Ocean & Coastal Management 53 (2010) 252e269
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Ocean & Coastal Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ocecoaman
Identifying drivers for fishing pressure. A multidisciplinary study of trawl and sea
snail fisheries in Samsun, Black Sea coast of Turkey
Ståle Knudsen a, *, Mustafa Zengin b,1, Mahmut Hakan Koçak c, 2
a
Department of Social Anthropology, University of Bergen, Fosswinckelsgate 6, 5007 Bergen, Norway
Trabzon Fisheries Research Institute, Kasüstü Beldesi, 61250 Yomra, Trabzon, Turkey
c
Faculty of Economic and Administrative Sciences, Marmara University, Ressam Namik Ismail Sok. No:1 Bahcelievler, Istanbul, Turkey
b
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Available online 13 April 2010
This study aims to investigate and model driving forces that lead to increased fishing pressure and an
altered state of the environment in the coastal areas near Samsun on the Turkish Black Sea coast. We
have applied a modified DPSIR model to structure our investigation and analysis and have investigated
the drivers that generate fishing pressure in the Samsun fisheries. The overall health of the ecosystem is
declining, and there is a consistent trend of deterioration in the condition of the three major species
targeted by the trawl fisheries. Although introduced invasive species have brought significant changes to
the Black Sea, it is clear that the state of the environment is significantly and negatively affected by the
pressure exerted by fisheries. Fishing pressure has to a certain extent been redirected to pelagic trawling
as bottom trawling has become less profitable and a rise in catch capacity has levelled off. This reduction
is, however, offset by an increase in illegal trawling and dredging by a very rapidly growing sector of
multi-purpose small boats, resulting in a considerable increase in the overall accumulated engine power
of fishing boats in Samsun during 2000e2005. Fisheries in Samsun, in particular sea snail fisheries, have
constituted a frontier of sorts open to the poorer populations of Samsun during the last 20 years, and,
thereby, constitute one of the major drivers for fishing pressure. We identify eight drivers of importance
for the period 2000e2005. Although the authorities can impact all or most of those drivers, most of them
are beyond the scope of conventional ‘fisheries management’.
Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Interactions between fisheries and the marine environment in
the Black Sea have received little academic attention. This study
aims to investigate and model driving forces that lead to increased
fishing pressure and changed state of the environment in the
coastal areas around Samsun on the Turkish Black Sea coast. While
fishing pressure is widely held to be responsible for habitat
destruction and fish stock reductions here, few efforts have been
made to understand the drivers behind this fishing pressure. In this
multidisciplinary study, originally conducted within the framework
of the EU FP6 funded ELME3 project, we have applied a modified
DPSIR model4 to structure our investigation and analysis.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ47 55589280; fax: þ47 55589260.
E-mail addresses: stale.knudsen@sosantr.uib.no (S. Knudsen), mzengin@
hotmail.com (M. Zengin), hak29@yahoo.com (M.H. Koçak).
1
Tel.: þ90 462 34110 54; fax: þ90 462 341 11 52.
2
Tel.: þ90 212 507 99 25; fax: þ90 212 505 93 32.
3
European Lifestyles and Marine Ecosystems. GOC 505576. See http://www.
elme-eu.org/Public/Results.aspx for further information.
4
This model was first elaborated and introduced by the European Environment
Agency. See [1].
0964-5691/$ e see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2010.04.008
A number of recent studies of marine and coastal ecosystems
have applied the DPSIR framework to facilitate analytical integration across conventional scholarly disciplines. To our knowledge,
however, only one study of reef fisheries management in Kenya [2]
has used the DPSIR framework in an analysis of a fishery system.
Fisheries receive short shift [3e6] or are not mentioned at all
[7e10] in the other studies. Furthermore, each of these studies
tends to start from a natural sciences perspective, often integrating
social science and economic data only superficially without rigorously examining the causal mechanisms that relate associated
variables. Typically, social and economic data are collected from
already available statistical databases without first carefully drafting a conceptual model. This often results in scale mis-matches.
This study tries to identify drivers for fishing pressure through
a bottom up approach in which a conceptual model was first
designed on the basis of ethnographic fieldwork and interviews.
Since the scope of the ELME project, and, therefore, our data
gathering and analysis, was restricted to DePeS elements of the
DPSIR model, we have focused on environmental state changes
themselves and the DePeS ‘causal chain’ (see Fig. 1). This approach
to understanding fishing pressure embodies the potential to
S. Knudsen et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 53 (2010) 252e269
Nomenclature
SPO
Turkish Republic State Planning Organization
TFRI
Trabzon Fisheries Research Institute
TurkStat Turkish Statistical Institute
broaden the scope of fishery management beyond purely regulatory measures aimed at fishing practice.
Fisheries in Samsun were deliberately chosen as a case study to
investigate DriverePressureeState relations since it is easier here than
in most other Turkish fisheries in the Black Sea to approximate a system
in which ecosystem (State) and fishing activities (Pressure) have
roughly the same spatial scale. Basically, we have looked for the drivers
of fishing pressure in Samsun fisheries. What is the relative importance
of different drivers? What changes have there been over time?
Unlike the other regional seas of Europe, international bodies
like ICES or Eurostat have not regularly collected, registered and
organized data on fish stock, fishery fleets and relevant socioeconomic variables for Black Sea fisheries. Moreover, and unlike EU
member states, there is no national fisheries data centre in Turkey.
However, to indicate and/or document causal links we have
included qualitative data whenever it has been available. We have
had to seek out data and information from a variety of sources,
often of variable quality, short time-series etc. Data sources include:
Turkish public statistics, reports and articles (mainly in Turkish),
previously unprocessed raw data obtained by the TFRI, province
boat and fishers license registers, monthly surveys by Trabzon
Fishery Research Institute (TFRI) during February 2005-January
2006, joint socio-economic fieldwork (survey, interviews)
including visits to a range of government institutions and fishing
harbours, and a questionnaire survey of 342 fishers in 2005.
Below we will organize the presentation of our findings along
the DePeS relationships according to the DPSIR model, starting
with States and working ‘upwards’ through Pressures to Drivers.
2. States
2.1. General outline of ecology
The Black Sea is characterized by a relatively low species
diversity, high productivity and biomass, and anoxic conditions
Driver
Human activity or
process
Response
An initiative
intended to reduce
impact
Impact
Effect on human
welfare attributable
to change in state
Pressure
Mechanism by which
Driver contributes to a
change in State
External
variability
State
Attribute(s) reflecting
ecosystem integrity for
a specific issue
Fig. 1. Modified DPSIR (Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response) framework (Mee et
al., in preparation). D-P-S causal chain highlighted.
253
below 150e200 m depth. The prevalence of a cold intermediate
layer (CIL, thermocline) is one of the main reasons that the biomass
of whiting (Merlangus merlangius euxinus) e one of the dominant
benthopelagic species e is much higher in the Black Sea than in the
Mediterranean. Most of the Turkish Black Sea coastal region and
continental shelf consists of steep rocks and canyons. Thus there
are very few areas suitable for trawling. Around the port city of
Samsun, however, deposits from the rivers Kızılırmak and Yeşilırmak have created two wide deltas, the Bafra delta and the Çarşamba delta, with extensive shallow grounds between Sinop and
Terme reaching as far out as 10e15 km. At the southern coast of the
Black Sea an important upwelling in the region between Bafra and
Sinop, contributes to the productiveness of the Samsun shelf area
[11] (Fig. 2).
This area constitutes a fairly well circumscribed ecosystem with
supposedly somewhat uniform and characteristic qualities, and, as
such, is rather unique on the northern coast of Turkey. These
shallow grounds support the most important trawl fisheries in
Turkey. Yet there are, unfortunately, almost no studies that examine
particularly the marine ecosystem and habitats in the Samsun
region; therefore, the text on ecosystem and habitat below
discusses the Black Sea and the south east region of the Black Sea in
general.
In the general outline of the food web in the south-eastern Black
Sea it (Fig. 3) is evident that sprat (Spratus spratus) occupies
a central position in the energy transfer between the tropic levels
by connecting the upper predator and lower plankton levels [12,13].
Among the dominant species in the Samsun littoral there exists
a strong prey-predator relationship between sprat, whiting and
turbot (Psetta maxima). Sprat constitutes 38.9% of the prey of
whiting [14], while whiting accounts for 61.7% of the prey of the top
predator turbot [15].
2.1.1. Ecosystem change with introduced species
Beginning towards the end of the 1980s, the established food web
was disturbed dramatically with the establishment and rapid spread
of the accidentally-introduced gelatinous Mnemiopsis leidyi. Mnemiopsis first preyed on zooplankton and, when these were depleted,
turned to anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus ponticus) eggs and larvae
[16]. The trophic food chain was seriously altered with especially
deleterious effect on pelagic species. Given the strong connection
between pelagic and benthic food webs via the important role of
sprat as prey for whiting, we can assume that the increased mortality
of sprat impacted the populations of whiting and, therefore, at the
top of the food chain, mature turbots. Mnemiopis initially had no
natural enemies, but with the introduction in 1997 of another
Cteophore from the Atlantic, Beroe oveta, Mnemiopis was subject to
predation pressure and its biomass decreased significantly [17].
