ProsocialDr.Jekyll,meetDeviantMr.Hyde:Exploring
theConfluenceofOther-orientedPublicValuesandSelfcenteredNarcissism
RobertK.Christensen,rkchristensen@gmail.com
JustinStritch,jstritch@asu.edu
Abstract.ElliottSpitzer,HelenChenoweth,DavidVitterandMarkSanfordarebutafew
examplesofthosewhohavededicatedyearsoftheirlivestowardspublicservice.Yetthese
named—andmany,manymoreunnamed—examples,havebeenembroiledinsomevariety
ofscandalthatsimultaneouslyrevealsacertainandprofoundself-centereddisregardfor
others–whetherfamily,colleagues,politicalpartyorconstituents.Howmightwebeginto
understandandrelateself-centeredpublicvaluedestructionagainstabackdropofpublic
valuecreationofacareerofpublicservice?Thepurposeofthispaperistoextendthe
nomologicalmapofpublicservicemotivationinwaysthatwillpromoteabetter
understandingofwhatappearstobeajuxtapositionofthevaluesofself-centered
narcissismandother-orientedaltruism.Asanexploratorystudyfocusedonthecorrelation
oftheseseeminglycontraryvaluesinordinaryworkers,weusesurveydatafromfield
respondentsviaMechanicalTurk.Ourfindingsconfirmthemakingsofacomplicated
relationship:PSMispositivelyandconsistentlycorrelatedwithnarcissisminone
dimension(authority),consistentlyandnegativelycorrelatedinonedimension
(entitlement),inconsistentlyandnegativelycorrelatedintwootherdimensions(selfsufficiencyandexhibitionism),anduncorrelatedinnarcissism’sremainingsubdimensions.
ConferencePaper
ThePublicValuesConsortium5thBiennialWorkshop2016
SchoolofPublicAffairsandCenterforOrganizationResearchandDesign
ArizonaStateUniversity
January7&8,2016
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INTRODUCTION
Meynhardt(2012,2)observedthatpublicvaluecreationencompasses,“overcoming
individualistictendencies…[butalso]drawsourattentiontomechanismsofhowpeople
drawvaluefromthecollective,andhowthecollectiveemergesoutofindividual
interaction.”(Meynhardt2012,2).
Inthispaperweexploreaparticularfacetoftheconfluenceandemergenceof
collectiveandindividualistictendencies.Welookattheextenttowhichaspectsof
individuals’other-oriented,prosocialmotivesrelatetotheirownself-centeredtendencies
orevenpathologies.Towardstheformerwefocusonpublicservicemotivation
(PSM).Towardsthelatterwefocusonnarcissism,measuredwiththenarcissistic
personalityinventory(NPI).Ourinitialintuitionsuggestedthatanindividual’sPSMwould
bearastronginverserelationshipwithNPI,butourpastexploratorystudiessuggesta
muchmorenuancedpicture.WeuseasurveydesigntoextendPSM’snomologicalmap
acrossthesub-dimensionsofNPI.Ourcontributionisintendednotonlytoadvancerecent
interestintherelationshipbetweenPSMandpublicvaluecreation(e.g.,Andersen,etal.
2012)butalsotoconfrontandilluminatetheinherentconflictinreconcilingindividual,i.e.,
self-focused,andcollective,i.e.,other-focused,values.
Ourpaperisorganizedasfollows.Weprefaceourreviewoftheliteraturebynoting
thedistinctionandoverlapbetweenPSMandpublicvaluesandourfocusontheformer.
WethenbrieflyreviewnarcissismandPSM,thenfocusingonthetheoreticalpotentialfor
intersection/correlation.Wethendescribethedataandmethodusedtotestthese
potentialintersectionsandpresenttheresultsofouranalyses.Weconcludewitha
discussionofimplicationsandfutureresearch.
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APrefatoryNoteonPublicServiceMotivationandPublicServiceValues
Weprefaceourliteraturereviewbyrecognizingsomeofthedemonstratedoverlap
betweenPSMandpublicvalues(PV)intheworkofresearcherslikeAndersenetal.(2012)
andWitesmanetal.(2013).Inthispaperwecandolittlemorethanrecognizethe
“constructiveinterplayinwhichseparateempiricalmeasuresofPVandPSMareused
togetherorapart.”ForparsimonyourownstudyfocusedonPSM,apartfromPV.
However,weareoperatingunderthegeneralassumptionthatPSMgenerallycorrelates
withkeypublicvalues(withexceptionslikeself-sacrifice,seeAndersenetal.2014,10-11).
LITERATUREREVIEW
Narcissism
Narcissismisfrequentlycharacterizedasananti-socialordeviantdisposition,with
potentiallynegativeandharmfulsocialandorganizationalconsequences(Baumeister,
Campbell,Krueger,&Vohs,2003;Emmons,1987;Kernberg,1975;Stucke&Sporer,2002).
Werecognize,ofcourse,agreatvolumeofliteraturethatdifferentiatesprimaryand
secondarynarcissisminFreudianterms.Acrossthisspectrumtheformerisconceptualizes
narcissismasnormalandhealthy–keytothedevelopmentofself.Thelatter—secondary
narcissism--isconsidereddeviant,andevenpathologicalintheextreme.Thedistinctionis
illustratedinmanyways,butweincludethefollowingdescriptionstobringthecontrast
intorelief:
•
“Healthynarcissismisthefoundationforself-esteemandbalancesindependence
withdependenceonothers.Butanarcissisticpersonalityismaladaptiveand
contradictory”(Williamson1997).
