con te nt s List of maps xiii List of tables xiv Acknowledgements xv 1 The creation of the German nation 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 Bismarck and the unification of Germany 1 Conflict with Denmark, 1864 5 The Schleswig-Holstein crisis 6 The Danish military campaign, 1864 7 The Treaty of Vienna 8 Chronology of the Schleswig-Holstein issue 8 The Gastein Convention, 1865 9 Conflict with Austria, 1866 9 War with Austria, 1866 11 The Battle of Königgrätz (Sadowa), 1866 12 The aftermath of the war with Austria 13 The North German Confederation 14 Chronology of the war with France and its consequences, 1868–71 15 1.14 Origins of the war with France, 1870–71 16 1.15 The Battle of Sedan, 1870 18 1.16 The Peace Treaty of Frankfurt am Main 18 2 German society, 1871–90 20 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 The nature of German society 20 The political system: the constitution, the Emperor, the Chancellor, the Bundesrat, the Reichstag, the States 22 The political parties 24 Wilhelm I: King of Prussia (1861–88), Emperor of Germany (1871–88) 25 vii 0333_987101_03a_Plmvii.indd 7 28/9/07 6:10:18 pm 2.5 2.6 The Chancellor 26 The German economy and the process of internal unification 29 2.7 Bismarck’s domestic policy 34 2.8 The Kulturkampf 40 2.9 The campaign against socialism 42 2.10 The deaths of Emperor Wilhelm I and Crown Prince Friedrich III: the succession of Wilhelm II 44 2.11 The resignation of Bismarck 45 2.12 An assessment of Bismarck 46 3 Foreign policy, 1871–90 48 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 Bismarck’s foreign policy: an introduction 48 Franco-German rivalry 49 The Three Emperors’ League, 1873 51 The isolation of France, French recovery and the ‘War-in-Sight’ crisis 52 The Near-Eastern crisis, 1877–78 53 The Congress of Berlin, 1878 54 The Alliance with Austria-Hungary, 1879 54 The Three Emperors’ Alliance, 1881 55 Germany’s colonies in Africa 56 The Triple Alliance, 1882 56 The Balkans and the crisis in Bulgaria 57 The Reinsurance Treaty, 1887 58 Sources: evaluation of Bismarck’s foreign policy 59 The impact of the resignation of Bismarck on German foreign policy 60 4 Wilhelmine Germany, 1890–1914 62 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Interpretations 62 Leo von Caprivi and the New Course, 1890–94 (1831–99) 63 The development of the German economy 64 Wilhelm II and the issue of personal rule 67 Hohenlohe and the policy of concentration, 1894–1900 (1819–1901) 70 4.6 Baron von Bülow, 1900–09 (1849–1929) 71 4.7 Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg, 1909–17 (1856–1921) 73 4.8 The Zabern incident 73 4.9 Interpretations of the nature of German society in 1914 74 4.10 Sources: Wilhelm II: personal ruler or shadow emperor? 75 5 Germany and the origins of the First World War, 1890–1914 78 5.1 Wihelm’s war? 78 viii mastering modern German history 0333_987101_03a_Plmvii.indd 8 28/9/07 6:10:19 pm 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 The aims of German foreign policy 78 Bülow, the pursuit of Weltpolitik and the policy of the ‘free hand’ 80 The Kruger telegram 81 The Far East and the Boxer Rebellion 82 The Dogger Bank incident, 1904 82 The First Moroccan Crisis, 1905 83 The alliance system 84 The Balkans 85 The annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina 86 The naval race 87 Sources: the impact of the Kaiser on foreign policy 88 The Second Moroccan Crisis, 1911 89 The Potsdam war council, December 1912 91 The July Crisis 93 Sources: interpretations of the origins of the First World War 99 6 The First World War, 1914–18 102 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 Mobilization for total war 102 The Schlieffen Plan 109 The Western Front, 1914–15 110 The war at sea 112 The Western Front, 1916 113 The Eastern Front, 1914–15 114 The Home Front and the impact of the war on the German economy 116 6.8 The Eastern Front, 1916–17 119 6.9 The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 1918 120 6.10 The Western Front, 1917–18 122 6.11 Collapse 122 7 The Weimar Republic, 1919–29 125 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 Interpretations 125 The German Revolution, 1918–20 126 The Versailles Treaty 130 The Weimar Republic, 1919–23 138 The Weimar economy 139 The origins of Adolf Hitler’s political ideology 140 Hitler’s rise to the leadership of the National Socialist Party, 1919–24 144 7.8 The Munich Putsch, 1923 147 7.9 The Weimar Republic and foreign policy 150 7. 10 From economic stability to crisis, 1925–29 156 ix 0333_987101_03a_Plmvii.indd 9 28/9/07 6:10:21 pm 8 The collapse of the Weimar Republic, 1929–33 158 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 8.12 The German economy and the Great Depression 158 The electoral breakthrough of the National Socialist Party 159 Chancellor Müller 160 Chancellor Brüning 161 The Communists 161 Brüning and the National Socialists 162 Who voted for the National Socialists? 162 How did Hitler become Chancellor (1932–33)? 165 Von Papen as Chancellor 167 The period of crisis, August–December 1932 167 The period of intrigue 169 Schleicher as Chancellor 169 9 The Third Reich, 1933–39 175 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 9.14 9.15 9.16 Hitler as Chancellor, January 1933 175 Consolidation of power and the destruction of democracy, 1933–34 176 The Röhm purge 181 Culture, the arts and propaganda 185 Sources: Josef Goebbels: a career in propaganda 186 Education and youth in Nazi Germany 190 The role of women in Hitler’s Germany 192 The Nazi economy and popular support for the regime 194 Sources: Hermann Goering and the National Socialist economy 198 Law and order 201 Organized religion 202 Sources: Church and State in Nazi Germany 203 The Nazi euthanasia programme 205 Consent and opposition 206 Sources: how popular was Hitler as the leader of Germany? 212 Sources: Hitler’s personal role in the Third Reich 215 10 Anti-semitism, 1933–39 217 10. 1 The context of the Jewish people in German society and the impact of 1933 217 10.2 Intentionalists and functionalists 218 10.3 Hitler’s anti-semitism 219 10.4 Hitler in power, 1933 219 10.5 The boycott of Jewish shops, 1 April 1933 220 10.6 The nature of the racial society 221 mastering modern German history 0333_987101_03a_Plmvii.indd 10 28/9/07 6:10:22 pm 10.7 10.8 10.9 10.10 10.11 10.12 11 The origins of the Second World War 234 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 11.9 11.10 11.11 11.12 11.13 Tile Nuremberg Laws, 1935 222 The Berlin Olympics of 1936 224 Autumn 1936 to autumn 1938 224 Reichskristallnacht, 9–10 November 1938 226 1933: a detailed chronology 229 1935–39: a detailed chronology 231 Overview: the origins of the Second World War 234 Sources: Hitler’s ideology and German foreign policy 236 Italy and Mussolini 238 Relations with the armed forces, the issue of rearmament and the notion of continuity between Hitler and previous chancellors 239 The reoccupation of the Rhineland, March 1936 243 The Spanish Civil War, 1936–39 245 The Hossbach Conference, 1937 245 The Blomberg–Fritsch Crisis 249 The Anschluss with Austria, 1938 250 Neville Chamberlain, the policy of appeasement and the fate of Czechoslovakia 252 The crisis over Czechoslovakia 260 The Nazi–Soviet Pact 261 Poland and the free city of Danzig, 1939 263 12 The Second World War, 1939–45 265 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 12.10 12.11 12.12 12.13 12.14 12.15 Introduction 265 The destruction of Poland 265 The war in Scandinavia 267 The campaign in Western Europe 268 The war in the air 269 The Balkans 269 War of the century: the invasion of the Soviet Union, 1941–42 270 Pearl Harbor and the United States’ entry into the war 277 The war in Africa and the significance of the Mediterranean 278 Sources: the impact of the war on the Home Front 278 The role of Italy 283 The Normandy landings 284 The war with the Soviet Union, 1943–45 285 Downfall: chronology of Hitler’s final years as a wartime leader, 1943–45 289 Sources: analysis of Hitler as a wartime leader, 1943–45 292 xi 0333_987101_03a_Plmvii.indd 11 28/9/07 6:10:23 pm 13 The Holocaust 296 13.1 13.2 13.3 Chronological overview: 1939–42 296 Interpretations of the Holocaust 297 Hitler’s speech of 30 January 1939: impending war and the radicalization of anti-Semitism 301 13.4 The invasion of Poland and its consequences 303 13.5 The Madagascar plan 304 13.6 The invasion of the Soviet Union and the Einsatzgruppen 304 13.7 The Wannsee Conference, 1942 306 13.8 The roles of Heydrich and Himmler in planning and organization of the Holocaust 309 13.9 Sources: the role of Himmler in the Nazi State 313 13.10 Auschwitz-Birkenau 315 13.11 Sources: the interpretations of historians: Hitler’s personal role in the Holocaust 318 14 1945–1990 322 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 14.8 14.9 14.10 The destruction of Germany 322 The Yalta Conference 323 The Nuremberg trials 324 The Potsdam Conference 324 The reparations issue and the development of Bizonia 326 Political developments 327 The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan 329 The constitution and the Basic Law 331 The Berlin blockade, 1948–49 332 The creation of the GDR and the economic contrast with the West 333 14.11 Berlin 336 14.12 The post-Adenauer era 337 14.13 The reunification of Germany, 1989–90 342 Postscript: Germany in the post-unification era 346 oreign affairs 346 F The economy, politics and the post-unification search for ‘inner unity’ 347 Notes 353 Index 363 xii mastering modern German history 0333_987101_03a_Plmvii.indd 12 28/9/07 6:10:24 pm chapter 1 the cr ea tion o f the German nation 1.1 Bismarck and the unification of Germany introduction Since medieval times a complex, patchwork mosaic of several hundred