While the pelagic food web has seen some recovery during the last
10e15 years, the benthic system has, during the second part of the
20th century, been beset with continued high fishing pressure and
by introduced species, particularly the Japanese sea snail Rapana
thomasiana, but also by bivalves (Anadara cornea, Teredo navalis) and
Crustecea (Balanus eburneus) [18]. The equilibrium of the pelagic and
benthic ecosystem has been disturbed to the advantage of introduced species which have to a certain extent become dominant
species [19].
2.1.2. Other ecosystem changes
There is probably substantial degradation of this ecosystem, but
there are few reliable indicators. One thing we can observe and
document to a certain extent is the disappearance and decline of
several species. The rich nutrient loads carried by the large
Kızılırmak and Yeşilırmak rivers are widely believed to have been
reduced after several large dams were constructed during the
254
S. Knudsen et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 53 (2010) 252e269
Fig. 2. Map of south-eastern Black Sea coast and study area. In this text ‘the eastern Black Sea region’ will mean the coastal areas of Turkey between Sinop and Hopa.
1980s. It has been argued that this has contributed to decreased fish
catches [20]. The construction of irrigation structures, together
with overfishing [21,22] brought the sturgeon species (Acipenser
stellatus, Acipencer sturio, Huso husu) close to extinction during the
1960s. In the late 1960s umbrina (Umbrina cirossa) was one of the
major commercial species in Samsun [22]. Today, this species,
which typically prefers to live in sea-grass habitat that is likely
destroyed by trawling and dredging, has almost no commercial
importance and hardly figures on the fish counter or in the statistics. There has also been a marked and rapid decrease in Black Sea
salmon trout (Salmo trutta labrax) [23].
There is also reason to believe that intensive trawling in this
region has had a negative effect on spawning grounds and the
regeneration of a range of species. There are, however, no studies to
document this. The destructive effect of sea snail dredging on
benthic communities and habitats is demonstrated by a study that
compared dredged and non-dredged (protected by concrete blocks
on the sea bed) areas in Bulgarian waters [24]. While the northwestern area of the Black Sea has experienced serious eutrophication problems, there has been less of a problem in the southern Black
Sea, although sewage and other household and agriculture-related
riverine and marine pollution cause increased nitrite and organic
material concentration at river mouths, such as Kızılırmak [25].
When it comes to the effect of Mnemiopsis on the target stocks of the
trawlers, it is difficult to assess the relative importance of predation
by introduced species versus fishing. But since catches and mean
size of turbot and whiting (see below) display the same decreasing
trends as red mullet (Mullus barbatus), which is not affected to the
same extent by the ecological disturbance brought on by Mnemiopsis, and since the decline continues even after the decrease in
Mnemiopsis biomass, it is reasonable to assume that fishing pressure
is the main cause for the diminished status of the demersal stocks in
the Samsun waters.
2.2. Species targeted by commercial fishing
The number of commercially exploited species in this region has
decreased [16]. Species with high economic value have, to a certain
extent, been replaced by species with lower commercial value.
Another trend is the change in status of some species from by-catch
to target species (e.g. red scorpion fish, Scorpaena porcus). In
parallel with the changes in species composition, the stocks of
many species have declined [16].
As a result of overfishing and the Mnemiopsis bloom5 the stocks
of small pelagic species almost collapsed during the late 1980s and
early 1990s. Concurrently, with the importance of sprat stocks for
5
Experts disagree about the relative importance of these two causes, see e.g.
[26].
S. Knudsen et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 53 (2010) 252e269
demersal species (see Section 2.1 and Fig. 3), it is likely that the
decimation of sprat stocks resulted in stock decline of demersal
species, including those targeted in Samsun trawl fisheries. While
the stocks of small pelagics, especially anchovy, have to a large
extent recovered, the decline has continued for benthopelagic and
demersal fish species. The increase in the proportion of whiting in
Samsun trawl catches from 65% in 1990 [27] to 75% in 2005 (data
collected for this report) demonstrates both the resilience of the
whiting and the decrease in the stocks of other commercial species
such as turbot, red mullet, sole (Solea nasuta), flounder (Flesus.
flesus luscus), red gunard (Trigla lucerna), and picarel (Spicara
smaris).
While there are no studies of the composition of the benthic
community, landings of by-catch may give some indication as to the
255
state of the stocks and the ecosystem. Although thornback ray (Raja
clavata) is not usually marketed in Turkey (and most of the catch is
discarded), it is included in the TurkStat landing statistics, which
show a clear trend of decline in landings (Fig. 4). Use of illegal
undersized meshes and other illegal fishing practices result in
bycatch of non-target species that, combined with discard of
undersized target species, accounts for 40% of the total annual catch.
In this study we will focus on the most important target species
in the bottom trawl fisheries: whiting; red mullet; turbot; as well as
the sea snail that is targeted by dredging (see Fig. 4 for summary of
findings). On the eastern Black Sea coast of Turkey, trawling
accounts for the larger share of landings of several of the demersal
species. In the years 1990e2000 around 75% of landings of red
mullet and more than 80% of landings of whiting were caught by
Fig. 3. Simplified food web, south-eastern Black Sea ecosystem. Note: Predator-prey relations where consumption exceeds 50% of total energy consumption have been taken as
criteria for inclusion in this model.
256
S. Knudsen et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 53 (2010) 252e269
Thornback ray
1000
1000
800
Landing
200
200
0
2007
400
2005
400
2000
600
1995
600
1991
tons
800
0
Whiting
25
15000
5000
10
0
2005
15
2000
10000
1995
20
Landing (tons)
20000
Average length
Landing
1990
Average length (cm)
30
Red mullet
2500
Average length
Landing
2000
1000
11
500
10
0
2005
12
2000
1500
1995
13
Landing (tons)
14
1990
Average length (cm)
15
Turbot
1500
Average length
Landing
1250
750
30
500
25
250
20
0
2005
35
2000
1000
1995
40
Landing (tons)
45
1990
Average length (cm)
50
Sea Snail
tons (with shells)
15000
12000
9000
6000
3000
Sea snail landings (SIS)
2004
2000
1995
1990
1985
0
Sea snail export 1985-1988 (Bilecik 1990)
1993-2003 (EPC)
Fig. 4. States. Thornback ray landings: Turkey. Source: SIS. Whiting, red mullet and turbot: eastern Black Sea region of Turkey. Mixed commercial and scientific catch. Source: TFRI.
S. Knudsen et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 53 (2010) 252e269
trawl [19]. In 2000 approximately 50% of the eastern Black Sea coast
catches of these two species were landed in Samsun.
2.2.1. Whiting (M. merlangus euxinus)
Constituting 65e70% of the bentic and bentopelagic macrofauna
biomass [15,28e30], whiting is a dominant species in the littoral
zone of the south-eastern Black Sea. Since whiting reaches reproductive maturity at two years age [29,31], lays eggs almost
throughout the whole year, and has potential for rapid growth, the
stock reproduces and regenerates quickly. The whiting stock is,
therefore, more resilient to fishing pressure than sturgeon and
turbot, which have longer life spans and later reproductive maturity.
Excluding the summer period, whiting in the southern Black Sea
yields abundant catch throughout the year. Whiting is a cold water
fish, and its seasonal vertical distribution depends on the sea water
temperature. During the summer, when water temperature rises in
the southern Black Sea, the whiting population passes to deep
waters at and below the thermocline layer (30e40 m) that has
a constant water temperature (in general 7.5e8.5 C).
Length at maturity for whiting is 14.7 cm [29,32,33]. Between
1990 and 2000 average length of whiting in commercial trawl
catches in Samsun was 16 cm. 49% of catches were below length at
maturity. While the estimated biomass of whiting in the waters of
the eastern Black Sea region of Turkey was approximately 30,000
tons for 1991/92 [29,30], the average biomass between 1998 and
2000 fell to 24,000 tons [34]. Our studies during 2005 show that as
much as 75% of whiting catches (by individuals) were discarded
since they are below marketable size. It thus seems reasonable to
claim that despite the whiting’s resilience to fishing pressure,
whiting stocks in the southeastern Black Sea are stressed by
excessive exploitation.
2.2.2. Red mullet (M. barbatus)
Red mullets live at different depths during the year, depending
on the fluctuations in water temperature. From late spring and
throughout the summer red mullets prefer shallow coastal waters
where they reproduce. During this period red mullets are caught
with beach seines, gillnets and small trawls (multi-purpose boats
licensed for sea snail dredging e see below). Red mullet is more
intensively fished from September through April when 96% of the
total catch is taken, primarily by trawlers.
Changes in the red mullet landings in the southern Black Sea
follow a pattern similar to whiting. Turkish Black Sea catches
gradually increased until 1989 when a maximum 5600 tons were
landed. After 1990, landings gradually decreased to 498 tons in
2003. Red mullet landings in the eastern Black Sea region decreased
particularly dramatically during the early 1990s (likely related both
to overfishing and the Mnemiopsis introduction) and from 1997 (as
a result of accumulated fishing pressure).