3
•
•
“[T]henormalpersonbelievesthatheorsheneedstoliveuptocertainstandards,to
“becomesomebody”inordertoattaintheegoideal.Thenarcissist,maintainingan
infantileorientationtotheworld,believesthatheorsheisalreadytheegoidealand
inonewayoranotherdeniesthoseelementsofrealitythatcontradictthisreferred
vision”(Schwartz,1992,p.110).
“Truereactivenarcissists...haveagrandiosesenseofself-importance.They
habituallytakeadvantageofothersinordertoachievetheirownends.”(deVries,
Doyle,&Loper,1994,p.86)
Weuseacommonoperationalizationofnarcissismthatisintendedtoidentifynarcissistic
tendenciesinthemiddleofthespectrumthatareneitherhealthynorclinical/pathological.
Thenarcissisticpersonalityinventory(NPI)“wasoriginallydevelopedtoexplore
individualdifferencesinnarcissism,asthosedifferencesmaybeexpressedinnonclinical
populations”(RaskinandTerry1988,892).
RaskinandTerry’sfrequentlyusedindexcapturesnarcissismmulti-dimensionally,
underscoringseven“obliquedimensions”ofnarcissism:Authority,Self-Sufficiency,
Superiority,Exhibitionism,Exploitativeness,Vanity,andEntitlement(Auerbach1993,75).
Eachdimensionwarrantsabriefdescription.Authoritycapturesone’sperceivedprivilege
orrighttoexercisepower.Self-sufficiencyreflectsone’sperceivedindependencefrom
others.Superiorityreflectsone’sperceivedrelationshiptoothersashigherthanorbetter
thanother.Exhibitionismcaptureswhatwemightcommonlycallarangeof“showingoff”
ornon-consensualexposureofone’sselftoothers.Exploitativenesscapturesone’s
perceivedprivilegeorrighttouse,inadeceptivemanner,othersforpersonalgainor
advantage.Vanitycapturesone’sperceptionofselfasparticularlyoruncommonly
pleasing,desirableorbeautiful.Entitlementcaptureone’sperceiveddeservingnessas
consistentlyhigherthanothers’deservingness.
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The(primarilynegative)effectsofnarcissisticpersonalityhavebeenwidelystudied
inorganizations(e.g.,Judgeetal.2006;FoxandFreeman2011)andscholarshavefound
thenarcissistictendenciesofsucceedinggenerationstoberising(Twengeetal.2008).
PublicServiceMotivation
Publicservicemotivation(PSM)isfrequentlyassociatedwithprosocialattitudesand
dispositionsthatcanhavepositiveconsequencesforindividuals,organizations,and
society.WhilePSMcertainlysharessomeofthesameconceptualspaceasaltruistic
motivation(Rainey&Steinbauer,1999)andindividualself-determination(DeciandRyan,
2002)thedevelopmentofPSMasadistinctconceptstems,inpart,fromcritiques(Perry&
Porter,1982;Shamir,1991)thatclassictheoriesofmotivation—presumablyincluding
altruisticmotivation—paidtoomuchattentiontorational,self-centereddynamics,andtoo
littleattentiontoprosocialandinstitutions-consciousdynamics(Perry,2000;
Vandenabeele2007).
Publicservicemotivationconceptualizedinthiswayseemstoenergizemanyofthe
moreprosocially-andinstitutionally-consciousconceptscoveredinpublicvalueswork:a
focusonthepublicatlarge,ruleabidanceincludingadheringtonormsofprofessionalism,
balancinginterests,andafocusoncitizensasusers(seeAndersenetal.2012).Attheroot
ofanyconceptualizationofPSM,however,whetheroneismacro(institutions/society)or
micro(individual)focusedisafocusonotherness.
Inthepublicmanagementliterature,PSMhasbeenlinkedto“servingthepublic
good’’(Perry&Hondeghem,2008,p.3)andhasgenerallybeendefinedasthe‘‘motivation
toservetheinterestsofacommunityofpeople’’(RaineyandSteinbauer1999,23)orthe
“motivesandactioninthepublicdomainthatareintendedtodogoodforothersandshape
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thewell-beingofsociety’’(Perry&Hondeghem,2008,p.3).Thecontemporarydefinitions
ofprosocialmotivationfromthegeneralmanagementliteraturecloselymirrorour
understandingofPSMasaconceptandofitsconsequences.AnempiricalcorrelateofPSM
(Wright,Christensen,&Pandey,Forthcoming),prosocialmotivationis“thedesireto
benefitotherpeople”thatcan“enhancepersistence,performance,andproductivityby
enablingdedicationtoacause”(Grant,2008a,p.48).
THEJEKYLLANDHYDEINTERSECTION?NARCISSISMANDPSM
DefinedintheprecedingwayswemightintuitivelyexpectPSMtoexhibitstrong
negativerelationshipswiththeantisocialandself-centeredattitudesandtendenciesofa
narcissisticpersonality.However,someoftheanecdotes(e.g.,Spitzer,Vitter,Chenoweth)
andourownearlier(andlimited)exploratorystudies(ChristensenandStritch2013;
ChristensenandWright2012)suggestthepossibilityofamorenuancedlandscape.