states, great and small, occupied the space we now know as Germany, to form the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation. However, as the Empire entered the nineteenth century, the turbulence of the Napoleonic Wars underlined a need for national security which was difficult to provide for the smaller states in such a tangled geographical area and also aroused a common sense of Germanic antipathy towards the French, creating, in a sense some of the first modern stirrings of what could be called German nationalism. Under the Vienna peace settlement of 1815 a process of rationalisation saw 350 states ranging from the powerful, deeply conservative and absolutist kingdoms of Austria and Prussia to the tiny principalities of the imperial knights, welded into 39 states brought loosely together as the German Confederation. Despite its name, the German Confederation was no more a national, united state than its predecessor had been. Those who created the German Confederation did not imagine that barriers of religious differences between Protestants and Catholics, a strong sense of regional identity, customs and independence or the distinctive nature of the two most powerful member states, Prussia and Austria, could be overcome to create a single German state. In any case, Austria and Prussia showed no interest at this stage in bringing the German states together in a process of unification. Both were initially content to preserve their general influence over the other states and in broad terms respected the other’s position in a period of ‘peaceful dualism’. However, Prussia’s growing economic strength meant that the permanence of this stance of mutual respect could not be guaranteed for ever. Prussia’s position was bolstered by the creation of the German Customs Union (Zollverein) in 1834, a single economic unit consisting of 18 states, although recent research has highlighted the self-interest of the member states at the expense of loyalty to a common entity. While the prestigious Habsburg 0333_987101_04_Ch1.indd 1 28/9/07 6:11:15 pm DENMARK UNITED KINGDOM London SWEDEN POMERANIA Amsterdam RUSSIA Copenhagen HANOVER Berlin EAST PRUSSIA WEST PRUSSIA Warsaw BRANDENBURG POLAND NETHERLANDS SILESIA SAXONY Brussels GALICIA BOHEMIA MORAVIA BAVARIA Paris AUSTRIA WÜRTTEMBERG Vienna BADEN Munich FRANCE HUNGARY SWITZERLAND KINGDOM OF SARDINIA TUSCANY SPAIN Prussian territories Limits of the German Confederation State boundaries Habsburg territories map 1 – the 39 states of the German Confederation established by the Vienna Settlement of 1815 DENMARK UNITED KINGDOM London SWEDEN RUSSIA Copenhagen Amsterdam Warsaw Berlin PRUSSIA NETHERLANDS (North German Confederation) Brussels BELGIUM Paris LUXEMBOURG FRANCE SOUTH GERMAN STATES Munich SWITZERLAND ITALY SPAIN Vienna AUSTRIA-HUNGARY ROMANIA SERBIA TURKISH EMPIRE map 2 – the impact of Prussian expansion following the war with Austria of 1866 and the creation of the North German confederation mastering modern German history 0333_987101_04_Ch1.indd 2 28/9/07 6:11:18 pm DENMARK UNITED KINGDOM SWEDEN Amsterdam London HOLLAND Brussels RUSSIA Copenhagen Warsaw Berlin GERMANY BELGIUM Paris LUXEMBOURG Munich FRANCE SWITZERLAND ITALY SPAIN Vienna AUSTRIA-HUNGARY ROMANIA SERBIA MONTENEGRO TURKISH EMPIRE map 3 – the German Empire in 1871 monarchy of Austria may have retained political sway within the Confederation, the burgeoning commercial prowess of Prussia cannot have escaped the attention of those who imagined that Prussia’s economic ascendancy amongst the German states could one day be matched by her political leadership. Austria’s relatively weak economic position meant that the Habsburgs faced a degree of isolation from the increasingly cohesive economic coalition of the German states that were operating within the gravitational pull of Prussia. By the mid-nineteenth century a gradually emerging struggle for dominance was emerging within the Confederation between the ‘Little German’ solution led by Prussia and the ‘Greater German’ solution offered by Austria. Both concepts reflected the gradual emergence of a nationalist vision over a regional one, although independent sentiments remained particularly powerful amongst some of the states in the south. The most passionate advocates of German nationalism believed that a strong Germany would bring stability, culture and progressive, humanistic values to their subjects and fulfil the general desire for security. It was the forces of nationalism, economic liberalism, industrial and technological growth, military prowess and political will that coalesced to lead Prussia towards a position of leadership amongst the German states that was to be sealed in 1871. The unification of Germany At moments of high importance every public gesture, every utterance, every detail was carefully calculated. On this occasion, 18 January 1871, with the moment of German unification at hand and with the armies of France, his most the creation of the German nation 0333_987101_04_Ch1.indd 3 28/9/07 6:11:19 pm bitter enemy, defeated, the ‘founder of the Empire’ or ‘Reichsgrunder’ chose, as was his habit, to wear a uniform that carefully cultivated a martial appearance. Wearing a blue coat, the orange ribbon of the Order of the Black Eagle, high riding boots and military insignia, the first Chancellor of the Second Reich looked like a conquering warlord. The dazzling appearance of Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck-Schönhausen matched the glittering surroundings of the Galerie des Glaces at the Palace of Versailles, for so long the symbol of French military strength and now the scene of her ritual humiliation. Before an audience of German princes and invited dignitaries, the King of Prussia, Wilhelm I, formally accepted the crown of the newly united German Empire. It was Bismarck himself who delivered the proclamation: We Wilhelm, by the Grace of God, King of Prussia, and after the German Princes and free cities have unanimously appealed to us to renew the Imperial dignity, which has been in abeyance for more than sixty years, hereby inform you that we regard it as our duty to the whole Fatherland to respond to this summons of the allied German Princes and free cities to assume the German Imperial title. Otto von Bismarck, described by Hans-Ulrich Wehler as ‘the first man in Germany to practise charismatic rule’,1 was without question the outstanding political strategist of the day, ‘the directive genius of German history between 1862 and 1890’,2 a combination of ‘swift intuitive judgement, vehemence and intensity’.3 It would take just nine years serving as minister-president and foreign minister for his leadership to move the state of Prussia from the stagingpost of 1862 as an established German power and an emerging great power to a position of central importance in European affairs. At issue is whether Bismarck possessed a clear mental map of the direction and timing of the unification process, whether he benefited from an exceptionally favourable international constellation or if, in fact, he was chiefly a highly skilled opportunist A further problem concerns our view of history itself. Much of what follows in this opening section concerns kings and statesmen, chancellors and mass armies. The ordinary person is largely missing from the story, although we will turn to that perspective in later chapters. Was Germany created from above by ‘great men’, or did the drive for a German nation-state come from below, fuelled by powerful economic and social forces above and beyond the control of any statesman, even Bismarck? To be sure, he was fortunate to have at his disposal the burgeoning economic and social infrastructure of the emerging industrial powerhouse. Although a significant proportion of her population was employed in agriculture, Prussia also enjoyed domination of the Zollverein, or customs union, substantial natural mineral resources in the Ruhr, the Saar and Silesia, with growing numbers of mines, blast furnaces and steelworks reflecting an increasing process of industrialization after 1850. Yet the deployment of this resource needed all the skill and judgement that Bismarck possessed in abundance. Favourable diplomatic configurations at mastering modern German history 0333_987101_04_Ch1.indd 4 28/9/07 6:11:21 pm crucial periods also played their part but perhaps, above all, Bismarck was able to manage, at least to an extent, the moments when Prussia’s progress would be put to the test in warfare, the most severe examination of a nation’s resources and resolve. In the words of American academic Gordon Craig: If he had never risen to the top in Prussian politics, the unification of Germany would probably have taken place anyway, but surely not at the same time or in quite the same way as it did. Whatever may be said about the movement of economic forces, there is no burking the fact that the decision concerning the form unification would take was made, not in the area of economic and social policy, but on the battlefield.4 Or, as Bismarck himself had so famously put it in a speech to the Landtag’s budget committee on 30 September 1862: Prussia must gather and consolidate her strength in readiness for the favourable moment which has already been missed several times; Prussia’s boundaries according to the Vienna treaties are not favourable to a healthy political life; not by means of speeches and majority verdicts will the great decisions of the time be made – that was the great mistake of 1848 and 1849 – but by iron and blood. Yet for the new Chancellor, the personal satisfaction at the moment of unification was little more than a veneer beneath which lay weariness, political tension and ill health. Despite the immense power and prestige constitutionally assigned to the head of the new imperial executive, Bismarck ended the unification year in sombre mood. As Lothar Gall notes in his magisterial biography of Bismarck, the Chancellor confided in a letter written on Christmas Day 1871: ‘I am weary, and while still bound up with the life of this world I begin to appreciate the attractions of peaceful repose. What I should like most is to leave the stage for a seat in one of the boxes.’5 As he prepared to accept the imperial crown, Wilhelm also visibly lacked enthusiasm. As Blackbourn notes: ‘Germany existed on paper, but it lacked widespread legitimacy as well as seasoned institutions.’6 Perhaps Bismarck’s uncertainty between the desire for the tranquil existence of a country squire and his need to exercise charismatic leadership on a European level can also be discerned in the restless and sometimes turbulent nature of the country he now led. A nation that would achieve renown for its glorious cultural achievements, scientific progress and technological innovation had been created through wars of unification. Many possible developments, none of them preordained, lay in the future path of the new country, but its ultimate fate would also be sealed on the battlefields of Europe. The military journey began in Denmark in 1864. 