Length at maturity for red mullet is 11.2 cm [30,31]. In the
eastern Black Sea region mean size of landed red mullet has
decreased from 13.7 cm in 1990 to 10.5 cm in 2005. Over the same
period 60.5% of individuals in landings were below minimum legal
catch size (13 cm) [30,31]. The biomass of red mullets in the
southeastern Black Sea was estimated to have declined from
around 4000 tons in 1992 to 3000 tons in 2000. This indicates that
red mullet stocks are also overfıshed [31,34].
2.2.3. Turbot (P. maxima)
Turbot migrations are local and seasonal in character and are
related to spawning and feeding habits, with concentration in
spawning areas at 30e40 m depth during early summer. After
spawning, turbot moves to 50e90 m depth in June-August.
Although there is a substantial demand for turbot in Turkey,
landings are relatively low as compared to other sea fish. While
257
turbot is caught with gillnets in most coastal waters of Turkey,
turbot fishing with bottom trawls is carried out in areas where the
continental shelf allows, especially in areas in the Samsun and Sinop
bays. Since the continental shelf in the northwestern part of the
Black Sea is very wide, turbot is caught not only in coastal waters,
but also in international waters, especially by Turkish fishers.
While the turbot stocks in the Black Sea were not too eroded in
1980, the increasing catch pressure since then in coastal regions of
Turkey in particular, and the impact of excessive eutrophication on
fauna in the northwestern Black Sea have led to a rapid decrease in
these stocks [35].
Length at maturity of female turbots is 38.8 cm, and that of
males 34.6 cm. Average length of landed turbot was 39.2 cm in
1990, 28.6 cm in 1996, 32.0 cm in 2000, and 30.4 cm in 2005. The
average for all years is 32.3 cm [15]. Individuals in the age groups 0,
1, 2 and 3 constituted 62.5% of the trawl catch (by individuals,
average for all years 1990e2005). These year classes have not yet
reached reproductive maturity [15]. This composition of the stock
and the prevalence of juveniles in catches are important indicators
of growth overfishing. The lack of selectivity of the trawl nets has
contributed to much lower biomass concentrations in trawl areas
(between Sinop and Ordu: 70.6 kg/km2) than that found in areas
closed to trawling (between Ordu and the Georgian border:
119.6 kg/km2 [15]). Furthermore, there is also indication of
recruitment overfishing: trawl nets with no selective properties
and gillnets with a mesh size varying between 160 mm and
360 mm are used to catch turbot during its reproductive period
during early summer when predominantly egg-bearing turbots
pass to shallow waters to lay their eggs. Approximately 70% of
turbot catches take place during this period. This survey of the basic
parameters of the turbot population thus reveals that the condition
of the turbot stock in the trawl area is poor.
2.2.4. Sea snail (R. thomasiana)
The sea snail originates in the Pacific and was first observed in
the Black Sea towards the end of the 1940s. In the southeastern
Black Sea it was first described in 1962 [36]. Thereafter, it spread
rapidly and caused important changes in the nearshore benthic
system. The sea snail has a wide margin of tolerance to variations in
temperature and salinity. Therefore, once it has adapted to an
ecosystem it is a dynamic species. It lives in sandy, muddy and algal
bottoms around mussel beds. Although it is found to a maximum
depth of 90 m, the highest concentrations of sea snails (76.5% by
biomass) are found in very shallow waters (0e15 m.).
In the Black Sea the sea snail has almost no natural predators
[37]. This has made possible a very rapid population increase. Its
dominant feeding strategy targets mussel species and its excessive
predation on these species has resulted in the near disappearance
of mussel stocks (Mytilus galloprovincialis, Chamelea gallina, A.
cornea) in the region between the TurkeyeGeorgia border and
Terme [38]. In 1995 the C. gallina population in this region was still
healthy [39]. By 2005 the sea snail had started to threaten other
species of mollusc and crustaceans (Liocarsinus depratur, Donax sp.,
Isophad, Amphipod and Decapodesnail juveniles), including the
introduced Anadara cornea.
The extreme increase in the sea snail population and the
detrimental predation pressure it exerts on mussels have also had
an impact on the structure of the sea snail population itself. Thus,
the sea snail has caused important changes in the interaction
between fishing and habitat in the coastal waters of the southeastern Black Sea.
While being an introduced species that has attained an important role in the demersal ecosystem of the Black Sea, Rapana has
also become one of the most important commercial species. Sea
snails are now fished in most coastal waters around the Black Sea.
258
S. Knudsen et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 53 (2010) 252e269
The relative share of Samsun sea snail landings has increased, but
we have been unable to obtain data on landings originating from
catches in Samsun. Processing plants receive sea snails from a wide
region and do not register the origin of the delivery. Yet, unlike in
the 1900s, all the major sea snail processing plants in the Turkish
Black Sea region are now located in or near Samsun. Although the
State Institute for Statistics has published figures for annual Turkish
catches, as all sea snails are exported, export figures give a better
indication of catches than official landing statistics (see Fig. 4).
The mean size of sea snails has, since 2000, decreased significantly east of the Province of Samsun, especially around Trabzon:
from 62 mm in 1991 [40] to 47 mm in 2005. Since the market
prefers large sea snails, sea snail processing plants have stopped
operating, and fishers have almost stopped dredging for sea snails
near Trabzon. Sea snails in Samsun seem to regenerate very quickly
and mean size of sea snails remained stable until 2005 (mean
64 mm) despite increased catch effort. There exists no scientific
data on recent development of sea snail average size in Samsun, but
some anecdotal information indicates that the sea snail stock in
Samsun now experiences the same decline as previously seen
further east. When we talked to the owners/managers of the three
largest sea snail processing plants in Samsun during the autumn of
2008, all complained about the increasing difficulty of finding
buyers for their produce since average size had declined considerably during the past 2e3 years. In one processing plant more than
50% of the processed sea snails were in the smallest of the seven
size categories.6 Fishers in Samsun also complained about the
gradual, although geographically uneven, decline of sea snail mean
size. They increasingly find themselves shovelling undersized sea
snails back to sea.
2.3. Conclusions
Species composition in the marine ecosystem has changed
considerably; stocks of some species have declined considerably
and some are close to extinction. Despite the absence of formal
stock assessments, the evolution of landings and sizes (relative to
size at reproduction) of the major target species indicates high and
increasing fishing pressure and likely growth overfishing, with an
effect on reproduction that can only be serious. The poor quality of
statistics raises concerns as to the value of the indicators available.
In brief, although the successful establishment of introduced
species complicates the picture, the fishery data points towards
a generally unsatisfactory state of the sector.
Table 1
Fish landings Samsun 1960s.
Red mullet
Turbot
Whiting
1959e62 annual average [42]
1968 [22]
17,306 kg
28,213 kg
14,019 kg
69,000 kg
314,000 kg
e
together with sea snail dredging to be the main pressure exerted on
the rich marine ecology of these wide shallow grounds.
3.2. Brief history of fishing in Samsun
Although fishing does not have as prominent a place in the
history of Samsun as it has in Istanbul and Trabzon (Knudsen 2009),
historical sources document that fishing has been of some
economic importance. At the beginning of the 20th century up to
3000 turbots were caught each week during the catch season [41].
Turbot, swordfish and sturgeon were sent to Ankara and Istanbul
[42]. The catch of sturgeons in the river mouths for extraction of
caviar was economically important during the 1940s and 1950s
with an annual production of 4e5 tons of caviar [22]. Yet, until the
mid-1950s fishing technology was very simple and sea fishery
catches in Samsun were quite small compared to current catches
(Table 1).
3.2.1. Development of trawl fisheries
From the 1950s onwards economic development, urban growth
in Samsun and improved transport facilities created better
circumstances for the development of the fishery sector. Moreover,
state incentives, such as subsidised credits, construction of
harbours etc. facilitated the development of sea fisheries [43]. In
1952 there were two small trawlers in Samsun [44]. Around 1960
the state-controlled Meat and Fish Establishment imported trawl
equipment from Greece and started experimenting with trawling
outside Samsun. In 1968 there were three trawlers registered in
Samsun and 13 smaller boats with engines [22]. The bottom trawl
fishing sector only took off during the 1980s when demand
increased and infrastructure improved (Fig. 5).
All bottom trawlers employ basically the same kind of beam
trawl. Boats are typically between 12 and 30 m long with engine
3. Pressures: detailed description of fisheries and fishing
capacity
3.1. Overview
A range of human activities affects habitat and fish stocks in this
area, including pollution (probably not severe), physical disruption
of the coastal zone, changed pattern and amount of water flow in
the rivers because of construction of dams, and overall humaninduced ecological change in the Black Sea (including introduced
species). We know from extensive involvement (ethnographic
fieldwork and interviews) in this sector over many years that
marine scientists and fishers alike consider bottom trawling
6
Processed sea snail are sorted into the following size categories: 3L (extra
large): ue15 pcs/kg, LL (extra large): 15e20 pcs/kg, L (large): 20e40 pcs/kg,
M (medium): 40e60 pcs/kg, S (small): 60e80 pcs/kg, SS (small): 80e120 pcs/kg,
3S (small): 120eup pcs/kg.
Fig. 5. Bottom trawlers. Two large trawlers belonging to one of the most successful
fishing firms in Samsun. Yakakent, September 2005. These boats may be used both for
bottom and mid-water trawling.