Weareunawareofanyquantitativestudiesthatseektodocumenttheparticular
relationshipbetweenPSMandNarcissism.1Weseeutilityindoingso–notonlytoextend
PSM’snomologicalmap(WrightandPandey2005)–butalsotobetterunderstanda
potentiallyimportantdynamicinpublicservicework.Forexample,totheextentthat
publicorganizationsandcertaintypesofjobsaremorelikelytoattractworkershighin
PSM,managersmayhavelesser/greaterneedtomanagetheeffectsofnarcissismasa
potentialcorrelateofPSM.
Wedonotformalizehypothesesatthispoint,butwedoseetwo,broadand
countervailingpropositionsregardingthepotentialPSM/Narcissismintersection.Thefirst
1Althoughwedonotecallstodoso,forexample,withrespecttonarcissismandaltruism(Campbell,Goodie,
&Foster,2004).Ourownexploratoryworkusedsamplesofstudentsandlocalgovernmentworkersto
explorewhetherfurtherdatacollectionwaswarranted.
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propositionisthatnarcissismandPSMarenegativelycorrelatedandperhapsstronglyso.
PerryandWise’s(1990)originalconceptualizationofPSMwas,inpart,areactiontothe
viewthat“selfinterestisattherootofhumanbehavior”(367).Theypartlyproposed,
instead,that“publicorganizationsthatattractmemberswithhighpublicservice
motivationarelikelytobelessdependentonutilitarianincentives”(371).Thisperspective
providessomesupportforthenotionthatanarcissisticpersonality(1)wouldprioritize
self-interestoverself-sacrificeforsocial-good,and(2)woulddrawlessutilityfrom
identificationwithabroaderorganizationalmissionthanfromindividualmonetary
incentives.Someempiricalsupportforthispropositionisfoundindevelopmental
psychologywhereresearchersfoundthatperceptionsofpro-andanti-socialbehaviorsare
largelymutuallyexclusive(Veenstra,etal.2008)–thepresenceofoneprovides
informationabouttheabsenceoftheother.
Thesecondproposition,ontheotherhand,entertainsthepossibilitythatPSMand
narcissismarelargelyunrelated,andpotentiallyindependentandnon-mutuallyexclusive.
PerryandWise’s(1990)earlyworkalsoprovidessomesupportforthisapproach.In
foundingPSMonrational,affectiveandnormativemotives,PerryandWiseexplicitly
recognize—atleastatthesubdimensionallevel—thatPSMmaynotbe“whollyaltruistic”
andviarationalbases,canbe“groundedinindividualutilitymaximization”(368).They
observe,forexample,that“participationinthe[rational-based]processofpolicy
formulationcanbeexciting,dramatic,andreinforcingofanindividual'simageofself
importance[andthat]participat[ion]inpolicymakingmaythereforebesatisfyingpersonal
needswhileservingsocialinterests”(368).
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Againwefindanalogoussupportforthispropositionoutsideofpublicmanagement.
Psychologists,takingaltruismasanexampleofprosocialorientation,foundevidencethat
pro-andanti-socialdispositionsareuncorrelatedas“independenttendencieswithunique
personalitycorrelatesanddistinctetiologies”(Krueger,Hicks,&McGue,2001).
ResearchQuestion
Wefocusthesepropositionsintoasingleresearchquestionthatissomewhat
paralleltothethemeexploredbyStevensoninhisnovella,StrangeCaseofDr.JekyllandMr.
Hyde:towhatextentisthedualityofpersonalities,e.g.,goodandevil,inhumannaturebest
describedasinterdependentorindependent?Inthiscase,weprobetowhatextent
prosocialPSMisinterdependentorindependentofnarcissism.BecausePSMand
narcissismarebothmultidimensionalconstructs,ourexplorationincludesattentionto
subdimensionalrelationships.
DATAANDMETHOD
OurdatawerecollectedfromAmazon’sMechanicalTurkplatforminearlyDecemberof
2015.ParticipationwaslimitedtoTurkerslocatedintheUnitedStates.WecreatedaHIT
accessibletoTurkerswithalinkthatdirectedparticipantstooursurvey.Afterreadinga
descriptionofsurvey,participantswhoconsentedproceededtocompletethesurvey.We
receivedapproximately600usableresponsesoveraperiodof5days.Somebasic
demographicsrevealedthatourrespondentswereapproximately55percentfemale,had
anaverageageofaround37years,andwereabout79%Caucasian—relativelyconsistent
withpastMturkbasedsamples2.
2Ross and colleagues (2010) looked only at HIT responses from Turkers located in the United
States. The average Turker’s age was 31, 55 percent were female, more than half had a college
degree, and the median income was between $20,000 and $30,000. 8
WhiletheMechanicalTurkplatformisrelativelynewtopublicmanagementand
administrationresearch(Jilke,VanRyzin,&VandeWalle,2015;JohnD.Marvel,2015;John
DMarvel,2015),ithasbeenusedincreasinglyinbothbehavioralandsocialscience
research(Berinsky,Huber,&Lenz,2012;Crump,McDonnell,&Gureckis,2013;Johnson&
Borden,2012;Mason&Suri,2012;Paolacci,Chandler,&Ipeirotis,2010).Theuseofthe
MTurkplatformhasseveralobservableadvantagesintermsofdatacollectionforour
examinationofthenarcissismandpublicservicemotivationconstructs.First,Mechanical
Turkprovidesageographicallydiverseconveniencessample.Second,sincebothPSMand
narcissismaremotivationandpersonalityconstructsthoughttobepresentinageneral
population,studyingtheminabroaderpublicsetting,suchasMechanicalTurk,providesus
asresearcherswithanabilitytostudytheseconstructsoutsideofspecificinstitutional
context.Forinstance,inanorganizational(publicorprivate)settingasurveyexamining
bothnarcissismandPSMmightbeproblematicasindividualsmightnotrespondhonestly.