1.2 conflict with Denmark, 1864 The Duchies of Schleswig-Holstein had traditionally been ruled by Denmark, a nation still regarded in the mid-nineteenth century as a significant Baltic the creation of the German nation 0333_987101_04_Ch1.indd 5 28/9/07 6:11:22 pm power but with her greatest days in the past. However, by 1860 Holstein had a population of around half a million people who were almost exclusively German-speaking. Schleswig also contained a German element, so that the future of the Duchies became an increasing focus of German nationalist and anti-Danish sentiment. In addition, Schleswig-Holstein’s important naval base at Kiel offered the attractive prospect of strategic control of the Baltic and the North Sea. The increasingly passionate interest of the German people in Schleswig-Holstein was stimulated by the fierce clash between German and Danish nationalism in a sensitive frontier area, the complex relationships between Germans and Danes, the conflicting views of the majority of the German Confederation with the carefully managed ambitions of Prussia and the anxiety of the ‘imperially overstretched’ Austria that it should not be left behind in the changing configuration of European power. Meanwhile, measures taken by the Danes, such as the forced introduction of Danish into the schools of parts of Schleswig, were seen as antagonistic and only raised the international tension. Within days of his appointment as minister-president of Prussia in September 1862, Bismarck asked War Minister Roon to request from Moltke, chief of the Prussian General Staff since 1857, a plan for military action against Denmark. Yet the notion that Bismarck had a clear sense of what was ahead needs to be treated with care. It is often assumed that Bismarck had fixed his attention upon the annexation of the duchies throughout the crisis of 1863–4 in order to round off Prussian territory in North Germany. While Bismarck undoubtedly appreciated the strategic importance of Schleswig-Holstein for Prussia, it is not certain that annexation was his primary objective. It was not until the late winter of 1864 that he finally opted for that solution. Some authorities have claimed that a primary consideration was the use he could make of the crisis to benefit Prussia in the struggle with Austria. It is more likely that a pragmatist like Bismarck was initially uncertain as to the use he could make of the Schleswig-Holstein affair. His success in gaining Austrian support has often been presented as one of Bismarck’s great diplomatic achievements, but in fact agreement with Austria was not unduly illusive. 1.3 the Schleswig-Holstein crisis Matters came to a head in November 1863 when the King of Denmark, Friedrich VII, died without leaving an heir to the throne. With prior international agreement the throne was passed to a Dane, Christian of Glucksburg, who, within days, had signed a new constitution which affected the status of Schleswig and Holstein and raised issues regarding the previous constitutional agreement reached in 1852. However, his position was challenged by the German Prince of Augustenburg, who had the support of German nationalists, the majority of the German Confederation and the Diet. Bismarck’s assessment was that despite the arousal of German nationalism it was not in Prussia’s interests mastering modern German history 0333_987101_04_Ch1.indd 6 28/9/07 6:11:23 pm to install a new grand duke who would be likely to oppose Prussian interests in the Diet. Bismarck’s alternative strategy was to secure the agreement of Austria to work alongside Prussia in the Austro-Prussian military alliance of January 1864 to secure the Duchies by force of arms. Bismarck’s tactic was to assure the Austrians of his conservative commitment to the treaty of 1852. Privately he remarked that Prussia had hired Austria and that she was now working for the King of Prussia. In addition, Bismarck had established a firm pretext for intervention – namely, the November constitution binding Schleswig with Denmark which violated the guarantees made to Austria and Prussia in 1852. It was on this basis, and with Denmark lacking military support from any of the great European powers that, in the winter of 1864, troops from Austria and Prussia assailed the medieval fortifications of the Danes with snow on the ground and an icy drizzle biting in from the North Sea to the west and the Baltic in the east. 1.4 the Danish military campaign, 1864 The first unification war was a campaign that has been neatly termed by military historian Arden Bucholz ‘a small war in the snow’,7 but which was also, in the same author’s words, ‘a long and difficult campaign, full of mistakes’.8 The Danish reserves faced the emerging power of the Prussian military machine. The nature of the winter campaign meant that the Danish fleet was effectively neutralized. The unevenness of what followed offered a chilling insight into the difference between an essentially agricultural force and, in relative terms, the industrial mass army of an emerging industrial nation. Brave but naïve, many of the Danish soldiers had only the most rudimentary preparation before they faced the Prussian Army with its superior numbers and rapid-firing breechload rifles. Under Moltke’s dynamic leadership the evolution of the Prussian general staff into a ‘learning organization’ and the ‘futures thinking’ of senior figures in the Prussian army led to an innovative approach in key areas such as logistical support, map-making techniques and war-game exercises. The provision of top-quality training in military shooting, gymnastics, artillery and fortifications provided a ‘knowledge advantage’ that would weigh heavily when deployed against more traditional forces. All of this was underpinned by a highly successful education system, a further vital ingredient in what was becoming an intoxicating mixture. The Danish reserves, 50 per cent of their army, contained men who were either too old to fight or at the other extreme completely raw, untested and naïve. A general lack of training and cohesion made them no match for the Prussians. It was an uneven conflict between an agriculturally based army, using traditional close-order, muzzle-loading bayonet charges, and an industrial army, equipped with rapid-firing breech-load rifles. The superior technology, organization and leadership of the Prussian army made the simple bravery of the Danish forces seem even more poignant amid the bloody carnage visted upon the Scandinavian winter and spring. the creation of the German nation 0333_987101_04_Ch1.indd 7 28/9/07 6:11:24 pm 1.5 the Treaty of Vienna By July 1864 Denmark’s brave but intrinsically limited resistance was at an end. Bismarck attempted to offer Prussian control of the Duchies for a rather vague commitment to help Austria in Northern Italy. This was unacceptable to the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph but a compromise came when Bismarck offered joint ownership of the Duchies which were formally surrendered to Austria and Prussia under the Treaty of Vienna of October 1864. This passed Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg to the King of Prussia and the Emperor of Austria. Within two years the two leaders would be at war. 1.6 chronology of the Schleswig-Holstein issue 15 November 18 November 24 December January–February The Treaty of London sets out terms for the relationship of Schleswig-Holstein to Denmark, and subjects the Duchies to international regulation Death of the Danish King Friedrich VII without an heir, followed by the accession of Prince Christian IX of Schleswig-Holstein Christian IX signs a new constitution which conflicts with the terms of the 1852 agreement. Christian’s position is challenged by the German Duke August of Augustenburg, who was recognized in Germany as the Duke of Schleswig-Holstein Without a formal declaration of war, German Confederation troops from Saxony and Hanover entered Holstein and Lauenburg – the Danes withdraw their forces into Schleswig An alliance of Austria and Prussia occupies Holstein (January) and Schleswig (February), leading to war against Denmark 18 April Austro-Prussian forces storm Danish fortifications at Duppel 20 April–25th June London conference on the Schleswig-Holstein crisis 26 June Resumption of Austro-Prussian war against Denmark 20 July New armistice signed 25 July Peace conference opened in Vienna 1 August Preliminary peace signed 30 October Treaty of Vienna cedes control of Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg to Austria and Prussia November Bismarck pushes the Diet into withdrawing federal forces from Holstein, leaving Austria and Prussia in control. 