S. Knudsen et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 53 (2010) 252e269
power ranging between 100 Hp and 600 Hp. All boats are built in
Turkey, most in the Black Sea region. The trawlers are manned by
a crew of five or six men who are usually recruited locally. Bottom
trawl nets with no selectivity properties e typically a ‘catch all’ net
with a mesh size of 40 mm (legal minimum size) e are typically
used to catch whiting and red mullet, as well as turbot and a range
of other species, including small bluefish, horse mackerel and picarel. It is also common practice to add an extra net with meshes
smaller than the legal minimum size inside the regular seine. This
ensures larger catches (of smaller fish).
In contrast to practices in Istanbul and the provinces east of
Samsun, Samsun has no tradition for (the overall more important)
purse seine fishing. After the mid-1990s a few of the larger trawl
companies started pursuing mid-water trawling for pelagic species.
3.2.2. Development of sea snail fisheries
Parallel with the growth in the big boat trawl fisheries a large
and diversified sector of artisanal or small boat fishing has also
developed that targets a wide variety of both pelagic and benthic
species. From the early 1980s sea snail fishing started to attain
economic importance, and has expanded considerably in Samsun
since 2000. In the province of Samsun approximately 200 boats had
licenses for sea snail fishing in 2005, but in practice many more
took part in this fishery. Compared to many other kinds of fishing,
this fishery does not require much skill or investment in technology. The threshold for entering this sector is therefore relatively
low. There will usually be two or three men on the boat when
dredging for sea snails. Boats generally dredge at low speed parallel
to the coast in relatively shallow waters. Although illegal, most
boats use two (or even three) dredges simultaneously and often
operate at night (also illegal). Although dredging is illegal during
the summer, this fishery is most intense during the warm months
when catches are best.
3.3. Fishing harbours, fishing centres
Boats of less than 7e8 m in length are landed routinely on
beaches in many small villages on the delta seaside. Boats of up to
approximately 16 m can find shelter in the river mouths of the two
major rivers, where there are larger concentrations of small
trawlers (typically 12e16 m.) (Koşuköyü, Fener). Almost all fish
caught by trawlers in this region are landed at the fishery port in
the city of Samsun. Here fish is sold by middlemen at an auction
organized by the municipality. Some fish is marketed locally, but
most is brought to the large cities in Turkey. Export of fish is
negligible.
There are four major fishing harbours in Samsun that give
shelter to both large boats and many smaller boats, from west to
east (construction year in parentheses): Yakakent (1973e1994),
Dereköy (Ondokuzmayıs) (1994e), Central Samsun, and Terme
(1994e). Yakakent and Central Samsun are the harbours and fishing
communities where trawl fisheries were first developed. Terme and
Dereköy have only developed into important fishing centres during
the last two decades with a substantial number of both small and
large boats.
3.4. Overview of boats, change in catch capacity
Two of the most important measures of catch capacity, and,
therefore, fishing pressure, are numbers of boats and engine power.
Trawling and dredging tend to become more effective with more
powerful engines, even when boat size is not increased. Since many
small boats are not registered, and boats owned by persons resident
in the Province of Samsun are registered elsewhere, it is difficult to
establish the exact number of boats in the Province of Samsun. Also,
259
Table 2
Overview of registered boats. Includes only boats used for sea fisheries owned by
persons resident in the province of Samsun 2005.
Engine power Hp
0e32
33e149
150e299
300e
Total
Samsun register
Sinop register
Odu register
Total
Total %
345
63
21
429
65.5
82
23
18
123
18.8
44
5
4
53
8.1
45
4
0
49
7.5
516
95
43
654
since the fishing boat registers in Turkey do not hold time-series
data, it is difficult to get an overview of changes in registered boats
from year to year. It has, therefore, been very challenging to
document catch capacity developments in the Samsun fisheries.
However, relying on data from some irregular surveys we have
been able to recognise some general trends.
According to the lists of fishing boat licenses at Samsun, Sinop
and Ordu Province Agricultural Directorates respectively, there
were 654 boats registered in 2005 for sea fishing with owners
resident in Samsun (Table 2).
The head of the Fishery Control Section within Samsun Province
Agricultural Directorate estimates that there are 200e300 unregistered fishing boats in Samsun Province, mostly less than 6 m.
length/33 Hp. Information gathered by TFRI provides some additional information. The Institute undertook surveys of boats in the
Province of Samsun in 1992 and 2005, using the same method each
time and registering boats irrespective of whether and where they
were registered, and found that the number of small boats
increased from 569 to 1094 during the period. Other surveys add
more detailed information concerning larger boats boats registered
for trawling (Table 3).
The increase in number of trawlers has levelled off as has mean
engine power since 2000. After 1997 most of the increase in the
trawler fleet has been in the vessel group 100e200 Hp/11e14 m.
These boats are typically also used for sea snail dredging and net
fisheries.
Our analysis of the changes reported to (and manually, not
electronically, registered) in the Samsun fishing vessel register
2000e2005, shows that, while the number of larger boats sold and
purchased out of and into Samsun roughly balance, there has been
a significant rise in the number of boats in the vessel group
33e149 Hp, typically multi-purpose (m-p) boats that combine sea
snail dredging, bottom trawling and net fishing (Fig. 7).
During 2000e2005, almost no small boats were sold out of
Samsun. Fishers in Trabzon, in contrast, had been selling their
medium-sized m-p boats to fishers in Samsun. During a 1997
survey we registered 33 m-p boats dredging for sea snails in the
fishing village of Keremköy in the Province of Trabzon. In 2008
none of those fishers were dredging for sea snails any longer and
many had bought smaller boats having sold their m-p boat out of
Trabzon; among those four went to Terme. Of 73 boats bought in to
Samsun from other provinces during the years 2000e2005, 43
came from provinces east of Samsun and 16 from neighbouring
Sinop (Table 4).
Many small boats have also had their engines upgraded (typically to 85 Hp or 135 Hp), enabling them to dredge or trawl more
effectively. Analysis of registered sea fishing boats in Samsun
Province7 shows that there is a levelling off of the total engine
power within the registered trawl fishing fleet (although boats not
7
This calculation excludes developments in parts of the fleets in Yakakent and
Terme, but trends here are probably similar to those observed for boats registered
in Samsun, which, in terms of engine power, accounts for approximately 90% of the
registered fishing boats owned by people resident in the Province of Samsun.
260
S. Knudsen et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 53 (2010) 252e269
Table 3
Composition of trawl fishery fleet Samsun Province 1988e2005.
Year
1988
1992
1997
2000
2005
Number of boats
Boat length (m)
38
56
104
115
123
Engine power (Hp)
Min.
Max.
Mean
Min.
Max.
Mean
12
9
12
10
9
25.5
28
28
28
34
18
18
19.6
19.8
19.4
43
32
85
32
32
540
580
630
565
600
256.4
215.3
280.3
301.3
298.3
Only trawlers registered in Samsun.
Sources: 1988 and 1997: Samsun Harbour Authorities; 1992 and 2000: TFRI; 2005:
Samsun Province Agricultural Directorate fishing boat license register.
registered for trawling may in practice be used for trawling).
Growth in the fleet of smaller or middle-sized m-p boats accounts
for most of the increase in catch capacity during 2000e2005. Nontrawlers here include (both in 2000 and 2005) the large purse
seiner Sürsan-1 with 2000 Hp. The resulting increase in small boat
non-trawler engine power during this five year period is 468%.
Thus, the overall increase in engine power is much more significant
than that indicated in Fig. 6, which only includes boats registered as
trawlers (Table 5).
Facing decreasing catch and profitability in the demersal trawl
fisheries, Samsun trawlers have increasingly explored mid-water
trawling. While only 2e4 trawlers in Samsun used pelagic trawl
during the 1990s, after this fishery became legalized in 2000
numbers increased rapidly. In the 2008/9 season 40 large Samsun
trawlers, mostly in the size category 18e29 m, regularly took part
in this fishery. This, in effect, means that some of the fishing effort
has been directed away from bottom trawling to pelagic trawling.
3.5. Relation to other fisheries/other regions
It is difficult to understand the dynamics of the trawl and sea
snail fisheries around Samsun unless we take into account the
multiple relations with other fisheries in the Black Sea and beyond.
The Samsun fisheries is not a closed system. Relations to other
fisheries can roughly be categorized as either:
Issue (1) will be more fully discussed under Section 4, Drivers.
(2) clearly impacts total pressure in demersal fisheries and includes
the following activities:
It is common for non-Samsun purse seiners to switch to
trawling in Samsun if the anchovy catch fails, or before and
after the usually shorter purse seine season.
The resource crisis in the pelagic sector during the early 1990s
caused many former purse seiners, especially from Trabzon, to
switch irrevocably to trawling. This clearly contributed to
higher trawl fishing effort during the 1990s (not accounted for
in the statistics above). With decreasing profitability, however,
in the trawl fisheries there are few of these left. During
1990e1998 seven trawlers in the district of Çarşıbaşı (Povince
of Trabzon) trawled regularly in Samsun. By 2008 only two
remained.
