairness and without
bias, yet she herself cast her vote because she identifies with Orestes’ loyalty and love for his
father. She claims to have sided with him because she, too, believes in honoring the male above
the woman “in all things but marriage”4. In the end, the trial comes down to who is the stronger
deity: Apollo (with a biased Athena) or the Furies. Once the jury reaches a tie vote, Athena casts
her tie vote in favor of releasing Orestes, effectively sealing his fate.
Even if Orestes’ reasoning for killing his mother was faulty, he was not the only one to
experience lapses in strong explanations. Clytemnestra repeatedly claims that killing one’s
husband is not nearly as bad as killing one’s daughter, since one is a blood killing and the other
is not, ranking them in order of gravity. She feels that she had the right to murder Agamemnon
because he sacrificed their daughter for something she feels could have been achieved in other
ways, or not even completed at all. She did not see why it had to be her daughter that needed to
be sacrificed, as opposed to one of Menelaus’, since it was for his wife that Agamemnon was
4
The Eumenides, lines 750-756
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sailing to Troy and needed favorable winds. When Orestes comes to kill her, she attempts to
appear to his role as a son. She tries to convince him that one cannot possibly kill their mother,
and to not waste time trying.
Sophocles’ Electra
In Sophocles’ Electra, the overall direction of the story is very political and removed. In
the opening scene of the play, Orestes reveals that he has consulted with the Delphic oracle of
Apollo, who has instructed him in the best way to exact revenge on his father’s murderers. The
use of an oracle, rather than the presence of the gods themselves, is a stark contrast to the other
two renditions and acts as a firm example of how Sophocles wrote with a more political mindset,
rather than emotional. Additionally, unlike Aeschylus and Euripides, Sophocles chose to remove
Orestes from the center of attention and make the main character for most of the play Electra.
Sophocles also is also less worried about morality, compared to Aeschylus’ more moraldriven and emotional version. Instead, he focuses on language and formalities. Sophocles utilizes
formal language and the need to clarify oneself repeatedly guide the overall writing style of the
play, and word choice is used to great lengths to highlight the differences in class and upbringing
of different characters. For example, Chrysothemis speaks softly and with large, descriptive
words, displaying her years of privileged upbringing and schooling. Similarly, the tutor speaks as
one would expect a scholar to, with formality and precision. Orestes shows his years spent in
exile in his deliberation of carefully-chosen words, ensuring his safety with what he says and not
risking revealing himself or his mission too soon. Sophocles uses these indications as a further
way to describe the characters, outside of their physical appearances and characteristics.
Except through direct dialogue, however, very little insight is given into the minds and
thought processes of the characters. Each character’s words are very descriptive, however, of
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their actions and justifications. Calling out the gods as reasoning for why an action is
permissible, even if it is against mortal law, is a common theme present throughout the tale5. The
gods are reduced to very limited roles in this rendition, however, and appear only when they are
mentioned by name. They never once are allowed to become physically involved in the affairs of
the story.
Although the central plot is the same in each version, Sophocles’ spin differs in its scene
locations, timelines, ages, and character attributes. Unique to Sophocles are the settings of the
castle rampart and the altar of Dionysus, the two locations where most of the story takes place.
After the play opens with Orestes, the tutor, and Pylades approaching the castle, the scene shifts
to the altar, where Electra is lamenting the loss of her father and her brother, the loss of her
honorable life, and the shame her mother has brought unto the family through her affair with
Agamemnon’s6 cousin. It is here that the audience also first meets the characters and learns the
background of the story, and begins to catch glimpses of what is destined to come.
Electra, a key character that is critical in achieving the final result of the death of
Clytemnestra, is portrayed by Sophocles as a young woman ridden low by oppression and
lacking in hope. Twenty years earlier, shortly after the murder of their father, Electra helped
whisk her younger brother, Orestes, away to safety with the help of their tutor. Since that time,
she has been reduced to the role of a slave-girl and is mentally and physically harassed and
neglected by her mother. For twenty years she has waited in hope of seeing her brother again,
yearning for the day when they will be able to avenge their father and kill their mother and her
lover. She believes that her actions will be justified by the principles of loyalty and honor to her
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In the prologue, Electra calls out to Hades, Persephone, Hermes, and the Furies to aid her in avenging her father by
killing her mother, as they would be the ones who would either a) escort Clytemnestra down to the Underworld, or
b) decide here fate once there.
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Aegisthus, who sought revenge for the sake of his siblings who had been murdered by Agamemnon’s father.
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father and her family name7. She has waited so long for revenge for her father, whom she loved
very much and is still deeply loyal too, but for some unknown reason she has been unable to
execute her revenge before the story opens. Sophocles posits that the reason could be because it
is the duty of the son to avenge his father, and not the role a daughter should play.
Orestes, Agamemnon’s vengeful heir and the threat to Clytemnestra and Aegisthus’ rule,
returns to Argos with his tutor and a companion secretly, not revealing his identity to anyone.