8 mastering modern German history 0333_987101_04_Ch1.indd 8 28/9/07 6:11:30 pm 1.7 the Gastein Convention, 1865 Although ostensibly the Austro-Prussian military intervention had ‘settled’ the Schleswig-Holstein issue, in reality the question of the long-term future of the Duchies actually became a source of rising tension between the two powers, leading Bismarck to comment acidly that ‘our tickets are on diverging lines’ and the Austrian foreign minister to conclude that his pro-Prussian policy of 1864 had been a serious mistake. Indeed when war broke out between Austria and Prussia in 1866 the immediate issue was the question of the future of the Duchies. Despite Austria’s assistance Bismarck had no intention of loosening Prussia’s grip over the Duchies and he remained convinced that Austria would not sustain its interest in an area that did not directly concern her. Temporary respite seemed to have been offered with the signing of an Austrian compromise proposal under the Gastein Convention of August 1865 which placed Holstein under the administration of Austria and Schleswig under Prussian authority. The duchy of Lauenburg was bought by Prussia, which also secured new military and naval bases in Holstein. William Carr offers this analysis of why Bismarck was prepared to sign the Gastein Convention: ‘The most likely explanation is that Bismarck was not ready for war and simply accepted a favourable offer which loosened Austria’s hold over the duchies and avoided all reference to Duke Frederick. Bismarck’s determination to force Austria out of Holstein and dominate Germany remained unchanged.’9 A further insight is provided by David Blackbourn who states: ‘Bismarck’s policy towards Austria, for all its tactical twists and turns, was more single-mindedly bent on a particular outcome than his policy towards France or the southern states. Nothing is inevitable, but it is hard to see the Gastein Convention as anything other than a truce before the willed conflict of 1866.’10 1.8 conflict with Austria, 1866 While some historians have claimed that Bismarck had already charted the course of events, many others feel that he was not necessarily full of belligerent intent. It seems most likely that the new minister-president was not immediately fixed on a course of war with Austria. He was a much more multi-faceted, nuanced diplomat than his sometimes direct or even beligerent statements suggest. War was obviously one solution to the Austrian issue and probably the most likely outcome as Bismarck scanned the horizon. However, he cannot be accurately depicted as a bloodthirsty and aggressive Junker itching to commit Prussia to war to satisfy his personal ambition. In fact, he saw war only as a final resort when all hope of a peaceful solution had been exhausted. His diplomatic instincts and personal religious convictions, added to his sense of caution, meant that there was no immediate change of direction in Prussian policy when Bismarck assumed power. In foreign affairs he continued the policy pursued by Count Bernstorff, Prussian foreign minister since 1861, of antagonism with Austria, while making overtures to Russia. the creation of the German nation 0333_987101_04_Ch1.indd 9 28/9/07 6:11:31 pm It is clear in retrospect that Bismarck was able to take advantage of an exceptionally favourable international situation. What Klaus Hildebrand called the ‘Crimean moment’ – the weakening of Britain and Russia after the Crimean War of 1854–56 – provided a window of opportunity for the advancement of German unity. In the words of A. J. P. Taylor, ‘Both Russia and Great Britain had virtually eliminated themselves from the European balance; this gave the years between 1864 and 1866 a character unique in recent history.’11 Events now moved quickly, with an informal visit by Bismarck to Napoleon at Biarritz in October 1865 designed to shore up the position of France in the event of war. Although the meeting did not lead to any binding agreement it was enough to convince Bismarck that if Venetia could be secured for Italy then Napoleon was likely to remain on the sidelines in the event of a Prussian war with Austria. As tension between Austria and Prussia over the Duchies reached new heights in 1866, Bismarck was able to conclude that from Britain, Russia and Italy only the Italians could not be counted upon to keep out of a war between Prussia and Austria. This was effectively neutralized when Italy formed an alliance with Prussia in April 1866. This stipulated that in the event of war between Prussia and Austria within three months, Italy would join in and take Venetia. On 21 April amid rumours of Italian troop movements, Austria took the dramatic step of mobilizing her armies in the south. This was enough to convince the cautious Prussian king that he had no choice but to order mobilization of his troops. As John Breuilly explains: It took a great deal of Bismarck’s energy to persuade the king to break at last with Austria, the old and legitimate ally both in Germany and against France. Possibly it was one reason why Bismarck avoided war in the summer of 1865. Once the king was persuaded that Austria sought to deprive Prussia of her rightful standing in Germany, and that Austrian mobilisation represented a serious military threat, he agreed to war. It was typical of William that he now pursued the war in a spirit of selfrighteousness and the next big problem Bismarck faced was persuading him to bring the war to a rapid end before international complications could develop.12 American academic Dennis Showalter provides an interesting alternative critique of the way the king’s part in the decision-making process that led up to the war with Austria has generally been characterized by historians. William – as usual – emerges as a more or less inert force, needing either the repeated galvanic shocks administered by his minister-president or the clearly presented calculations of his chief of staff to impel him into action. William, in fact, was accustomed to making his own decisions, and regarded both Bismarck and Moltke as what they were under the Prussian constitution: royally appointed officials who served at his pleasure.13 10 mastering modern German history 0333_987101_04_Ch1.indd 10 28/9/07 6:11:32 pm This hierarchy is also reflected in the document that follows, a communiqué from Moltke on the possibility of a war between Prussia and Austria. SOURCE Memorandum from Helmuth von Moltke, Berlin, 2 April 1866. As a political question, the war against Austria, its probability or inevitability, lies outside the scope of my judgment. But from my standpoint I believe I must express the conviction that the success or failure of this war essentially depends on our reaching a decision about it sooner than the Austrians, and if possible, right now. One advantage for us, which cannot be overstated, is that we can advance our army on five railroad lines and thereby have it essentially concentrated on the Saxon-Bohemian border within 25 days. Austria has just one railway leading toward Bohemia, and allowing for the troops it already has in Bohemia and Galicia, and assuming further that its cavalry is already on the march, then it requires 45 days to assemble 200,000 men. If Bavaria joins Austria, then it is not so much its army as the use of its Regensburg-Pilsen-Prague railway line that will be disadvantageous for us, since this shortens the above-mentioned Austrian concentration by about 15 days. If the mobilization of the Prussian army is ordered right now, then Bavaria – so ill-prepared for war in terms of arms, mobilization, and the concentration of its approximately 40,000 men near Bamberg – will in all probability not be ready when the first battle between Austria and Prussia has been fought. Deploying the Bavarian armed forces can hardly serve the purpose of laying siege to Coblenz, or Cologne, or even Erfurt, or of seizing Prussian territory, but more probably of waiting for a successful outcome and then showing up as an armed power on the side of the victor. For us it all depends on defeating this one enemy Austria, [and] to this end this we have to muster all [our] forces, and if anybody should ask for my opinion, we have to enlist not only the VIIth, but also the VIIIth Army Corps. Source: Helmuth von Moltke, Moltkes militärische Werke (1896–1912). 