(3) Political mobilization of fishers in places such as Ordu and
Sinop has resulted in restrictions on fishing grounds open to
trawling, in effect making it more difficult for trawlers based in the
Province of Samsun to explore some fishing grounds that are
suitable for trawling.
3.6. Summary
Development in trawl fisheries accounted for a significant
increase in demersal fishing pressure until the late 1990s, when
stagnation was brought about by decreasing catch and profitability.
This decrease in demersal fishing pressure is offset, however, by an
increase in illegal trawling and dredging by a very rapidly growing
sector of multi-purpose boats. Large boat fishing pressure is redirected to pelagic trawling to a certain extent. This redirection in
fishing methods impacts demersal ecology indirectly by targeting
sprat, an important link between the pelagic and demersal food
webs (see Fig. 3).
4. Drivers
(1) fishing boats and fishers from Samsun operating outside of the
province of Samsun (engaging in other fisheries elsewhere);
(2) fishing boats from outside of Samsun fishing in Samsun Province; or
(3) political activities of fishers outside of Samsun affecting Samsun fishers.
In this section we will survey and discuss a range of potential
drivers. The scope of this survey was arrived at during interdisciplinary discussions within the ELME project and, thus, takes into
consideration a broad range of issues that are thought to drive
fishing pressure across many fisheries in Europe. Most of the
drivers discussed here are summarized in Fig. 8.
Table 4
Net change in number of boats Samsun Province 2000e2005.
4.1. Fishing costs and incomes
Ports
0e32 33e149 150e299 300 Cumulative Total net change in
Hp
Hp
Hp
þ Hp net change engine power Hp as
a result of investment
in new boats
Terme
2
Fenerköyü 0
Samsun
13
Dereköyü 2
Koşu Köyü 0
Yakakent
0
Other
0
Total
17
11a
2
11
12
3
0
2
41
2
0
2
2
0
1
0
7
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
2
15
2
26
16
3
2
2
66
1600b
178
2530.5
1367
280
655
175
6785.5
Based on survey of change in Samsun Province fishing boat register.
a
Note that many small boats in Yakakent and Terme are registered outside of
Samsun. 18 out of 31 boats in the 33e149 Hp range (2005) in Terme are registered
in the Province of Ordu. Most of the boats registered in Ordu were likely, like the
boats in the same group registered in Samsun, bought after 2000. Thus, the total
number of new boats in the 33e149 Hp category during 2000e2005 in Terme may
exceed 20.
b
Excludes vessels registered in Ordu.
Turkish fisheries generally operate on a share system that is
completely paperless: there are no written contracts between
owner and crew; there are no official accounts of the boats’
finances. Although clearly important variables in the long time
viability of fishing firms, salary/shares can, generally speaking, not
be regarded as being part of operating costs. No data exists concerning expenses such as repairs and investments, but we may
assume that this variable is fairly constant. Neither is there any
information available concerning investments. Generally speaking,
the need for continual upgrading of equipment is much less in trawl
and sea snail fishing then in purse seine fishing in the Turkish Black
Sea region. The most important expense in trawl and sea snail
fisheries is fuel. A study of trawl fishing on the western coast of
Turkey, where the conditions of the trawl fisheries resemble those
in Samsun, shows that fuel made up 41.3% of the operating costs of
trawl vessels during the 1999e2000 fishing season [45]. Fuel
expenses have increased considerably during the 2000s, but have
S. Knudsen et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 53 (2010) 252e269
261
Number of trawlers
Number of licensed trawl vessel
30
1988
1997
2005
25
20
15
10
5
0
050
50100
100150
150200
200250
250300
300350
350400
400450
450500
500550
550600
600650
HP
Trawl engine power
140
40000
Total Hp
120
35000
Licensed trawlers
30000
25000
80
20000
60
Hp
Number of boats
100
15000
40
10000
20
5000
2005
2000
1997
1992
1988
0
0
Fig. 6. Pressures. Number of registered trawlers Samsun Province 1988e2005. Samsun trawl engine power distribution 1988e2005. Sources: same as in Table 3.
decreased since 2004 with a new policy of tax exemption on fuel for
professional fishers (see Section 4.10.3).
4.2. Fish prices, consumption and market
There is no statistical, not even a good, estimate, of fishers’
income. Fish prices may thus be the best proxy for fishers’ income.
Table 5
Overview over increase in engine power (Hp) Samsun Province 2000e2005.
2000
2005
Increase 2000e2005
% Increase
Total engine
power
Total engine
power trawlers
Total engine
power
non-trawlers
38,860
51,246
12,386
31.8
34,650
36,691
2041
5.9
4210
14,555
10,345
245.7
Source: Our own analysis of Samsun Province fishing boat registers. Note that the
non-trawl fleet is not included in Table 3 and in Fig. 6.
The trawl fisheries around Samsun is the main supplier of some of
the more abundant and popular species in the Turkish fresh fish
market. In general, demand is high and fresh fish bring a fairly
high price, even as mean size decreases. Some of the demersal
species, in particular red mullet and turbot, are among the most
highly priced in Turkey. They are luxury foods primarily indulged
in by the elite [46]. Practically all turbot, whiting and red mullet
landed in Turkey are consumed domestically. During the first half
of the 1990s catches of pelagically migrating fish such as anchovy,
horse mackerel, bonito and bluefish were very meagre. This
secured a high demand for demersal fish. Whiting e a species
previously not much consumed in Turkey e became a substitute
for anchovy during this period. Trawl fisheries in the coastal areas
of Samsun is one of the most important suppliers of benthic fish to
the Turkish market.
Since statistics on seafood consumption in Turkey are based on
‘production’ (and not on de facto consumption), registered per
capita seafood consumption has largely varied with changes in
anchovy catches and is, therefore, not a good measure of demand.
Since 2000 there has been a disassociation of per capita seafood
262
S. Knudsen et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 53 (2010) 252e269
4.3. Technology
Fig. 7. Mid-size, multi purpose boats. Typical boats that combine trawling, dredging
and net fisheries. All kinds of gear are visible here on the ground beside the boats.
Fenerköyü, çarşamba, September 2005.
Technological equipment on trawlers usually includes an echo
sounder, radar, and communication equipment, and often GPS
navigator. Most of this equipment is imported. GPS-navigators have
made it much easier for trawlers to mark, find and stick to proven
good fishing ‘tracks’. This equipment became available in the mid1990s, is relatively cheap and is today found on most large trawlers.
The rise in number of (the much more expensive) sonars used to
locate pelagic shoals of fish also indicates an increase in mid-water
trawling.
Our questionnaire survey in Samsun provides some information
as to when electronic equipment was first acquired (Fig. 8).9 The
growth in use of electronic equipment has been more rapid than
the rise in the number of licensed trawlers. Small echo sounders
have become so inexpensive during the 2000s that many small boat
fishers have acquired them, making it easier for them to dredge or
trawl at the depth they find is most profitable. Thus, adoption of
new technology has been a major driver for increased pressure
since the early 1990s.
4.4. Structural flexibility
consumption from anchovy catches. This is probably in large
measure due to an increased production of farmed fish. While
domestically farmed fish accounted for less than 5% of total seafood
consumption in Turkey in 1995, production has risen steadily.
Almost 25% of seafood consumption in 2007 was domestically
farmed fish (TurkStat Fishery Statistics). Availability of farmed fish
has reached a level where it may affect relative demand of some of
the species caught in the Samsun trawl fisheries. Relative prices of
farmed fish have decreased significantly in the domestic market.
While a significant proportion of sea bass and sea bream is
exported to Europe, all trout (43,000 tonnes, 2004) is consumed
domestically (compared to domestic catch of 1800 tonnes of red
mullet and 8000 tonnes of whiting).
Seafood exports have, since 2001, exceeded imports by a factor
of four (by value), but still amount to only approximately 5% of
total catches and production [47]. In value farmed sea bream and
sea bass together with sea snail constitute the larger share of the
export and also account for the rise in total seafood exports during
recent years. Due to dietary norms associated with Islam sea snails
are not consumed in Turkey [46]. There is also little demand in the
other Black Sea countries for this species. It is, however, exported
to East Asian markets where it brings a very high price. Demand
seems to be stable, with annual average prices varying between 3
and 7 USD/kg.
Fish consumer prices, as calculated by TurkStat, seem to correlate more strongly with per capita GDP than with total landings. We
place, therefore, more trust in first-sale prices at the Istanbul
Kumkapı fish hall8 (Fig. 8) which display patterns that deviate
considerably from the TurkStat figures. Demand, especially of
‘luxury’ fish such as turbot, remains high or increases even as mean
size decreases and alternative, cheaper fish (both farmed fish and
anchovy) are available. Demand thus seems to be an important
driver for fishing pressure, especially of high-value demersal
species. Demand for sea snails is, however, more sensitive to
decline in average size.
8
First-sale prices were unobtainable from the Samsun fish hall. The Kumkapı fish
hall is by far the largest fish market in Turkey. Also, fish traded here and in Samsun
enter the same national market (Ankara, Istanbul etc.).
4.4.1. Gear combinations and switching
A main characteristic of fisheries in Samsun is the ease with
which fishers and boats switch between different kinds of fishing.