This is an element can be found in each version of the story, slightly altered to fit to each
author’s needs. In Sophocles’ version, Orestes returns to Argos undetected, following his twenty
years in exile. Orestes comes back to in search of revenge on his mother for murdering his father.
His reasoning behind his actions is revenge, honor, and respect for his father. Like his sister, he
is still deeply loyal to their father, and is also very protective of his sister. By happy chance, the
first person he encounters upon his return is his sister, Electra. He does not reveal himself to her
immediately, however, claiming to be a messenger with news of her brother.
Orestes and his tutor had decided to hide Orestes’ identity in order to get close to
Clytemnestra. Once Clytemnestra receives notice that he brings word of Orestes, he is welcomed
into the palace. By providing Clytemnestra with a false story of an untimely death, he can gain
her trust and not seem as suspicious when asking questions. It is not until Chrysothemis,
Agamemnon and Clytemnestra’s youngest living daughter, approaches Electra claiming that
Orestes is alive, that doubt begins to form in anyone’s mind. Chrysothemis claims to have visited
their father’s tomb, where recent sacrifices and gifts had been left. She reasons that no one in the
castle except for Electra and herself would ever dare to carry out such an act, and since neither of
them had, the only other possibility is Orestes. Chrysothemis is depicted as having an easily7
See the prologue, where Electra goes on in detail about how her life has been miserable since her father’s death.
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manipulated personality, and is the only child of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra to go along with
the change in leadership. Sophocles alludes that this is because she was only an infant when her
father was murdered, which could have prevented her from forming the same deep love and
loyalty for their father that her brother and sister share. She is seen as being loyal and supportive
to her mother, and repeatedly attempts to convince Electra to abandon her thoughts of revenge
and do the same.
No matter whom a character supports8, each maintains their views with steadfast
determination, never wavering and never faltering in defending their reasoning. No matter if an
action is murder or a daily task, more often than not the basis for justification is either claimed
permission through a god or goddess, or a relationship with one. Sophocles personifies the
relationship between the gods and mortals as one where humans reference the gods as their
source of justification for their actions, and that the gods are all-powerful and not to be
questioned.
A mortal relationship very closely examined is that between Electra and Clytemnestra.
Electra views her mother as her oppressor, doing everything in her power to make Electra’s life
miserable. Electra feels as if she has been cast out of the family, only being allowed to stay in the
palace because she is blood, however much Clytemnestra does not like that fact. Clytemnestra,
having gotten rid of her husband and successfully taken over Argos with her lover (Aegisthus),
pretends as if Electra does not exist. To Clytemnestra, her only family is that which she shares
with Aegisthus. Because of their extremely tense relationship, every conversation between them
is an argument over principles and justifications for actions. Who is right and who is wrong is
never decided, since each thinks she is correct and the other should be dead9. Clytemnestra
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Chrysothemis supports her mother, while Orestes sides with Electra.
See Electra, pages 73-77
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speaks for her dead daughter, the one sacrificed by Agamemnon. Electra laments over her lost
sister, brother and father, and how she has been reduced to the level of a slave. Each woman
mourns for someone lost, and sometimes for the same person, but never can they form an honest
relationship.
Euripides’ Electra
Euripides’ Electra is written much differently than the other two. Although the main
conflict of Electra and Orestes killing their mother to avenge their father is present and still
justified with the same reasoning, all other aspects of the plot have been changed drastically. To
begin, Electra has been married off to a commoner. In the other two stories Electra was kept in
the castle as more of a servant girl, where Clytemnestra and Aegisthus could keep an eye on her
and continuously oppress her. In all three versions Clytemnestra and Aegisthus sought to make
sure Electra would not pose a threat to their throne, which in Euripides also extends to the fear of
her having children that could do the same, as either would have justification of the gods in
avenging Agamemnon’s death. Unlike the other two, however, in Euripides’ version Electra is
married off. Aegisthus most likely chose the farmer because he posed no possible threat to taking
over the throne, and any children he and Electra could have would have weaker bonds to the
throne, therefore making it less likely that they would attempt to return for the throne and to
avenge Agamemnon (as opposed to Electra marrying a noble, who would have stronger ties to
royalty and a stronger chance in reclaiming the throne).
Originally, Aegisthus had wanted to kill Electra. But one theme that is present throughout
every version of Electra’s story is Clytemnestra’s exhibition of motherly love. Even if it is barely
noticeable, Clytemnestra still does keep an eye on her daughter. In Euripides, she convinces
Aegisthus not to kill Electra, instead sending her far away to marry a commoner. She also comes
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to visit Electra at her small hut when she hears that Electra has given birth to a child. Even when
she openly belittles Electra and speaks vehemently to her, she still cares enough to come and see
her.