1.9 war with Austria, 1866 There can be no doubt that engaging in a war with Austria was a high-risk operation. Many contemporaries held the view that following the rather muddling performance of the Prussian forces in Denmark, Austria had every chance of success in 1866. The allegiance of states from the German Confederation including Saxony, Hanover and Hesse-Cassel with Austria made the creation of the German nation 0333_987101_04_Ch1.indd 11 11 28/9/07 6:11:33 pm the situation even more challenging. So it may have been with some trepidation that the German officers gathered at the Königswarder memorial to oversee the departure of their units from Berlin, with forty military trains per day leaving the capital for Bohemia through the first five days of June. In fact the war was over by 22 July 1866. Although the Battle of Königgrätz is rightly regarded as the decisive episode in the war, several other exchanges are worthy of attention and remind us that both sides paid a heavy price in their terrible conflict. thekeybattlesofthesevenWeeks’War Battle of Custova 2 June Battle of Nachod 2 June Battle of Trautenau 2 June Battle of Skalitz 28 June Austrian forces in the south brought to a standstill by the Italians, leaving Archduke Albrecht’s army in no position to move north against Prussia -hour battle in hot, humid conditions. Austria lost more than , men at a rate of almost 2 per minute Poor leadership meant that few of the Prussian battalions were actually able to engage with the Austrians, and although Austrian casualties were heavy this was the only Prussian battlefield defeat in the war with Austria Austria suffered its heaviest casualties of the war. Bucholz provides vivid descriptions of men drowning when trying to cross the river to escape or being burnt to death in house-tohouse fighting1 1.10 the Battle of Königgrätz (Sadowa), 1866 More than half a million soldiers took part in the decisive engagement between Königgrätz and Sadowa in Bohemia on 3 July 1866, evocatively described by the Times correspondent W. H. Russell, when he saw the Austrian army, with their bands playing, assume their positions in ‘Squares and parallelograms of snowy white, dark green, azure and blue on the cornfields like checker work of a patchwork quilt’.15 The scene may have looked picturesque but the reality was a slaughter in which the Austrians suffered 64,000 killed, wounded and taken prisoner. Under Moltke’s strategic command 280,000 Prussian soldiers and 900 guns overcame Benedek’s forces of 245,000 men and 600 guns. The lightning defeat of Saxony, Austria’s ally, at the outset of the war, the fact that the Prussian breech-loading needle gun fired four or five times per minute compared to the single shots of the Austrian’s muzzle-loading counterpart, mastering modern German history 0333_987101_04_Ch1.indd 12 28/9/07 6:11:37 pm the robustness of Moltke’s strategic planning and the failure of the Austrian commander Benedek to utilise a potentially favourable defensive position, all contributed to the Prussian victory. However, Richard Evans contends that what was subsequently depicted as the next smoothly executed move in a preordained plan was in fact more haphazard: ‘far from being the perfectly planned and executed operation of Prussian historical legend, Moltke’s victory at Königgràtz was, like most battles, a tale of muddle and confusion, in which the great general was only saved from humiliation by the opportune arrival of the Prussian Second Army led by the heir to the Prussian throne.’16 Nevertheless it was with some satisfaction that by the afternoon of 3 July Moltke reported to the King ‘The campaign is decided, Vienna lies at your Majesty’s feet.’ In the evening the Prussian generals sat down together for a celebratory game of whist. The card players were in ebullient mood. The day’s events on the Bohemian heights of Chlum had unfolded to their complete satisfaction. Craig comments that ‘Inflamed by their triumph’,17 the Prussian military and monarchy were now ready to push on to Vienna. Bismarck’s task was to rein in the very people on whom he had depended to crush Austria. It was a challenge elegantly summarized by Bismarck in a letter written to his wife in July 1866: ‘If we are not excessive in our demands and do not believe that we have conquered the world, we will attain a peace that is worth our effort. But we are just as quickly intoxicated as we are plunged into dejection, and I have the thankless task of pouring water into the bubbling wine and making it clear that we do not live alone in Europe but with three other Powers that hate and envy us.’18 Gall’s analysis is that ‘The real power of the empire was smashed at Königgrätz and a complete conquest of the country only to be staved off by political means with the conclusion of a swift peace.’19 In a brief but disastrous campaign Austria had suffered 52,000 men killed and wounded, approximately 20 per cent of their total fighting force. This compared to 9,000 Prussians. The victories over Denmark and Austria reflected a period of rapid development for the Prussian army. Specialization of labour, high-quality training and preparation, a rapidly expanding railway network, meticulous attention to battle details such as the wording of military orders, detailed planning and technical innovation all played a major part in the emergence of the Prussian army as a major force. 1.11 the aftermath of the war with Austria Bismarck’s political success in using his powers of persuasion to curb King Wilhelm’s militaristic enthusiasm was helped by an outbreak of cholera among the Prussian troops and the fact that lines of communication were already sorely stretched. Rather grudgingly the King agreed to an armistice signed on 22 July, which was followed by preliminary peace terms at Nikolsburg and the final peace settlement, the Peace of Prague, signed on 23 August. This brought substantial gains to Prussia and concluded the first substantial political the creation of the German nation 0333_987101_04_Ch1.indd 13 13 28/9/07 6:11:39 pm unification of the German states to the north of the River Main. Although this stage produced considerable initial satisfaction it was also soon evident that nationalist and liberal tendencies within Prussia wanted to take the process of unification to its ultimate conclusion. Bismarck had already begun the process of engineering the military support of the southern states in a commitment to side with Prussia if she came under attack. In 1867 the commercial development of the new Zollparlament as an extension of the Zollverein marked a further step forward for Prussian ambition. William Carr sees the Austro-Prussian war as ‘a power struggle for mastery in Germany, an eighteenth-century war fought with nineteenth-century weapons’.20 The shattered remnants of Benedek’s army scurrying for cover on the banks of the Elbe heralded the triumph of Bismarck’s anti-Austrian policy. He had masterminded the crucial break with the traditions of Prussian diplomacy as the means of dividing the parliamentary opposition that was threatening to force the Prussian Government into a cul-de-sac when he came to power in September 1862. He had strategically manoeuvred the Austrian Government into circumstances in which it felt obliged to assume the responsibility for beginning the war even though it lacked the resources to claim victory. In the wake of the Prussian victory over Austria large sections of the German people took part in an unprecedented outpouring of national sentiment. The momentum towards German unification had substantial energy from the top and from the bottom. 1.12 the North German Confederation The creation of the North German Confederation in 1867 left the south German states in a perilous position. Still historically committed to Austria, to all practical intents and purposes they were beholden to Prussia in military and economic terms. Hans-Ulrich Wehler states that the expansion of Greater Prussia was viewed by the government in Berlin as providing the best possible solution to the problem of uniting Germany while excluding Austria. The Austrian defeat in the German ‘civil war’ and the creation of the North German Confederation confirmed these calculations. The opinion was often enough expressed that a war fought in a common cause would soon overcome any resistance by the South German states to a Prussian-dominated Germany. It was also bound to have the effect of uniting the nation.21 The new North German Confederation was a federal state (Bundesstaat) as opposed to a federation of states (Staatenbund). It excluded Austria as well as the south German states of Bavaria, Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt and Wurttemburg. Prussia annexed Schleswig-Holstein, Hesse-Kassel, Frankfurt, Hanover and Nassau. Bismarck’s constitution of the North German Confederation allowed territorial rulers to retain the management of their own internal affairs while the head of the Confederation, the King of Prussia, presided over foreign affairs and 14 mastering modern German history 0333_987101_04_Ch1.indd 14 28/9/07 6:11:40 pm army issues. The largely impotent parliament (Reichstag) was complemented by an upper house, the Federal Council (Bundesrat), effectively dominated by Prussia. This constitution was to provide a template for that of the subsequent German Empire. 1.13 chronology of the war with France and its consequences, 1868–71 June A revolution in Spain deposes the monarch, Isabella II, creating a vacancy for the Spanish throne Bismarck secures the consent of Kaiser Wilhelm I to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen’s candidacy for the Spanish throne July Following negotiations between the French envoy in Prussia, Benedetti and Wilhelm I at Bad Ems, Wilhelm tells the French that he will not object if the Hohenzollern nomination is withdrawn. However, French Foreign Minister Gramont now insists on written guarantees and a letter of apology from Wilhelm I to Emperor Napoleon III The Prussian king telegraphs a report of his discussions with Benedetti to Bismarck. Bismarck subsequently releases a carefully edited version of the Ems dispatch. The edited version creates the impression that the French envoy had been brusquely treated by the German emperor. The doctored telegram causes outrage in France, prompting Napoleon to declare war 16 July Mobilization of Bavaria and Baden on the Prussian side 17 July Mobilization of Württemberg on the Prussian side 19 July France declares war even though her military preparedness is behind the Prussian army August The Battle of Spicheren is greeted as a German triumph even though the Germans take heavy casualties. At Wissembourg both sides take heavy casualties but the superiority of German numbers carries the day. At the Battle of Froeschwiller-Woerth, towards