Large trawlers are increasingly switching between bottom and
mid-water trawling for pelagic species such as anchovy, horse
mackerel and, especially, sprat which had previously not been
commercially exploited in Turkey. There is no domestic market for
sprat, and catches are delivered to fish meal and oil factories. In
2005 there was only one purse seine fishing firm based in Samsun. The Sürsan company possesses several boats, among them
Turkey’s largest purse seiner (62 m). This company receives its
largest profits from tuna fishing in the Aegean. However, the same
company owns three smaller boats (approx. 25 m.) that are used
both in purse seine and trawl fisheries. This complex interweaving of the different fisheries makes it difficult to separate
them economically. The ability to switch among different gears
and fisheries makes the larger firms more resilient to fluctuations
in catches and market.
Medium-sized boats can easily switch between different kinds
of fishing, depending on what is seen as most profitable at the
moment: dredging for sea snails; net fisheries, especially for turbot,
bonito and ‘Russian’ mullet; or trawling, which is often illegal as
boats under twelve metres in length are not eligible for a trawling
license. As long as the engine is powerful enough, switching from
dredging to trawling is simple and requires very little investment.
As a result, there is no clear distinction between trawlers and
medium-sized boats. A new class of truly m-p boats has evolved.
Flexibility is a pervasive character of these m-p boat fisheries. It
contributes to viability and is, thus, a major driver of fishing pressure (Fig. 9).
4.4.2. Employment and income flexibility
Almost all fishing boats based in Samsun, large as well as small,
are owned and operated by families resident in the province. Family
economy and the economy of the fishing business are often
inseparable. When catches are poor fishing can be subsidised by
other activities or by reducing household expenses. This is a prevalent character of Turkish Black Sea fisheries, and contributed to the
9
All electronic equipment is imported, but the Foreign Trade Office has, unfortunately, been unable to provide any data on this.
S. Knudsen et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 53 (2010) 252e269
263
Fig. 8. Drivers. Fuel prices paid by fishers 1990e2005. Source: TurkStat. Fish first sale prices, Istanbul. Source: Data provided by the Kumkapı fish hall, Istanbul. UiB analyses of data.
Calculated from monthly average prices during the months when trade volumes at Kumkapı are highest: Red mullet all year; Turbot December-June; Whiting September-April
an, 1999); and Anchovy September-March (Tekinay et al, 2003). New electronic equipment. Data obtained from survey in Samsun September 2005. This is based on
(Timur and Dog
information from approx. 250 boats, of which 86 (24) were equipped with echo sounders, 11 (2) with sonars, and 20 (6) with GPS guided positioning system (number in brackets
indicate the number for which we do not know date first acquired). These figures do not account for equipment sold out of Samsun. Net migration Province of Samsun 1970e2005.
Sources: TurkStat and SPO. Data not available for 1990e1995 period. Social security fishers Samsun Province. Source: Questionnaire survey of 342 fishers Samsun, September 2005.
Fishery credits Turkey and Samsun. Sources: Agricultural Bank Head Office, Agricultural Bank Regional Office Samsun, TurkStat. Upgrading of engine power Samsun 2000e2005.
Source: Our own analysis of Samsun Province Agricultural Directorate fishing boat registers. Fishing harbour investment Samsun Province. Source: Ministry of Transport Regional
Office Samsun.
264
S. Knudsen et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 53 (2010) 252e269
Flexibility and resilience is also secured by combining different
roles in the fisheries and/or involvement in other sectors, partly at
the individual level but particularly at the household level. It is
fairly common among owners of small boats (up to 10 m) to
combine work on one’s own boat, typically during sea snail and
bonito seasons, with work as crew on trawlers or purse seiners
during winter. Of the fishers interviewed for our questionnaire,
10.4% combined fishing from their own boat with work as crew
during the previous fishing season (September 2004eAugust
2005). 28.6% of the fishers had income from activities other than
fishing, primarily from agriculture (17.2%), but some were also
seasonal workers (5.2%) or civil servants/tradesmen (3.8%). For
unskilled young men it is not uncommon to combine or switch
between fishing and construction work e both hard, migratory, and
poorly paid seasonal work.
4.4.3. Fishing in waters outside of the Province of Samsun
Flexibility and viability in the fishery sector is further facilitated
by the possibility for crew and boats to operate outside of Samsun.
This has been an increasing trend since the mid-1990s. However, no
numerical data exists to substantiate and document the trend.
Vessels are not obliged to report such activities to the authorities.
The most important fishing activities by Samsun fishers outside of
Samsun are:
Fishers in Samsun signing on with boats in Istanbul and Izmir.
Trawlers trying other trawling grounds further west along the
Black Sea coast.
Fishing for shrimp part of or most of the year in the Aegean. Of
35 large boats (16 m and 250 Hpþ) in our survey, 14 had gone
to the Aegean during the previous year.
Trawling in Georgian waters. During winter 2005, 25e30
trawlers from Samsun reportedly tried their luck there. The
legal basis for this is not very clear.
Some medium and large trawlers venture illegally into the
waters of the western and northern Black Sea to fish for turbots
with bottom nets.
During the 2005 season approximately 10 medium-sized boats
from Samsun dredged for sea snails in the Sea of Marmara.
4.5. Tradition and identities
Fig. 9. Typical seasonal cycles of multi-purpose and large boats in Samsun.
greater resiliency of these fisheries relative to other Black Sea
countries’ fisheries during the resource crisis of the early 1990s
[48]. One or more able men from the family owning a boat will
usually be on the boat, generally as captain. Thus, one family (group
of brothers, sometimes including father) will seldom own and
operate more ‘units’ (boats, factories, fish sales office) than the
number of grown-up males in the family. This has, to some extent,
limited investment and operational flexibility. Yet, during the last
ten years, a few of the larger companies have successfully started to
leave control of their vessels to hired captains.
While a majority of the fishers in Samsun have roots in provinces further east along the Black Sea coast, fishers represent
diverse ethnic and regional backgrounds. Many fishers in small
fishing villages at the river mouths have Caucasian roots, the Yörük
(formerly pastoral nomads) have their own inland fishery cooperative near Bafra, one of the largest fishing firms is owned by
a Kurdish family in Bafra, and there are many Roma and Alevi
fishers in Terme. Together with the brief history of fishing in
Samsun above, this shows that fishing in Samsun is not strongly
related to tradition or identities. People of all backgrounds easily
enter into or leave the fishing sector. It is primarily economic and
demographic factors together with settlement patterns and infrastructure for fishing (harbours etc.) that affect who is a fisher.
4.6. Province economy and demography
Until the 1970s the city of Samsun and the plains were a frontier, a place of opportunity, and the population increased very
rapidly with in-migration. Now times have changed. While the
city population (363,000) has continued to grow slowly, village
population and overall province population (1,209,000) has
decreased since 1985 (Population survey 2000, TurkStat). The
Province of Samsun’s net rate of migration has been increasingly
S. Knudsen et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 53 (2010) 252e269
265
Table 6
Level of formal education among fishers. All figures in %.
Fishers Samsun Province, survey 2005a
Fishers (skippers/managers) Black Sea region 2005b
Fishers Samsun Province 2000 (TurkStat)c
Males Samsun Province 2000 d
Male agricultural workers Turkey 2003
(Çakmak 2004:8)
Total Turkey 2003 (Çakmak 2004:8)
5 years primary
education or less
Lower secondary,
8 yrs.
Higher secondary,
11 years
Higher education
74
60.7
80.4
70.6
84.7
13
14.9
10.0
8.6
8.0
13
20.9
5.8
12.6
6.7
0
3.6
1.5
8.2
0.6
58.8
11.4
18.8
11.0
a
Survey of 345 fishers (including two women) in most fishing communities in the Province of Samsun, September 2005. The figures here include fishers below 25 years age,
while the official figures for educational level in Turkey and Samsun are based upon the population above 25 years age. Since the younger population is generally better
educated the figures for Samsun may show a relatively high proportion as having secondary education.
b
[52]. 308 managers of fishing operations/boats (all sizes/kinds), mostly (more than 90%) boat owners. Boats owners and skippers, especially owners of and hired skippers
on larger boats, are generally better educated than small boat fishers and crew.
c
TurkStat Census of Population 2000. 672 employed persons above age 12 reported to have their main income from ‘fishing and water produce’.
d
TurkStat Census of Population 2000.
negative (Fig. 8). Among the 81 provinces in Turkey, during
2000e2005, Samsun had the highest negative net number of
migrants. Economic development has been increasingly negative
during the same period. While migration to a limited extent might
decrease drivers for fishing, more importantly the high rate of outmigration is an indicator of the increasing difficulty of finding
employment or securing income in the agricultural and industrial
sectors of the Province of Samsun.
Industrial employment in the Province of Samsun declined from
10,030 in 1995 to 6760 in 2001. During the same period overall
industrial employment in Turkey increased by 13% (TurkStat).
When the economy started to ‘pick up’ again after the 2001 crisis,
open unemployment did not decrease. One of the ‘.key characteristic[s] of the post-2001 Turkish growth is its jobless nature’ [49].