Wewillnowprovideabriefdescriptionoftheitemsweusetooperationalizeour
measures.
PSM-AttractiontoPublicService
WeusethefollowingfouritemstomeasurePSM’sattractiontopublicservice
subdimension:
•
•
•
•
Iadmirepeoplewhoinitiateorareinvolvedinactivitiestoaidmycommunity
Itisimportanttocontributetoactivitiesthattacklesocialproblems
Meaningfulpublicserviceisveryimportanttome
Itisimportantformetocontributetothecommongood
Theitemshaveaanalphacoefficientof.86
PSM-CommitmenttoPublicValues
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WeusethefollowingfouritemstoconstructourmeasureofPSM’scommitmenttopublic
valuessubdimension:
•
•
•
•
Ithinkequalopportunitiesforcitizensareveryimportant
Itisimportantthatcitizenscanrelyonthecontinuousprovisionofpublicservices
Itisfundamentalthattheinterestsoffuturegenerationsaretakenintoaccount
whendevelopingpublicpolicies
Toactethicallyisessentialforpublicservants
Theseitemshaveanalphacoefficientof.79
PSM-Compassion
WeusethefollowingfouritemstomeasurePSM’scompassionsubdimension:
Ifeelsympathetictotheplightoftheunderprivileged
Iempathizewithotherpeoplewhofacedifficulties
IgetveryupsetwhenIseeotherpeoplebeingtreatedunfairly
Consideringthewelfareofothersisveryimportant
Theitemshaveanalphacoefficientof.86.
•
•
•
•
PSM-Self-Sacrifice
Weusethefollowingfouritemstomeasuretheself-sacrificesubdimensionofpublic
servicemotivation:
Iampreparedtomakesacrificesforthegoodofsociety
Ibelieveinputtingcivicdutybeforeself
Iamwillingtoriskpersonallosstohelpsociety
Iwouldagreetoagoodplantomakeabetterlifeforthepoor,evenifitcostsme
money
Theitemshaveanalphacoefficientof.87.
•
•
•
•
UnidimensionalPublicServiceMotivation
InthisstudyweoperationalizetwoglobalmeasuresofPSM.First,we
operationalizeKimetal.’s(2013)“NewInternational”16-itemmeasureofPSMservice
motivation.Thisisa16-itemmeasurethatconsistsoffourPSMsubdimensionsdescribed
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above(AttractiontoPublicService,CommitmenttoPublicValues,Self-Sacrifice,and
Compassion).Togethertheitemshaveanalphavalueof.931.
Wealsoexaminetherelationshipbetweenashortenedunidimensionalmeasureof
PSM,referredtocolloquiallyastheMSPB5,asthisshortenedmeasurewasusedbytheU.S.
MeritServiceProtectionBoardtooperationalizePSMonitsemployeesurvey.Theitems
havebeenfrequentlyusedinpreviousPSMresearch(Alonso&Lewis,2001)andhavebeen
analyzedandvalidatedasanequivalentmeasureofthePSMconstruct(Wright,
Christensen,&Pandey,2013).
•
•
•
•
•
Meaningfulpublicserviceisveryimportanttome
Iamnotafraidtogotobatforothers,evenifitmeansIwillberidiculed
Iamoftenremindedbydailyeventsabouthowdependentweareononeanother
Iampreparedtomakeenormoussacrificesforthegoodofsociety
Makingadifferenceinsocietymeansmoretomethanpersonalachievement
Narcissism
Narcissismismeasuredusingamultidimensional,40questionnarcissistic
personalityinventory(NPI)(Raskin&Terry,1988).TheNPIsubdimensionsinclude
authority,self-sufficiency,superiority,exhibitionism,exploitativeness,vanity,and
entitlement.Weprovideacompletedescriptionoftheforcedchoicesetsusedtoconstruct
eachofthesesubdimensionsinAppendixA.
SocialDesirability
Oneoftheconcernswithbothourvariablesofinterest,PSMandnarcissism,isthat
responsesmightbedriventosomeextentbyrespondents’perceptionssocialdesirability.
Tocontrolforthefactthatsomeindividualsmightbemorelikelythanotherstoprovide
responsestheybelievetobethemostsociallydesirable,weincludeasetofitems
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developedtoindicatethedegreetowhicharespondent’sresponsesmightbesusceptibleto
socialdesirabilitybiasesdevelopedbyHays,Hayashi,andStewart(1989).Thefollowing
itemsareusedandtheextremesociallydesirableresponseisinparenthesesandgivena
valueof1whileallothervaluesgivenavalueof0:
•
•
•
•
•
Iamalwayscourteouseventopeoplewhoaredisagreeable.(SA=1).
TherehavebeenoccasionswhenItookadvantageofsomeone.(SD=1)
Isometimestrytogetevenratherthanforgiveandforget.(SD=1)
IsometimesfeelresentfulwhenIdon'tgetmyway.(SD=1)
NomatterwhoIamtalkingto,I'malwaysagoodlistener.(SA=1)
FollowingHaysetal.(1989)werescaledthevaluesofthemeasuretorangebetween0100.