the end of August, France suffers more than 25,000 killed, wounded and taken prisoner 1–2 September Crushing and decisive Prussian victory over France at the Battle of Sedan and the capture of Napoleon III the creation of the German nation 0333_987101_04_Ch1.indd 15 5 28/9/07 6:11:46 pm October–November Negotiations with the south German states at Versailles 9 December 18 January Proposals for constitutional change accepted by the North German Confederation Proclamation of the German Empire at Versailles February Provisional peace terms with France stipulate the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany. This was to leave a bitter legacy for Franco-German relations 10 May The Peace of Frankfurt 1.14 origins of the war with France, 1870–71 the Hohenzollern candidature By 1870 Bismarck was ready, once again, to use his instinct for power politics to ‘engineer a war at a precise juncture which suited his plans’.22 France remained as the clear obstacle to the southern states being absorbed into Lesser Germany. While it could be argued that conflict between Prussia and France was highly likely, the exact location of its immediate origins came from an unexpected quarter. The cause was a disputed succession in Spain. When the Spanish throne fell vacant in 1868 it was offered to the Hohenzollern candidate Prince Leopold. In the face of French objections the candidacy was withdrawn but France pushed further and demanded a pledge that the candidature could never be renewed. When Prussia stood its ground the French found themselves in a position where a declaration of war seemed to be the only face-saving option. When the military test came the southern states stood by their alliances with Prussia. Bismarck had manipulated the provocative Hohenzollern candidature for the Spanish throne and clumsy French lapses in protocol to illicit a French declaration of war. Craig states: ‘It cannot be said that Bismarck wanted a war in 1870, but, thanks to the crisis that he had encouraged, to Gramont’s maladroitness in handling it, and to the passions it released in French opinion, that was what he got’.23 SOURCE A Original text of the Ems Telegram, from Heinrich Abeken to Bismarck, 1 JulY 18. His Majesty writes to me: ‘Count Benedetti spoke to me on the promenade, in order to demand from me, finally in a very importunate manner, that I should authorise him to telegraph at once that I bound myself for all future time never again to give my consent if the Hohenzollerns should renew their candidature. I refused at last somewhat sternly, as it is neither right nor possible to undertake 6 mastering modern German history 0333_987101_04_Ch1.indd 16 28/9/07 6:11:49 pm engagements of this kind à tout jamais. Naturally I told him that I had as yet received no news, and as he was earlier informed about Paris and Madrid than myself, he could clearly see that my government once more had no hand in this matter.’ His Majesty has since received a letter from the Prince. His Majesty having told Count Benedetti that he was awaiting news from the Prince, has decided, with reference to the above demand, upon the representation of Count Eulenburg and myself, not to receive Count Benedetti again, but only to let him be informed through an aide-de-camp: That his Majesty had now received from the Prince confirmation of the news which Benedetti had already received from Paris, and had nothing further to say to the ambassador. His Majesty leaves it to your Excellency whether Benedetti’s fresh demand and its rejection should not be at once communicated both to our ambassadors and to the press. Source: Eric Wilmot, The Great Powers 1814–1918 (1992). S ource B Bismarck’s text of the Ems Telegram, edited for publication. After the news of the renunciation of the hereditary Prince of Hohenzollern had been officially communicated to the Imperial government of France by the Royal government of Spain, the French ambassador further demanded of his Majesty, the King, at Ems, that he would authorise him to telegraph to Paris that his Majesty, the King, bound himself for all time never again to give his consent, should the Hohenzollerns renew their candidature. His Majesty, the King, thereupon decided not to receive the French ambassador again, and sent the aide-de-camp on duty to tell him that his Majesty had nothing further to communicate to the ambassador. Source: as source A. S ource C Bismarck, from Reflections and Reminiscences (1898). I went on to explain: ‘If in execution of His Majesty’s order, I at once communicate this text . . . not only to the newspapers but by telegraph to all our embassies it will be known in Paris before midnight . . . and will have the effect of a red rag on the French bull . . . Success, however, depends essentially upon the impression which the origination of the war makes upon us and others: it is important that we should be the ones attacked. Source: as source A. Q ues t i o n s 1 What diplomatic impact would the original text of the Ems telegram have made? 2 How does this compare to the diplomatic impact of the second, edited text? 3 Which specific elements of the Ems telegram did Bismarck remove? 4 Why did Bismarck make these amendments? the creation of the German nation 0333_987101_04_Ch1.indd 17 17 28/9/07 6:11:51 pm 1.15 the Battle of Sedan, 1870 As the slightly chill autumnal mist lifted over the fields of Sedan, in northeastern France, King Wilhelm I of Prussia was able to take advantage of a superb vantage point in a forest clearing to witness his moment of triumph. The Prussian monarch was joined by his leading generals and his political strategist Otto von Bismarck, flanked by a glittering array of German princes. Meanwhile, on the battlefield they surveyed, the circumstances of the French Emperor could hardly have been more different. Appalled by the carnage visited upon his countrymen, Napoleon personally ordered the raising of a white flag. This was the most significant battle of the Franco-Prussian War, culminating in the armies of Emperor Napoleon III, under the military command of Marshal MacMahon, laying down their arms to Prussia’s Third Army. The emperor was taken into captivity at Wilhelmslöhe. More than 100,000 French soldiers were taken prisoner amid the final collapse of the Napoleonic regime. On 2 September Emperor Napoleon III’s capitulation was formally accepted. Finally, on 3 September the French troops watched through driving rain as their emperor, followed by his extensive wagon train, rode off into captivity. The Prussian victory had been comprehensively sealed and the moment of German unification was almost at hand. 1.16 the Peace Treaty of Frankfurt am Main The humiliation of France was completed with the signing of the Peace of Frankfurt signed by Bismarck for Germany and by Jules Favre the French Foreign Minister. On 10 May the two countries concluded a treaty in which France ceded Alsace (except Belfort) and German Lorraine, including the fortresses of Metz and Strasburg. In addition, France was obliged to pay a war debt of 5,000 million francs, starting with 1,000 million francs in 1871. The final indignity was that France was also subject to military occupation. Alsace and Lorraine had passed from the Holy Roman Empire to France during the seventeenth century. Following the victory at Sedan Bismarck fuelled demands through the press for the cession of these two strategic areas to Germany. Bismarck played on the fact that a German dialect was spoken in Alsace and a section of Lorraine but there is no doubt that he was more interested in the military and strategic implications of securing the salient in the certainty of future French hostility. A subdued France had to accept the surrender of one-third of Lorraine and the whole of Alsace. France retained the fortress at Belfort but did agree to pay an indemnity totalling 5,000 million francs, with 1,000 million due in 1871 and the rest within three years. It was agreed that the payments would be accompanied by the progressive withdrawal of the troops of German occupation. To the surprise of many observers France paid the indemnity in full by 1873 and all occupying troops were withdrawn. 18 mastering modern German history 0333_987101_04_Ch1.indd 18 28/9/07 6:11:52 pm To the immediate signs of French recovery Bismarck added his concern that fear of Prussian strength could lead to an overwhelming alliance against the new Germany. In the words of Richard J. Evans: The new country had been formed ‘not by an act of free will on the part of its citizens’ but rather by a ‘revolution from above’. It was forged in the heat of battle, and imposed by force. It was incomplete, excluding many ethnic Germans from its boundaries, and it was divided, including many people of other nationalities as well as different confessions, classes and regional groups.24 Lothar Gall states that: what is often referred to even today simply as Bismarck’s creation turned out to have been one of the shortest-lived political creations of all time . . . Bismarck achieved only a very limited measure of control over his creation and over the problems and trends of development inherent in it . . . He ultimately found himself in many respects faced with a situation that was insoluble for him on his terms. In the end, perhaps like every major actor on the stage of history, he was really no more than a sorcerer’s apprentice.25 the creation of the German nation 0333_987101_04_Ch1.indd 19 19 28/9/07 6:11:53 pm inde x Abeken, Heinrich (1809–72; German theologian) 16 Abyssinia (1935) 238, 255 Adenauer, Konrad (1876–1967; Chancellor in GFR 1949–63) 328, 335–7 Adorno, Theodor Ludwig Wiesengrund (1903–69; German sociologist and philosopher) 125 AEG 102 