Poverty thus remains a major problem in the Turkish economy and
society with a very skewed income distribution. In Samsun the
situation has been particularly difficult; industry has moved out of
the province, resulting in many unemployed migrating to western
Turkey or exploring other, new opportunities locally e of which
fishing is one of very few options.
We can see the concentration of capital and the creation of
a large market of cheap labour expressed in the Samsun fisheries
sector. Although ‘big capital’, e.g. large corporations, has not
invested in the fishery sector in Samsun, there is endogenous
development towards capital concentration (see also [43]),
primarily through increased vertical integration whereby 5e6
companies now control most of the fish trade, many of the most
profitable fishing boats (especially larger mid-water trawlers),
factories, a large share of fish shops as well as seafood restaurants in
Samsun. While fishers seldom become wealthy, owners of these
companies are fairly rich. The Sürsan Company has for several years
been one of the largest taxpayers in Samsun. These large companies
have no problem finding cheap labour locally.
4.7. Educational level
In their surveys of fishing cultures, both Acheson [50] and
McGoodwin [51] point out that fishers are generally less educated
than non-fishers. This is also the case in Turkey. The educational
level of fishers is substantially lower than among most other
occupational groups, except agricultural workers. The main difference in educational level between fishers and the larger population
in Samsun is the lack of higher education among fishers (Table 6).
It is the aim of most, if not all, fishers e even the wealthy big
boat fishers e to educate their sons and daughters. Generally, sons
of boat owners only settle for a career in fishing if and when they
fail to pass the university entrance exam. Thus, sons of the
successful fishing families who can afford private tuition fees tend
to have more years of education and a career outside of fishing,
while for young men with few resources (land, capital) and little
education, fishing is one of the few income options in the region
open to them.
4.8. Social security and health insurance
In Turkey, a citizen’s rights to welfare and social security are very
limited. A satisfactory level of entitlement to medical treatment
and old age pension etc. is only established by state employment
(membership in Sosyal Sigorta Kurumu e SSK, Social Insurance
Institution) or, for self-employed, by voluntary (paid) membership
-Kur, or by private insurance. According to
in state-organized Bag
both our survey and to TurkStat, approximately two-thirds of
fishers are self-employed. One of the most common complaints
fishers raise is the lack of social security in their profession. Most of
-Kur, which is
them depend on paying regular instalments to Bag
difficult for poor families with strained economy and erratic
income. The very poorest (with basically no formal employment
and income) are entitled to ‘Green Cards’ that give them right to
basic but restricted services (free medicines, etc.).
-Kur) in
While the ratio of insured persons (private, SSK and Bag
Turkey overall is 89.2% (TurkStat), only 41.9% of fishers in Samsun
are similarly insured.10 Moreover, many fishers who are members
-Kur often fail to pay their instalments and their rights
of the Bag
are, therefore, reduced accordingly. It is typically small boat fishers
and crew who do not have any insurance or only hold a “Green
Card”. This indicates a high level of poverty among fishers. Lack of
alternatives results in many poor people entering and remaining
within the fisheries sector despite the involved uncertainties, the
lack of security, and the unfavourable working conditions. The
willingness to work for a very low income, and the combination or
typical substitution with other non-formal and seasonal work is
confirmed by our interviews and survey data.
4.9. Poverty, and fishing as frontier
Poverty thus seems to be a major driver for fishing effort in
Samsun. This is facilitated by the character of the fisheries: its
10
The SPO figures include dependants of insured persons. Since each fisher will
usually have more than one person depending on him, the ratio is probably even
smaller than 41.9%.
266
S. Knudsen et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 53 (2010) 252e269
relative open nature; the lack of formal requirement of authorization (relatively easy to get a fishers’ license); the ease with
which fishers can switch between different kinds of fishing; and
the lack of social barriers (tradition, belonging to local community
etc.) to becoming a fisher. The m-p boat fishery especially operates
in a sphere of opportunity, flexibility and hope. Sea snail fisheries
in Samsun can be said, therefore, to have constituted a kind of
frontier since the mid 1980s, especially during 2000e2005.
Frontier is “an undetermined space that is part of a regional
system, on the margins of the state” [53]. It is “notoriously
unstable.and is made in the shifting terrain between legality and
illegality, public and private ownership.” ([54]: 32e33). This
certainly seems to be the case in fisheries in Samsun, in particular
in certain locations such as Terme and Dereköy. The sector of m-p
boats in particular has been poorly regulated and controlled, yet
has provided one of the few economic arenas open to poor people
in the coastal region. While many fishers are poor, their involvement in the fisheries has nevertheless helped raise their standard
of living. Many have built their own houses on income earned in
trawl or sea snail fisheries.
In conclusion, the kind of economic structure and development
presently experienced in Turkey is a driver for increased fishing
effort in that it sustains or creates poverty and thereby an
increasingly cheap labour force in the large boat fisheries.11 In
a period of dramatic ecological change in the Black Sea and poor
economic development in the Province of Samsun, the influx of
new fishers to the m-p boat fishery has helped to secure employment, rural settlement, and business opportunities e and increased
fishing pressure. Of importance is also the fact that fishers are
organized to only a very little extent. The fishery cooperatives have
generally proved to be ineffective tools for furthering fishers’
interests (see [43], Chapter 9), and there exists no organization to
represent the interests of crew.
4.10. State policies
State policies towards fisheries have, since the 1950s, generally
been ‘developmental’ and modernist, primarily focusing on
increasing catches [43]. After the fishery crisis around 1990 state
policies changed somewhat with increased focus on sustainability
and sound management of resources. Old and new agendas coexist,
however, and, while some measures have been taken to restrict
fishing effort, other initiatives are clearly drivers of higher pressure.
Important policies have included subsidised credits, import tax
exemption on engines and technological equipment to be used in the
fisheries, the construction of harbours and harbour facilities, as well
as fish trade halls. Except for the most successful large fishing
companies, fishers generally do not pay income or company taxes.
There is a small sales tax (3%) on fish deduced from sales in the fish
halls.
4.10.1. Subsidised credits
Since the 1970s heavily subsidised investment and operational
state credits had been instrumental in the rapid growth of the
fisheries. Interest rates were well below market interest rates, often
less than half. During the late 1990s policies changed and fishery
credits were no longer subsidised, while new subsidised credits
targeted fish farming. As a result, fishers nearly stopped using this
kind of credit (Fig. 8). Total credits to the fishery sector have clearly
11
We currently explore the relationship between poverty and natural resources
in another project/paper (see http://sites.google.com/a/maremacentre.com/
povfish/Home). Any further discussion of this is, therefore, outside the scope of
this article.
varied with the degree to which these credits have been subsidised.
After 2000 subsidised fishery credits have not been a driver for
fishing pressure.
4.10.2. Tax exemption on imported equipment
Tax exemption on the import of equipment was an important
element in the growth of the fisheries during the 1980s and for its
resilience during the early 1990s. Almost all large engines and
electronic equipment were, and are, imported. With the establishment of the customs union with EU in 1996 this became less
important and has not been a major driver since.
4.10.3. Tax exemption, fuel
Not long after it assumed power in the autumn of 2003, the
new AKP government decided that, from the beginning of 2004,
fishing vessels would be exempt from paying the 40% tax on
engine fuel. This policy change made a big difference especially to
fuel-intensive fisheries such as trawling and sea snail dredging. It
is, unfortunately, difficult to estimate what difference this has
made in terms of fuel consumption since there are no records of
fuel sales to fishing boats. The effect of cheap fuel can, however, be
measured by other indicators. Fishers themselves express the
importance of this policy for their viability, and tax-exempted fuel
is ubiquitously used by licensed boats. According to the harbour
authorities in Samsun in 2005, there were 636 fishing boats in
Samsun that benefited from subsidised fuel. This included most of
the trawlers and sea snail boats. Our own questionnaire survey
shows that, of the boats included in the survey, 140 of the boats
used subsidised fuel, while 118 did not. Apart from 3 exceptions,
all boats that did not take advantage of this subsidised fuel were
unlicensed (a condition for being entitled to the exemption) and/
or had engines under 33 Hp, that is, boats unsuitable for trawling
and dredging. Practically all trawlers and dredgers thus benefited
from subsidised fuel. Furthermore, the subsidy stimulated an
increase in total engine power. We scrutinized the changes made
to the Samsun Province Agricultural Directorate fishing boat
registers and found that after this exemption came into effect 16
small boats in Samsun had their engine power upgraded (typically
from 10e30 Hp to 85e135 Hp), so that they were in effect
upgraded from artisanal to sea snail fishing boats. Furthermore,
approximately 30 combined trawlers/sea snail fishing boats and
trawlers had their engine power increased during 2004. Tax
exemption on fuel has clearly been a major driver since its
inception.
4.10.4. Public investment in infrastructure
By far the most important public investment in infrastructure
for fisheries in Samsun has been the construction of the large
fishing harbours. Larger harbours and more of them facilitate
more fishing activity, larger boats etc. The number of boats has
grown much more in places where a harbour has been recently
constructed, such as in Terme and Dereköy. The number of small
boats in Terme increased from 80 in 1992 to 331 in 2005, and the
number of trawlers from 0 to 19. In Yakakent, which has had
a good harbour for several decades, the increase from 1992 to
2005 was more moderate; from 35 to 70 small boats. Since most
fishers do not have cars it is difficult to own and operate a fishing
boat if the boat is not tied to a place within walking distance or
a short minibus ride from home. Fishing villages far from harbours
have seen almost no rise in number of boats during the
1992e2005 period.