Controls
Inourmultivariateanalyses,weincludeanumberofcontrolsthatmightaffectan
individual’slevelofPSM,includingage,race,gender,politicalliberalism/conservatism,
religiousaffiliation,andpersonalincome.
InTable1,weprovideadescriptivesummaryofsomesamplecharacteristicsalong
withdescriptivedescriptionsofourmeasuresofPSMandnarcissism,alongwiththe
subdimensionsofeach.WepresentthebivariaterelationshipsamongallthePSMand
narcissismglobalmeasuresandconstructsinTable2.
ANALYSIS
ToexaminetheindependentrelationshipofeachnarcissismsubdimensionwithPSM,we
conductbasicOLSregressionanalysisandpresenttheminTable3.Inourmodelswe
includecontrolsforgender,age,employmentstatus,religiousaffiliation,personalincome,
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politicalliberalism/conservatism,andrace.Additionally,wepresentmodelsbothwithand
withoutoursocialdesirabilitycontroltodemonstrateanyeffectitcouldhaveonthemodel.
--InsertTable3--
NarcissismandCompassion
Models1and2examinetherelationshipamongthenarcissismsubdimensionsandthe
compassionsubdimensionofPSM.Theauthoritysubdimensionofnarcissismisboth
positive,andsignificantlyrelatedtothecompassionsubdimensionofPSM.Alternatively,
weseethatself-sufficiency,exhibitionism,andentitlementdimensionsofnarcissism
subdimensionsareeachnegativelyrelatedtocompassion.
NarcissismandSelf-Sacrifice
Models3and4estimatetheindependentrelationshipsofthedimensionsofnarcissistic
personalitywiththeself-sacrificesubdimensionofPSM.Themodelsshowthatauthority
hasapositive,significantrelationshipwithself-sacrifice.Self-sufficiencyandentitlement
arebothnegativeandsignificantlyrelatedtotheself-sacrificesubdimensionofPSM.
NarcissismandAttractiontoPublicService
InModels5and6,weseethattheauthoritysubdimensionofnarcissismispositively
relatedtotheattractiontopublicservicesubdimensionofPSM,whileentitlementis
negativelyrelatedtotheattractiontopublicservice.
CommitmenttoPublicValue
Finally,thelastofthePSMsubdimensionsweexamineiscommitmenttopublicvalues.In
Models7and8,weseethatauthorityispositivelyrelatedtothisdimensionofPSM.Atthe
sametime,bothexhibitionismandentitlementarebothsignificantlyandnegativelyrelated
tothecommitmenttopublicvalue.
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UnidimensionalMeasuresofPSM
WealsoexaminetherelationshipsamongtheNPIsubdimensionsandunidimensional
measuresofPSM.Models9and10demonstratetheindependentrelationshipsbetween
theNPIsubdimensionsandtheNewInternationalPSMscale(Kimetal.,2013).Aswiththe
subdimensionsofPSM,weseethatauthorityispositivelyrelatedtothisPSMmeasure.
Likewise,weseethatbothself-sufficiencyandentitlementarenegativelyrelatedtothe
measure.SimilarrelationshipsexistforthesecondglobalmeasureofPSM,theMSPB5,and
aredemonstratedinModels11and12.
SeveralthemesandpatternsemergeacrossthemodelspresentedinTable3.First,
theNPIdimensionofauthorityispositivelyassociatedwithallPSMsubdimensionsand
eachoftheunidimensionalmeasures.Second,theentitlementdimensionofnarcissismis
negativeacrossallofthesemodels.Whileotherdimensionsareoccasionallysignificant—
thesetwoaspectsofnarcissisticpersonalityoperateinconsistentandpredictableways.
Finally,weseethatwhileourmeasureforsocialdesirabilityispositivelyassociatedwith
allPSMsubdimensionsandmeasures,controllingforitdoesnoteliminatethesignificant
relationshipswiththenarcissisticpersonalitysubdimensions.
DISCUSSIONANDCONCLUSION
Stevenson’sDr.Jekyllopinedthat“manisnottrulyone,buttrulytwo.”Inseekingto
untanglethedualityofhumannature,Jekylluncoveredhisownalterego:theevilMr.Hyde.
Themanifestationofonepreventedtheemergenceoftheother.Therelationshipbetween
PSMandnarcissismismorecomplicatedandinsomewaysdoesnotappeartobelimitedto
themutuallyexclusiveindependenceproposedearlier.BecausePSMandnarcissismare
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bothmultidimensionalconstructswefindamulti-dimensionalanalysistobemost
instructive.
EvidenceofInterdependence.AcrossPSM’smultiplesub-dimensions,narcissism’s
authoritydimensionispositivelyrelatedtoPSM.ThisisalsotruewhenPSMismeasured
unidimensionally.Whatdoesthissuggest?PSMisnot–inanyofsubdimensions–
inhospitabletowhatbemorerationalmotivesasembodiedinanarcissisticdesiretohave
orbeentitledtoauthority.Infact,weseestrongevidencethatPerryandWise(1990)were
correctinpostulatingthat“participationinthe[rational-based]processofpolicy
formulationcanbeexciting,dramatic,andreinforcingofanindividual'simageofself
importance…policymakingmaythereforebesatisfyingpersonalneedswhileserving
socialinterests”(368).ThisraisessomebroaderimplicationsforthosethatstudyPSM:
whilefrequentlyconceptualizedasbeingother-focused,PSMmaybeactualizedthrougha
moreself-centeredfocusonauthorityandpower.Thisappears,inturn,toreinforcesome
institutionalimplicationsraisedinpoliticalphilosophy
Asapsychologicalphenomenon,narcissismacquirespoliticalsignificancetothe
extentthatitisrecapitulatedwithinpoliticalsystemscharacterizedbythe
concentrationofauthoritywithinaverylimitednumberofindividuals.This
approachcanexplainmuchaboutthenatureof…authoritywithregardtothe
deeplyrootedhumanneedsitsatisfies.Inthiscontext...narcissismisadefining
feature...ofallconcentratedandconsecratedformsofpoliticalauthority(Schwartz
1989,266-267).