Aehrenthal, Alois, Count von (1854–1912; Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister 1906– 12) 86 Afghanistan 346 Agenda 2000 351 Agrarian League 64, 71 Albert, King of the Belgians (1875–1934) 111 Albertini, Luigi (historian) 98 Alexander III (1845–94; Tsar of Russia 1881–94) 58 Algeciras Conference 83 ‘Alliance System’ 48 Allied Control Council 325 Alsace-Lorraine 16, 18, 21, 51, 73, 101, 130 Aly, Gotz (historian) 193 Andrássy, Gyula, Count (1823–90; AustroHungarian Foreign Minister 1871–79) 55 Andropov, Yuri (1914–84; Soviet leader 1982–84) 342 Anglo-German Naval Pact (1935) 242, 255, 257 Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902) 84 Anglo-Russian Entente 85 Anschluss with Austria (1938) 225, 238, 279, 283 anti-Marxism 234 anti-semitism 141, 217–34, 270, 299 appeasement 252 Ardennes 285 Attlee, Clement Richard (1883–1967; British Prime Minister 1945–51) 325 Augustenburg, Prince Frederick of (1831–1917) 6 Auschwitz-Birkenau 291, 297, 315, 318, 341 Austria 1, 3, 6, 233 and the war with Prussia 2 (map), 11–14 annexation of 236 Austrian Freedom Party 347 Austro-Hungarian Empire 85, 97 Austro-Prussian military alliance 7 Austro-Russian Entente 86 autobahn (motorway) system 196, 241 Auxiliary Service Act (1916) 117 Baader, Andreas (1943–77) 339 Baader-Meinhof Gang 339 Babi Yar (Ukraine) 297 Baden, Grand Duchy of 14–15, 21, 46 Bad Godesberg 253, 256 Bad Kissingen 42 Bad Wiessee 182 Baggett, Blaine (historian) 106 Baldwin, Stanley (1867–1947; British Prime Minister 1923–29, 1935–37) 254 Balkan Crisis 101 Balkans 53–5, 57, 60, 80, 85, 120, 269 Baltic States 263 Bamberger, Ludwig (1823–99; radical leader and economist) 34 Barkai, Avraham (historian) 222 Bartov, Omer (historian) 299 BASF 29 Basic Law (1949) 331 Battle of the Atlantic 277 Battle of Britain 269 Battle of Kursk 286 Battle of Viaz’ma-Briansk 274 Bauer, Gustav (1871–1944; Chancellor in Weimar Republic 1919–20) 141 Baumer, Gertrud (1873–1954; German politician and feminist) 125 Bavaria, Kingdom of 14, 15, 21, 23, 220 Bavarian Democratic and Socialist Republic 127 Bavarian Farmers’ League 25 362 0333_987101_20_Indx.indd 362 28/9/07 6:13:03 pm Bavarian Franconia 21 Bayer 29 Bebel, August (1840–1913; co-founder of Social Democratic Workers’ Party) 24 Beck, Ludwig van (1880–1944; Chief of Army General Staff 1935–38) 210, 264, 272 Beer-Hall Putsch 144, 148 Belsen 323 Belzec 315 Benedek 12, 13, 14 Benedetti, Count Vincent (1817–1900; French Ambassador in Berlin) 15–17 Benz, Carl Friedrich (1844–1929) 29–30 Berchtesgaden 251, 253, 255–6 Berchtold, Leopold, Count von (1863–1942; Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister 1912–15) 95, 98 Berghann, Volker (historian) 75, 95 Berlin 32–3, 222 Berlin-Grunewald 37 blockade of (1948–49) 332 Congress of (1878–9) Wall 334, 343 Berliner Post 52 Bernstorff, Albrecht, Count von (1809–73; Prussian Foreign Minister 1861) 9 Bessel, Richard (historian) 105–6, 118, 242, 246 Bethmann-Hollweg, Theobald von (1865–1921; Imperial Chancellor 1909–17) 72–4, 79, 89–3, 95, 98–100, 104, 106, 122 Betinck, Count 78 Biarritz 10 Bismarck-Schonhausen, Otto, Prince von (1815–98; Prussian Minister-President and Imperial Chancellor 1871–90) 26–8, 34–7, 43–5, 47, 61, 126, 342 and Gastein convention (1865) 9 ‘blood and iron’ 5, 21 and Schleswig-Holstein 7 and unification 4–5 and War with Austria and War with Denmark and War with France 16 Bismarck, Herbert, Count von (1849–1904; diplomat and son of Prince Otto) 28, 46, 336, Bizonia 326 Blackbourn, David (historian) 5, 9, 26, 42, 59, 67 ‘Black Hand’ gang 93 Black September 339 ‘blank cheque’ 95 Blitzkreig 266, 269, 276, 295 Blomberg, Werner von (1878–1946; commanderin-chief of Wehrmacht 1933–38) 33, 182–3, 207, 228, 239, 240, 244, 246, 250 Blomberg–Fritsch Crisis 249–50 ‘bloodless purge’ (1934) 250 Bolsheviks 120, 121 bomb plot against Hitler (1944) 294 Bonhoeffer, Dietrich (1906–45; Protestant pastor) 202, 211 Bonn 33 book burnings 189, 221 Bormann, Martin (1900–45; head of Nazi Party Chancellery 1941–45) 281, 288, 290–2 Bosch (engineering company) 65 Bosnia-Herzegovina 86 Boxer Rebellion 82 boycott of Jewish shops (1933) 220 Brandenburg Gate 345 Brandt, Willy (1913–92; Chancellor in GFR 1969– 74) 328, 338, 340, 345 Brauchitsch, Walter von (1881–1948; Commanderin-Chief of army 1938–41) 276 Braun, Eva (1910–45; mistress and later wife of Hitler) 288–9, 291–2 Breitman, Richard (historian) 313 Bremen 33 Brenner Pass 239 Breslau 220, 229 Brest-Litovsk 121, 122, 273 Treaty of (1918) 120 Breuilly, John (historian) 10 Brezhnev, Leonid Ilyich (1906–82; Soviet leader 1964–82) 334, 342 Briand, Aristide (1862–1932; French Foreign Minister [several terms]) 152, 155 British Expeditionary Force 111 Brockdorff-Rantzau, Count Ulrich (1869–1928) 135 Broszat, Martin (historian) 298 Browning, Christopher (historian) 298 Brüning, Heinrich von (1885–1970; Chancellor in Weimar Republic 1930–32) 141, 160, 165–6 Bucholz, Arden (historian) 7, 12 Bülow, Berhard, Baron von (1849–1929; Imperial Chancellor 1900–09) 71–3, 80–1, 83, 86, 112 Bundesrat in North German Confederation 15 Bundesrat of German Empire 23, 44 Bundestag 327, 331 Burckhardt, Carl 263 Burgfriede 104 Burleigh, Michael (historian) 193 Bush, George Walker (1946–; US President 2001–) 346 Caprivi, Georg Leo, Count von (1831–99; Imperial Chancellor 1890–94) 63–4, 70 Carr, William (historian) 9, 14, 25, 40, 59, 72, 81, 102, 110, 221, 228, 334, 336, 338 Carsten, Francis (historian) 211 Catholicism and Catholics 21–2, 24, 36, 40, 41, 202–4 Caucasus 276 oilfields in 276 Centre Party 24–5, 28, 36, 41, 42, 71, 161, 180–1 Chamberlain, Austen (1863–1937; British Foreign Secretary 1924–29) 152 index 0333_987101_20_Indx.indd 363 363 28/9/07 6:13:05 pm Chamberlain, Neville (1869–1940; British Prime Minister 1937–40) 252–61, 263 Chancellery of the Führer (KDF) 205 Chelmno (Poland) 297, 298, 315 Chernenko 342 Chickering, Roger (historian) 118 Childers, Thomas (historian) 166 Chlum, Heights of 13 Christian Democrats (CDU) 327–8 Christian of Glucksburg 6 Christian Social Union (CSU) 328 Christian IX of Schleswig-Holstein (1863–1906; King of Denmark 1863–1906) 8 Churchill, Sir Winston (1874–1965; British prime minister 1940–45, 1951–55) 258, 269, 323–5, 329 Clark, Christopher (historian) 63 Clemenceau, Georges (1841–1929; French prime minister 1906–09, 1917–20) 134–7 Cold War 329 Cologne 32, 220 Colonies 56–57 ‘Committee of Three’ 288 concentration camps 201, 206–7 Conrad von Hotzendorff, Franz, Count (1852– 1925; chief of Austrian General Staff 1906– 11) 95, 98 Congress of Berlin (1878) 54 Conti, Dr 205 Craig, Gordon (historian) 5, 13, 16, 45, 58, 73, 75, 109 Crimean War (1854–56) 10, 55 Cuno, Wilhelm (1876–1933; Chancellor in Weimar Republic 1922–23) 141 Custova, Battle of 12 Czechoslovakia 136, 232–3, 239, 247, 256, 259–60, 265 Dachau 180, 208, 229, 231, 312 Daily Mail 241 Daily Telegraph 72 Daimler-Benz Corporation 29 Daladier, Edouard (1884–1970; French Prime Minister [several terms]) 253, 261 Daleuge, Karl 312 Danzig 130, 136–7, 260, 264, 323 Das Schwarze Korps 303 Davies, Joseph Edward (1876–1958; US ambassador to Soviet Union 1936–38) 326 Dawes Plan (1924) 151 Dawidowicz, Lucy (historian) 298 De Gaulle, Charles (1890–1970; French soldier and patriot [later President of France 1959– 69]) 285, 338 denazification 324, 325 Denmark Kingdom of 268 war with 5 364 Der Angriff 217 de-Stasification 348 Deutchsland Uber Alles 105 Diels, Rudolf (1900–57; Gestapo leader 1933– 34) 179, 312 Disney, Walter Elias (1901–66; US film producer 189 Disraeli, Benjamin, Lord Beaconsfield (1804–81; British Prime Minister 1868, 1874–80) 52 Dockrill, Michael (historian) 323, 325 Dogger Bank Incident (1904) 82 Dohm, Hedwig 23 Dolfuss, Engelbert (1892–1934; Austrian Chancellor 1932–4) 238 Dönitz, Karl (1891–1980; Commander-in-Chief of navy 1943–5) 289 Dortmund 33 Dresden 32, 38, 220, 282 Dresden General Health Insurance Company 39 Dreikaiserbund see Three Emperors’ League Drexler, Anton (1884–1942; Nazi political leader of 1920s) 145 Dual Monarchy 86, 96 Duff Cooper, Alfred (1890–1954; British diplomat) 254 Duisberg, Carl 125 Dukes, Jack 62 Durand-Viel, Admiral 243 Dusseldorf Industry Club 162 Eastern Front 116, 119 Ebert, Friedrich (1871–1925; president of Weimar Republic 1919–25) 12–8, 141 Ebert–Groener Pact 128 Economic Union 25 Edward VII, King (1841–1910) 101 Egelfing-Haar 205 Eichmann, Adolf (1906–1962; high-ranking Nazi) 308 Eidelweiss Pirates 209 Einsatzgruppen 297, 299, 303–5, 309 Einstein, Albert (1879–1955; German physicist) 125, 229 Eisenhower, Dwight David (1890–1969; US president 1953–61) 284 Eisner, Kurt (1867–1919; Bavarian Prime Minister 1918–19) 127, 129 El Alamein 285 Elbe, River 325 Elser,Johann Georg (1903–45; German opponent of Nazism) 210, 250 Emmich, General von 111 Ems Telegram 15–17 Enabling Law (1933) 173, 180–1 Ensslin, Gudrun (1940–77; member of Red Army faction) 339 Entente Cordiale (1904) 82–84 Epstein, Klaus 79 mastering modern German history 0333_987101_20_Indx.indd 364 28/9/07 6:13:07 pm Equalisation of Burdens Law (1952) 335 Erhard, Ludwig (1897–1977; German Chancellor 1963–66) 328, 335 Ernst, Karl (1904–34; SA leader) 178 Erzberger, Matthias (1875–1921; Centre Party politician) 138, 153 Essen 33 Eternal Jew, The (exhibition) 225 Ethiopia 243 Eulenburg, Philip, Prince of (1847–1921; German diplomat) 68, 89 Eupen-Malmédy 130 Euro currency 347 European Alliance system 84 European Defence Community (EDC) 336 Evans, Richard (historian) 13, 19, 21, 40–1, 300 Falkenhayn, Erich von (1861–1922; Prussian War Minister and Chief of General Staff 1914–16) 100, 111, 113, 115, 117, 120 Farben, I. G. (German dyestuff corporation) 156, 158, 317 Farmers’ League 25 Favre, Jules Claude Gabriel (1809–80; French Foreign Minister 1870–71) 18 