Another large difference present in Euripides is the setting. Whereas the other two stories
take place at the castle, this one is set in the countryside for the duration of the play. This can be
interpreted many ways other than just the creative re-writing or preferences of the author. One
possibility to consider is that, since Orestes is not supposed to enter the city, they play is
therefore mandated to take place outside of Argos. This can be pictured as the city being the
civilized world, one of which Orestes has not been part of for a long time. This can be taken
hand-in hand or separate with another argument, which can be found in the oracle’s statement
and says that Orestes must not enter the town. If used together as an explanation though, they can
go on to mean that the ‘primitive’ justice/revenge that Orestes is exacting must not take place in
the civilized world, because such a violent act is not the way justice is served and punishment
dealt with in the civilized world. One cannot just take revenge on their own; instead, trials are
held to determine a just punishment, which can be seen in more detail in Aeschylus’ account.
Additionally, had Orestes killed Aegisthus in public versus killing him in the field, he would
have to face the repercussions of the civilized world, in addition to that which the gods and
Furies dealt out.
The story also takes place in the countryside because Electra, struggling to adjust, has
recently become a farmer’s wife. She lives off her what her husband’s meager plot produces, and
does the chores of a typical wife living in the country. Electra sees herself as a slave, reduced to
living on meager crumbs, far from the palace yet still oppressed by her mother. She has shaved
her head, wears raggedy clothing, and cries herself to sleep each night. The farmer Electra has
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married is an honorable man, who understands Electra’s views on their marriage as being one of
Aegisthus and Clytemnestra’s ploys to weaken Electra. He has no wish to harm her, make her
uncomfortable, or shame her. Electra never feels welcome where she now lives either, she never
feels like she’s one of the people. The people give her pitying nicknames, and she is never
invited to participate in local festivities. When Orestes finds Electra, she is carrying a jar of water
on her head, crying over the life she once had, dressed as a servant girl.
A key difference to note in Euripides’ version is that the characters are not concerned
with executing revenge for the entire duration of the play. Electra is wrapped up in her tears and
laments, and Orestes is first and foremost concerned with finding his sister and assuring himself
that she is doing well. Not until they have revealed their identities to each other and the tutor
brings up the topic do they begin to dwell on revenge. Since they are in the countryside, this
story must adapt to having the murders occur in the countryside. Orestes approaches Aegisthus
in a local field where he is sacrificing a bull to nymphs, pretending to be a guest. When
Aegisthus’ defenses are down and his slaves are not armed, Orestes attacks him. The slaves fear
Orestes at first, but once he reveals his identity, they pick up their spears and agree to follow him
as their leader. Orestes shows himself here as being transgressive, abusing Aegisthus’
misinformed guest-friendship by literally stabbing him in the back when he misused Aegisthus’
hospitality in order to get close to him and follow out the plan to kill him.
Like her brother, Electra manipulates Clytemnestra into going to her death, manipulating
and misusing her motherly feelings. Electra asks her mother to come visit under the false belief
that Electra has given birth to a son, secretly planning to murder Clytemnestra when she arrives.
Upon arriving in the small town where Electra lived, Electra and Clytemnestra exchange bitter
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words, but still progress to Electra’s small house (where Orestes is waiting). There is where they
murder their mother, finally avenging their father’s death years before.
This story also ends on a different note than the others, because Orestes is warned of
exactly what faces him as a result of his actions. The Furies will come for him and he will have
to stand trial, but Athena’s deciding vote will set him free (Electra will marry Orestes’
companion and regain a little bit of the life she lost). Apollo will defend him against the charges,
and will take responsibility for everything Orestes did. What is also different about this story is
the amount the gods are involved time-wise and influence-wise. Other than the prophecy-like
promise of Apollo defending Orestes, the only mentions of the gods are: when a character
attempts to shift the blame for their actions to the gods; when someone mentions a specific god
as a foundation for a situation, saying that they do not wish to offend one; when a character is
making an offering (Aegisthus to the nymphs); and when making a prophecy (concerning the
furies and Athena). When Orestes speaks of Apollo, he speaks of how he is listening to Apollo
concerning taking his mother’s life as revenge for his father. Orestes voices doubt in killing her
in this version of the story, something that he does not feel in either of the two other stories.
However, he feels that he needs to listen to what Apollo tells him, as he is a god and is not to be
disobeyed. This is more of a battle between instincts of justice and divinely-ordained justice.
When Electra also begins to accept executing revenge on her mother, her reasoning is
two-fold. She believes that by killing Clytemnestra and Aegisthus that she can regain at least
some part of her old life. But she needed another, stronger reason than just wanting her privileges
back. Avenging the murder of your father, whom you were extremely loyal to and wish to honor,
is a much more acceptable excuse for killing someone (at the time).
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Conclusion
The goal of this paper was to explore the aspects of justice and the justice system of
ancient Greece, and how the portrayal and representation can vary just from author to author.
The paper has looked at three versions of the same classic story, and each is vastly different from
the next. What stays the same, however, is the reasoning the characters hold in justifying their
actions. Although the gods do not always play a prominent role in the story, their role in ancient
Greek justice is indisputable. As each author showed, the mortal system and reasoning behind
justice was always related back to the gods, reflecting the extent of the prominent roles the gods
played in ancient Greek society.