Inshort,totheextentwecanbetterunderstandhowPSMandnarcissismshapean
attractiontopoliticalorbureaucraticauthority,thebetterwemightunderstand
institutions(andpeopleinthoseinstitutions)ofpublicservice.Ourevidencesuggests
someinterestinginterdependencealongtheselines:highernarcissisticattractionto
authorityisrelatedtohigherPSM–whethermeasureduni-ormulti-dimensionally.Atthe
15
veryleast,thissuggeststousthecentralroleofinstitutional(e.g.,political/bureaucratic)
authorityinfulfillinganyofPSM’sneeds,whethercompassion,self-sacrificeor
commitmenttopublicvalues.
Ontheotherhand,weseeasimilarlyconsistentbutnegativerelationshipbetween
PSM—againbothuni-andsub-dimensionally—andnarcissism’sentitlementdimension.
Themoreonefeelstobedeservingaboveothers,thelowertheirPSM.Thisconfirmssome
earlierintuitionaboutother-orientedPSMandself-orientednarcissism.Themoreone
feelsself-entitled,thelessreportfeelingother-orientedthroughPSMandits
subdimensions.
Howdowereconcilethesetwoseeminglycontradictoryinterdependent
relationshipsbetweenPSMandnarcissism?Afterallnarcissisticauthorityandnarcissistic
entitlementseemtooverlapconceptuallyandarecorrelatedempirically(0.46).While
entitlementcapturesanextraordinarylevelofdeservingness,authoritycapturesaspecific
deservingnessorentitlementtopower.Furtherworkisneeded,ofcourse,butone
explanationseemsquiteplausible.TherationalmotivesproposedbyPerryandWiseas
partofPSM(e.g.,attractiontopolicymaking)canbefulfilledthroughattractionto
power/authorityinordertoserveothers.Inshortauthorityseemstobeaselfishmeantoa
selflessend.However,ageneralfeelingofentitlementholdsnosimilarpromise;itisa
selfishmeanwithselfishends.Theinstrumentalityofauthorityseeminglysetsitapart,in
otherwords,asapositivecorrelateofPSM.
EvidenceofIndependence.OuranalysisalsorevealsthatPSMisindependentof
manyofnarcissism’sothersubdimensions—yieldinglittleornoconsistentrelationships.
Thissuggeststhepossibilityofindependentcoexistencebetweenself-focusednarcissistic
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tendenciesandother-focusedpublicservicetendencies.Whatcanbelearnedfromthis?
Onelessonisthatperhapspublicservicemotivesarenotinsuranceagainstnarcissistic
behaviors.Publicservantsmaybejustassusceptibletoavarietyofnarcissism’ssiren
songsincludingexhibitionism(e.g.,AnthonyWeiner),self-sufficiency(e.g.,Nixon),
superiority(e.g.,Trump)andvanity(e.g.,Putin).
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19
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics
Variable
PSM Unidimensional (16 item)
PSM Unidimensional (5-item)
PSM-Attraction to Public Service
PSM-Commitment to Public
Values
PSM-Compassion
PSM-Self-Sacrifice
Narcissism (Unidimensional)
Narcissism-Authority
Narcissism-Self-Sufficiency
Narcissism-Superiority
Narcissism-Exhibitionism
Narcissism-Exploitation
Narcissism-Vanity
Narcissism-Entitlement
Age
Female
Caucasian
Obs
603
603
603
Mean
5.28
4.69
5.36
Std.
Dev.
0.94
1.12
1.07
Min
1
1
1
Max
7
7
7
603
603
603
603
603
603
603
603
603
603
603
603
603
603
5.71
5.57
4.49
0.29
0.37
0.41
0.32
0.17
0.28
0.25
0.23
36.98
0.54
0.79
0.98
1.07
1.27
0.19
0.29
0.25
0.29
0.23
0.28
0.33
0.23
13.11
0.50
0.41
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
18
0
0
7
7
7
0.98
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
78
1
1
20
Table 2. Bivariate Relationships Among PSM, Narcissism, and Subdimensions
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
1 PSM Unidimensional (16 item)
1.00
2 PSM Unidimensional (5-item)
.84 1.00
3 PSM-Attraction to Public Service
.90 .77 1.00
4 PSM-Commitment to Public Values
.82 .52 .71 1.00
5 PSM-Compassion
.90 .69 .77 .74 1.00
6 PSM-Self-Sacrifice
.80 .84 .61 .43 .61 1.00
7 Narcissism (Unidimensional)
-.12 .06 -.08 -.25 -.17 .06 1.00
8 Narcissism-Authority
.02 .13 .04 -.12 -.02 .13 .82 1.00
9 Narcissism-Self-Sufficiency
-.11 -.03 -.08 -.16 -.12 -.04 .62 .47 1.00
10 Narcissism-Superiority
-.01 .10 -.01 -.12 -.04 .11 .72 .49 .35 1.00
11 Narcissism-Exhibitionism
-.12 .05 -.09 -.26 -.18 .07 .74 .47 .29 .48 1.00
12 Narcissism-Exploitation
-.09 .04 -.04 -.20 -.13 .03 .69 .53 .33 .38 .46 1.00
13 Narcissism-Vanity
-.07 .05 -.04 -.15 -.11 .02 .56 .31 .22 .44 .47 .25 1.00
14 Narcissism-Entitlement
-.25 -.10 -.20 -.29 -.29 -.08 .69 .46 .34 .42 .49 .39 .33 1.00
21
Table 3. Narcissism and PSM—Multivariate Models.