There is probably some time lag between actual harbour
investments and effect on fishing pressure. The new harbour constructed in Canik in Samsun city has replaced the Central harbour
and has, therefore, not been a driver for increased fishing pressure.
S. Knudsen et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 53 (2010) 252e269
4.11. Fisheries management
4.11.1. General rules and regulations
No TAC or quota regulations apply, but several other measures
are intended to secure sound fishing practice and ecological
sustainability. Biannual ‘circular[s]’ specify rules and regulations
that apply to fishing in Turkey (General Directorate of Protection
and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs).
Licenses are required for all fishing boats and fishers. Small fees
apply. Trawl licenses are only granted to boats longer than 12 m.
After the fishery crisis around 1990 a ban on construction of new
boats was put into effect in 1991. In 1994, 1997 and in 2001,
however, the authorities granted exceptions to this regulation, in
effect making it possible for boats already constructed to obtain
fishing licenses. Since March 2002 it has not been possible to obtain
new licenses, but there is no regulation restricting the number of
licenses in individual provinces or fisheries. Enlargement of existing boats (up to 20% every second year) is accepted. It is also legal to
construct new boats under the license of older boats that discontinue fishing. Although the stated aim has been to freeze catch
capacity, loopholes, amnesties, and the right to enlarge boats have
instead led to the substantial increase in catch effort, discussed
further below under Pressures.
4.11.2. Regulations concerning bottom trawling
The following rules apply to bottom trawl fishing in the Samsun
area:
Seasonal limitations:
- Bottom trawling is forbidden in summer; the length of the
closed season has varied somewhat over the years.
- Specific regulation applies to turbot on which there is a total
ban on fishing during a couple months during spring/early
summer.
Regional limitations: All trawling is forbidden within three
nautical miles from shore. Since the early 1980s all kinds of
bottom trawling have been illegal in the region east of the provincal border between Samsun and Ordu (i.e. slightly east of
Terme). A small area from Sinop to Gerze is also closed to trawling.
These boundaries have been stable since the early 1990s.
Equipment regulations: Net end mesh size in the trawl may not
be smaller than 40 mm. There has been almost no change since
1992.
Minimum size limitations: Minimum legal size applies to
a range of species, including red mullet (13 cm) and turbot
(40 cm). Until very recently there was no such minimum size for
whiting.
4.11.3. Regulations applying to sea snail fishing
- Sea snail dredging/diving license required.
- Seasonal closures apply. There has been large variation in the
length of the closure period over the years. Since 2000 the
seasonal closure for dredging has been between 1 May and 31
August.
- Each boat may take no more than one dredge.
- Dredging for sea snails during night and closer than 500 m to
shore is forbidden.
- Regulations pertaining to mesh size and dredge construction
apply.
4.11.4. Fines
During the greater part of the 1990s fines were not adjusted to
keep up with inflation and, therefore, gradually came to be ridiculously small. In 1997 the maximum fine for illegal trawling was
267
0.14 USD. This changed from 1998 and during the 2000s the fine for
illegal trawling has been in the range of 125 USD,12 which hurts for
a small operator, but not for a large trawler.
4.11.5. Control and inspection
In the early 2000s control authority was gradually transferred
from Samsun Agricultural Directorate to the armed forces Coast
Guard, which is better equipped. The Coast Guard uses two patrol
boats in the middle Black Sea region. Control is very poor,
however, and many of the regulations described above are not
adhered to. This, as mentioned in Section 3.2.2, is especially the
case in sea snail fisheries. Trawlers, in addition to regularly having
overly fine-meshed nets, venture outside of the legal area of
operation, that is, either within three nautical miles from shore or
into the no-trawl zone to the east. Controls are erratic and
generally address small boats. Only 10 out of 57 fines registered by
the Samsun Agricultural Directorate between mid 2003 and mid
2005 were written to boats longer than 12 m. The Coast Guard
authorities in Samsun were unwilling to supply us with data
concerning their control activities.
5. Conclusions
The preceding discussion has surveyed a range of different
States, Pressures and Drivers which we for clarity have summarized
in Fig. 10 which also shows the major relationships between the
variables.
In our discussion of changes in the state of the environment in
Section 2 we documented the declining ecosystem health and the
primary species targeted by bottom trawling. Trawling during the
1990s and early 2000s is likely to be the primary cause of the negative
trends in turbot, red mullet and whiting landings as well as average
size. With declining catches and reduced average size, bottom trawling
became less profitable and the rise in catch capacity levelled off. With
increasing effort put into mid-water trawling, and fewer trawlers
coming in from other provinces, bottom trawl catch effort (Pressure) by
licensed trawlers may even have declined since the late 1990s. Yet, we
have documented a significant increase in overall accumulated engine
power by fishing boats in Samsun during 2000e2005. This post-2000
growth in Pressure is, however, primarily a result of a tremendous
growth in the number of and the average engine power of mediumsized multi-purpose boats. It is not yet clear what effect this growth has
on the state of the environment, but there are indications that average
sea snail size has declined considerably since 2005.
We have discussed a range of potential underlying Drivers for
the continued high catch capacity in the fisheries studied here. In
conclusion, we consider the following to be the major Drivers after
2000:
consumption/demand
fuel price
increasing availiability of electronic equipment
fuel tax exemption
harbour construction
slack control and inspection
structural flexibility
poverty
It is evident that fisheries in Samsun, and in particular sea snail
fisheries, have constituted a kind of frontier open to the poorer
populations of Samsun during the last 20 years. Poverty and lack of
alternatives together with low educational level and poor social
12
Adjusted for inflation, 1995 prices and exhange rate.
268
S. Knudsen et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 53 (2010) 252e269
Fig. 10. Simplified overview of major D-P-S variables and indicators.
security has clearly driven people into this sector of the economy.
This has been facilitated by the other drivers listed above, together
with structural properties such as fishers being able and allowed to
switch liberally between different kinds of gear and regions and
combine income from fisheries flexibly with income from other
sectors; and income opportunities opened by the establishment
and growth of an introduced species. Not all aspects of the fisheries
are driven by poverty, however. Some of the more successful
companies stay in the sector precisely because they are able to
make good profits. Yet, also for these large companies, flexibility
and, increasingly, vertical integration are critical for viability.
Although we believe that we have described and analysed the
major outlines of the DriverePressureeState relations in Samsun
fisheries, note that the findings are characterized by a relatively
high degree of uncertainty. There are two major reasons for this.
First, there is inherent or imposed change and flexibility in both
ecological and human systems (sea snail transforming the benthic
community, flexibility and relation to other fisheries) that are
simply difficult to document because of their dynamic and unpredictable nature. Secondly, for many variables data e especially
time-series data e are lacking, or of very poor quality. Furthermore,
a more comprehensive analysis should also address more fully
relations to fishers and fisheries outside of the Province of Samsun.
The political activities of small boat fishers in neighbouring provinces have, for instance, resulted in restriction of areas open to
trawling. Although our study reveals that there is more flow across
the Samsun border than expected, this spatial delimitation of the
case study has facilitated specification of the kinds of ‘flows’ there
are in and out of this ‘system’.
When it comes to management implications of our findings, it is
clear that the authorities can impact all or most drivers listed
above. However, many of the drivers are beyond the scope of
conventional ‘fisheries management’. The Ministry for Agriculture
and Rural Affairs, which carries the main responsibility for fishery
policy in Turkey, maintains authority over only one of the main
drivers, namely control and inspection. The society at large should
be taken into consideration when designing sound fishery policies;
although, conventional fishery management may have unintended
consequences for ‘society’. One likely effect of Turkey’s adaptation
to EU fishery policy would be a decrease in flexibility (licensing
requirements, improved inspection and control etc.). This could
decrease fishing pressure, especially the activity of medium-sized
multi-purpose trawl/dredgers. An important side effect of this,
however, would be increased poverty. In transforming Turkish
fishery policy, and thus the whole fishery sector, it will be important that policy makers and managers are aware of the social
consequences of a tighter management regime that leaves less
room for flexibility. Yet, general economic growth together with
development of better public social security and welfare systems
could produce attractive alternatives to fishing and, thereby, result
in decreased fishing pressure. Flexibility (fisheries) and poverty
(society) are connected and must not be seen in isolation.
Acknowledgements
Research and fieldwork for this study have received funding
from EU FP6 project European Lifestyles and Marine Ecosystems,
from the Trabzon Fisheries Research Institute and from the
University of Bergen. We would like to thank in particular Mehmet
Gül, head of Water Produce Section, Samsun Agricultural Directorate, Control and Inspection Division, for being particularly
helpful and forthcoming, providing us full access to registers etc.
S. Knudsen et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 53 (2010) 252e269
Appendix. Supporting information
Use of boats Samsun. This figure shows (horizontally) the activities
of each of 258 surveyed boats in Samsun September 2004eAugust
2005. Boats are listed according to engine power (right column).
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in the
online version, at doi:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2010.04.008.
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