Compassion
Authority
Self-Sufficiency
Superiority
Exhibitionism
Exploitativeness
Vanity
Entitlement
Self-Sacrifice
Attraction to Public
Service
Commitment to Public
Values
Unidimensional
(New Int'l PSM)
Unidimensional
(MSBP-5)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
b/se
b/se
b/se
b/se
b/se
b/se
b/se
b/se
b/se
b/se
b/se
(12)
b/se
0.806***
0.790***
1.032***
1.008***
0.737***
0.730***
0.486***
0.474**
0.765***
0.750***
0.740***
0.725***
(0.19)
(0.18)
(0.24)
(0.23)
(0.20)
(0.20)
(0.17)
(0.17)
(0.17)
(0.16)
(0.21)
(0.21)
-0.325+
-0.372*
-0.562*
-0.594*
-0.297
-0.334+
-0.240
-0.275
-0.356*
-0.394*
-0.384+
-0.423*
(0.19)
(0.18)
(0.24)
(0.23)
(0.20)
(0.20)
(0.17)
(0.17)
(0.17)
(0.16)
(0.21)
(0.21)
0.152
0.124
0.249
0.205
0.033
0.003
0.049
0.032
0.121
0.091
0.177
0.139
(0.18)
(0.18)
(0.22)
(0.22)
(0.19)
(0.19)
(0.16)
(0.16)
(0.16)
(0.16)
(0.20)
(0.20)
-0.555*
-0.523*
0.211
0.288
-0.311
-0.276
-0.692***
-0.666***
-0.337
-0.294
-0.000
0.054
(0.24)
(0.24)
(0.30)
(0.30)
(0.25)
(0.25)
(0.22)
(0.22)
(0.21)
(0.21)
(0.27)
(0.26)
-0.205
-0.187
-0.247
-0.227
-0.039
-0.024
-0.325+
-0.311+
-0.204
-0.187
-0.005
0.017
(0.19)
(0.18)
(0.23)
(0.23)
(0.20)
(0.20)
(0.17)
(0.17)
(0.17)
(0.16)
(0.21)
(0.21)
-0.086
-0.057
-0.129
-0.123
0.013
0.043
-0.094
-0.075
-0.074
-0.053
0.113
0.131
(0.15)
(0.15)
(0.19)
(0.19)
(0.16)
(0.16)
(0.14)
(0.13)
(0.13)
(0.13)
(0.17)
(0.16)
-1.078***
-0.995***
-0.959***
-0.874***
-0.889***
-0.822***
-0.624***
-0.568***
-0.888***
-0.815***
-0.850***
-0.756***
(0.22)
(0.22)
(0.28)
(0.27)
(0.23)
(0.23)
(0.20)
(0.20)
(0.20)
(0.19)
(0.25)
(0.24)
Social Desirability
0.009***
0.010***
0.007***
0.007***
0.008***
(0.00)
(0.00)
(0.00)
(0.00)
(0.00)
0.010***
(0.00)
Controls
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Constant
3.094**
4.414***
3.152*
3.814***
2.547*
3.458***
3.668***
5.142***
3.115***
4.207***
2.678*
3.802***
(1.12)
(0.91)
(1.41)
(1.15)
(1.19)
(0.98)
(1.02)
(0.84)
(1.00)
(0.81)
(1.25)
(1.02)
Observations
601
595
601
595
601
595
601
595
601
595
601
595
R-squared
0.274
0.315
0.188
0.219
0.183
0.210
0.276
0.306
0.251
0.295
0.168
0.209
="+ p<0.10
* p<0.05
** p<0.01
*** p<0.005
22
Appendix A. Narcissism Measures (Raskin and Terry)
Item
Choice Set
Narcissism Indicator
narc_1
1-I have a natural talent for influencing people; 2-I am not good at influencing people. (authority)
choice 1
narc_2
1-Modesty doesn't become me; 2-I am essentially a modest person. (exhibition)
choice 1
narc_3
1-I would do anything on a dare; 2-I am a fairly cautious person. (exhibition)
choice 1
narc_4
1-The thought of ruling the world frightens the hell out of me; 2-If I ruled the world it would be a better
place. (entitlement)
choice 2
narc_5
1-I can usually talk my way out of anything; 2-I try to accept the consequences of my behavior.
(exploitative)
choice 1
narc_6
1-When people compliment me I sometimes get embarrassed; 2-I know I am good because everyone keeps
telling me so. (superiority)
choice 2
narc_7
1-I will be a success; 2-I am not too concerned about success. (authority)
choice 1
narc_8
1-I prefer to blend in with the crowd; 2-I like to be the center of attention. (exhibition)
choice 2
narc_9
1-I am not better or worse than most people; 2-I think I am a special person. (superiority)
choice 2
narc_10
1-I am not sure if I would make a good leader; 2-I see myself as a good leader. (authority)
choice 2
narc_11
1-I am assertive; 2-I wish I was more assertive. (authority)
choice 1
narc_12
1-I like to have authority over people; 2-I don't mind following orders. (authority)
choice 1
narc_13
1-I find it easy to manipulate people; 2-I don't like it when I find myself manipulating people.
(exploitative)
choice 1
narc_14
1-I insist upon getting the respect that is due to me; 2-I usually get the respect I deserve. (entitlement)
choice 1
narc_15
1-I don't particularly like to show off my body; 2-I like to show off my body. (vanity)
choice 2
narc_16
1-I can read people like a book; 2-People are sometimes hard to understand. (exploitative)
choice 1
narc_17
1-If I feel competent I am willing to take responsibility for my decisions; 2-I like to take responsibility for
making decisions.(self-sufficiency)
choice 2
narc_18
1-I just want to be reasonably happy; 2-I want to amount to something in the eyes of the world.
(entitlement)
choice 2
narc_19
1-My body is nothing special; 2-I like to look at my body. (vanity)
choice 2
narc_20
1-I try not to be a showoff; 2-I showoff if I get the chance. (exhibition)
choice 2
narc_21
1-I always know what I am doing; 2-Sometimes I am not sure what I am doing. (self-sufficiency)
choice 1
narc_22
1-I sometimes depend on people to get things done; 2-I rarely depend on others to get things done. (selfsufficiency)
choice 1
narc_23
1-Sometimes I tell good stories; 2-Everyone likes to hear my stories. (exploitative)
choice 2
23
narc_24
1-I expect a great deal from other people; 2-I like to do things for other people. (entitlement)
choice 1
narc_25
1-I will never be satisfied until I get all that I deserve; 2-I take my satisfactions as they come. (entitlement)
choice 1
narc_26
1-Compliments embarrass me; 2-I like to be complimented. (superiority)
choice 2
narc_27
1-I have a strong will to power; 2-Power for its own sake doesn't interest me. (entitlement)
choice 1
narc_28
1-I don't care about new fads or fashions; 2-I like to start new fads or fashions. (exhibition)
choice 2
narc_29
1-I like to look at myself in the mirror; 2-I am not particularly interested in looking at myself in the mirror.
(vanity)
choice 1
narc_30
1-I really like to be the center of attention; 2-It makes me uncomfortable to be the center of attention.
(exhibition)
choice 1
narc_31
1-I can live my life in any way I want to; 2-People can't always live their lives in terms of what they want.
(self-sufficiency)
choice 1
narc_32
1-Being an authority doesn't mean that much to me; 2-People always seem to recognize my authority.
(authority)
choice 2
narc_33
1-I would prefer to be a leader; 2-It makes little difference to me whether I am a leader or not. (authority)
choice 1
narc_34
1-I am going to be a great person; 2-I hope I am going to be successful. (self-sufficiency)
choice 1
narc_35
1-People sometimes believe what I tell them; 2-I can make anybody believe anything I want them to.
(exploitative)
choice 2
narc_36
1-I am a born leader; 2-Leadership is a quality that takes time to develop. (authority)
choice 1
narc_37
1-I wish somebody would someday write my biography; 2-I don't like for people to pry into my life for any
reason. (superiority)
choice 1
narc_38
1-I get upset when people don't notice how I look when I go out in public; 2-I don't mind blending into the
crowd when I go out in public. (exhibition)
choice 1
narc_39
1-I am much like everyone else; 2-I am an extraordinary person. (superiority)
choice 2
narc_40
1-I am more capable than other people; 2-There is a lot that I can learn from other people. (self-sufficiency)
choice 1
24
APPENDIXB:ADDITIONALDETAILONCORRELATIONS
Table1.BivariatePearsonCorrelationsAmongGlobalConstructs
UnidimensionalPSM
NPI-Global
PSM-MSPB5
.060
PSM-NewInternational
16
-.116*
+p<.10;*p<.05;**;p<.01;p***p<.005
Table2.BivariateCorrelation:NPIGlobalandPSMSubdimensions
PSMDimensions
NPI-Global
AttractiontoPublicService
-.076
CommitmenttoPublicValues
-.254***
Compassion
-.169***
Self-Sacrifice
.060
+p<.10;*p<.05;**;p<.01;p***p<.005
Table3.CorrelationsAmongPSMGlobalConstructsandNarcissism
Subs
PSM-New
International16
PSM-MSPB5
Authority
.019
.126+
Self-Sufficiency
-.114
-.026
Superiority
-.010
.103
Exhibitionism
-.122+
.048
Exploitativeness
-.091
.036
Vanity
-.075
.048
Entitlement
-.247***
-.095
+p<.10;*p<.05;**;p<.01;p***p<.005
Table4.BivariatePearsonCorrelationsAmongNPIandPSMSubdimensions
PublicServiceMotivation(NewInternational)
Commitment
toPublic
Attractionto
NPI-Dimensions
Values
Compassion PublicService Self-Sacrifice
Authority
-.115
-.022
.036
.134*
Self-Sufficiency
-.157***
-.122+
-.083
-.043
Superiority
-.119+
-.042
-.011
.106
Exhibitionism
-.260***
-.181
-.087
.067
Exploitativeness
-.197***
-.127+
-.043
.027
Vanity
-.148+
-.106
-.041
.017
Entitlement
-.295***
-.294***
-.203***
-.082
+p<.10;*p<.05;**;p<.01;p***p<.005
25