Feder, Gottfried (1883–1941; early member of NSDAP) 146 Federal Republic of Germany (GFR) 331, Fehrenbach, Konstantin (1852–1926; Chancellor of Weimar Republic 1920–1) 141 Fergusson, Niall (historian) 85, 116–17 Fest, Joachim (historian) 142, 220 Feuchtwanger, Edgar (historian) 60, 76 Final Solution 205, 222, 290, 295, 316, 319 First Moroccan Crisis (1905) 83–4 Fischer, Conan (historian) 129 Fischer, Fritz (historian) 79, 87, 92, 94, 99–100, 121 Fischer, Joseph Martin ‘Joschka’ (1948–; German foreign minister 1988–2005) 345 Flehinger, Arthur, Dr 226 Flick industrial empire 341 Foch, Ferdinand (1851–1929; Marshal of France 1918) 122 Fourteen Points 133 Four Year Plan 199–200, 242, 262 France 48, 52, 267 war with Prussia 3, 15–19, 51 Franco, General Francisco (1892–1975; Spanish head of state 1939–75) 245 Franco-Prussian War 176 Franco-Russian Alliance (1892) 50, 51, 57, 84 Franco-Russian Entente 50, 84 Frank, Hans (1900–46; Nazi governor in Poland 1939–45) 266 Frankfurt 14, 33 Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung 341 Franz Ferdinand, Archduke (1863–1914; heir to Franz Joseph) 93, 100 Franz Joseph (1848–1916; Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary) 51, 86, 94–5 Free Conservative Party 24–5, 31 Free Democratic Party (FDP) 328 Freethinking Party 25 Freethinking People’s Party 25 Freethinking Union 25 Frei, Norbert (historian) 218 Freikorps 128–9, 138 Freisler, Roland (1895–1945; president of people’s court 220, 229, 291 Frick, Wilhelm (1877–1946); Nazi Minister of the Interior 173, 175, 221, 230, 312–14 Friedeburg, Hans-Georg von (1893–1945; commander of U boats 1943–45) 289 Friedlander, Saul (historian) 219, 222–3, 225 Friedrich III 45, 60, Friedrich VII 6, 8 Friedrich Wilhelm IV (1795–1861; King of Prussia 1840–61) 25–7 Frieser, Karl-Heinz (historian) 267 Fritsch, Werner, Freiharr von (1880–1939; Commander-in-Chief of army 1934–8) 207, 228, 246, 249 Froeschwiller-Woerth, Battle of 15 Fulbrook, Mary (historian) 37, 344 Fulton, Missouri (USA) 329 Gall, Lothar (historian) 5, 13, 19, 43, 52, 59 Gamelin, Maurice Gustave (1872–1958; French general) 243 Gastein Convention (1865) 9 General Union of German Workers 24 Genscher, Hans-Dietrich (1927–; German Foreign Minister, GFR) 345 George V (1865–1936; King of the UK 1910–36) 101 Gerlach, Christian (historian) 306 German Communist Party (KPD) 128, 162–3, 166, 171, 179, 181, 202, 211, 327 German Confederation 1, 2 (map), 3, 6, 8 German Conservative Party 24–5, 43, 91 German constitution 22–4 ‘Germany’s Aims in the First World War’ 79 German Democratic Republic (GDR) 333 German Empire, creation of 3 (map), 20 German Labour Party (DAF) 181,196 German Nationalists (DNVP) 159 German Paediatric Society (1883) 66 German People’s Party (DVP) 153, 161 German Protestant Association 21 German Revolution 1918–19 126 German Workers’ Party (DAP) 145, 146 Gersdorff, Rudolf von, General (1905–80; German military officer) 289 Gestapo 190, 204, 209, 211, 249, 312–13 index 0333_987101_20_Indx.indd 365 365 28/9/07 6:13:08 pm Geyer, Michael (historian) 244 Gilbert, Martin (historian) 221 Glasnost 342 Goebbels, Josef (1897–1945; Nazi propaganda minister) 158, 162, 165–9, 177–8, 180, 182, 185–8, 196, 213, 220, 223, 226–9, 231, 250, 279–80, 293–4, 319 Goerdeler, Carl (1884–1945; Mayor of Leipzig) 210 Goering, Hermann ((1893–1946) Nazi leader 147, 173, 175, 177–8, 180, 182, 198, 200, 225, 227–8, 235, 240–2, 244, 246, 248–50, 262, 269, 288, 292, 297–8, 312, 321, 324 Goldhagen, Daniel (historian) 232, 300 Gollwittzer, Heinz 34 Gorbachev, Mikhail Sergeyevich (1931–; Soviet leader 1985–91) 341–2 Gramont 16 Grand Alliance 325 ‘Great Crash’ (1873) 28 Great Depression 156 ‘Greater German solution’ 3 Green Party 328, 341, 349 Grey, Sir Edward (1862–1933; British Foreign Secretary) 83, 98 Griff Nach der Weltmacht (Grasping at world power) 94 Groener, Wilhelm (1867–1939; soldier and politician) 127, 128, 166 Gropius, Walter Adolph Georg (1883–1969; German architect) 125 Grotewohl,Otto (1894–1964; East German politician) 333 Grynszpan, Hershel (1921–?; Jewish political assassin) 227, 232 Guardian, The (newspaper) 323 Guderian, General 291 Habermas, Jürgen (1929–; German philosopher 341 Habsburg Monarchy 1 Haffner, Sebastian (historian) 29 Haldane, Richard (1856–1928; British War Minister) 62 Halder, Franz (1884–1972; chief of army general staff 1938–42) 271, 277, 305 Halifax, Edward Wood, Lord (1881–1959; British Foreign Secretary) 253, 263 Hamburg 32–3, 44, 283, 290 cholera outbreak in (1892) 33 Hamburger Fremdenblatt 105 Hamburgische Correspondent 107 Hammerstein, Kurt von (1878–1943; Commanderin-Chief of army 1930–4) 172 Hankey, Colonel Sir Maurice (1877–1963; British civil servant) 135 Hanover 8, 11, 14 Harnath, Arvid and Mildred 209 366 Harvard University 330 Haymerle 55 Helgoland (German cruiser) 126 Helmholtz, Herman von 20 Henderson, N. 255 Hess, Rudolf (1894–1987; Hitler’s deputy) 221, 324 Hesse-Darmstadt, grand duchy of 14 Hesse-Cassel, electorate of 11, 14 Hesse, Prince Philip of 283 Heydrich, Reinhard (1904–42; head of Reichssicherheitshauptamt) 201, 227, 271, 281, 297–8, 303, 306–7, 309–13 Hilberg, Raul (historian) 298 Hilderbrand, Claus (historian) 10 Himmler, Heinrich (1900–45; Reichsfuhrer SS) 171–2, 180, 182, 201, 208, 216, 227, 250, 271–2, 288, 290–1, 297, 305, 309–15, 321, 324 Hindenburg, Oskar von Beneckendorf und (soldier and son of president) 172–3 Hindenburg, Paul von Beneckendorf, field marshal (1847–1934; President of Weimar Republic 1925–34) 73, 115, 117, 120, 125, 127, 132, 160–1, 165–6, 171–5, 183–4, 215, 239 Hindenburg Programme 117 Historikerstreit 341 Hitler, Adolf (1889–1945; Führer and Chancellor of Third Reich 1933–45) 126, 140–1, 156, 167, 171–2 anti-semitism 217–31 becomes Chancellor 165–9 destruction of Germany 322 domestic policy 175–215 electoral appeal 159, 162–4 foreign policy 234–63 Holocaust 296–318 Munich Putsch 147–9 origins of political ideology 140–3 rise to leadership of National Socialist Party 144–6 . Second World War 265–92 Hitler Youth 190, 209–10, 279, 292 Hödel, Max 42 Hoess, Rudolf (1900–47; commandant of Auschwitz) 316 Hoffman, General 121 Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurst, Chlodwig (1819–1901; Imperial Chancellor 1894–1900) 70–1, 76 Holocaust, the 288, 296–321 Holstein, Duchy of 6, 130 Holstein, Friedrich von (1837–1909; Foreign Office official) 63, 83, 89 Holy Roman Empire 1, 18 Home Front 116 Honecker, Erich (1912–94; GDR leader 1976– 89) 334, 341, 343, 344 Hore-Belisha 253 mastering modern German history 0333_987101_20_Indx.indd 366 28/9/07 6:13:10 pm Horne, John, historian 111 Hossbach, Friedrich (1894–1980; German colonel, adjutant) 246–8 Hossbach Conference (1937) 245–9 Hossbach Memorandum 248 Hugenberg, Alfred (1865–1951; leader of German Nationalists 1928–33) 156, 159, 172 Hull, Isobel (historian) 63, 66, 83 Hussein, Saddam (1937–2006; president of Iraq 1979–2003) 351 Huttschin 130 Independent Socialists (USPD) 127 Isabella II (1830–1904; Queen of Spain 1836– 68) 15 Italy 238, 243, 245, 254, 284 alliance with Prussia 10 Jameson, L. (1853–1917), Jameson Raid 81 Japan 254, 277 Jarausch, Konrad (historian) 100 Jehovah’s Witnesses 201, 229 Jesuits 41 Jewish Question 146 Jodl, Alfred (1901–46; chief of operations OKW) 268, 295, 305 Johnson, Eric (historian) 223, 225 Joll, James (historian) 104, 109 ‘July Crisis’ 73, 92, 94, 98, 100 ‘July Plot’ 210, 294 Jutland, Battle of 113 Kaiser, David (historian) 80 Kamer, Alan (historian) 111 Kapp, Wolfgang (1858–1922; instigator of Kapp Putsch) 138 Karageorgevich family 86 Keitel, Wilhelm (1882–1946; chief of OKW) 236, 250–1, 288, 324 Kellogg, Frank Billings (1856–1937; US Secretary of State 1925–29) 155 Kellogg–Briand Pact (1928) 155 Kennedy, John Fitzgerald (1917–63; US President 1961–63) 337 Kennedy, Paul (historian) 49, 103, 109–10 Keppler 171 Kerensky, Alexander (1881–70; Russian Prime Minister 1917) 121 Kershaw, Ian (historian) 206, 219, 221, 234 Khrushchev, Nikita (1894–1971; Soviet leader 1953–64) 336, 337 Kiao-Chow 80 Kiderlen-Wachter, Alfred von (1852–1912; Imperial Foreign Minister 1910–13) 90 Kiel 33, 126, Kiel Canal 91 Kiesinger, Kurt (1904–; Chancellor of GFR 1966– 69) 338 Klemperer, Victor (1881–1960; Jewish journalist) 224 Kluck, Alexander von (1846–1934; Prussian general) 111 Knox, MacGregor (historian) 284 Kohl, Helmut (1930–; Chancellor of GFR 1982–98) 328, 340, 344–5, 349–50 Koller, Ernst von (1841–1928; Prussian Minister of Interior) 70–1 Kollwitz, Käthe (1867–1945; German artist) 125 Kölnische Zeitung 52 Königgrätz, Battle of (1866) 12–13, 176 Königsberg 33 Königswarder 12 Kraft durch Freude 197 Kreisau Circle 210 Kremmer, Johann, Dr (1883–1965; German doctor) 317 Krenz, Egon (1937–; GDR politician) 344 Kruger telegram 81 Krupp, Alfred (1812–87; steelmaster) 96, 102 Kubis, Jan (1913–42; Czech soldier) 310 Kulturkampf 21–2, 28, 40, 52 Kursk, Battle of (1943) 286–7 (Kyoto Agreement 346 Lafontaine, Oskar (1943–; Chairman of Social Democratic Party 1995–99) 345, 350 Lammers, Hans (Nazi general) 288 Lander 333 Landerkammer 333 Landsberg, Otto (1869–1957; Socialist minister) 149 Lassalle, Ferdinand (1825–64; Socialist) 24 Lauenburg, duchy of 8, 9 Law against the Overcrowding of German Schools 221 Law for the Prevention of Genetically Diseased Offspring 221, 230–1 Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring 194 Law for the Protection of German Blood 223, 232 Law for the Reduction of Unemployment 193 Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service 221, 230 Law on Malicious Gossip 212 League of Air Sports 241 League of Nations 133, 150, 154–5, 238 League of Red Front-Line Fighters 210 Lebensraum 142, 234, 236, 271 Lehrter 45 Leibermann, Max (1847–1935; German painter) 125 Leipzig 32, 311 Lenin, Vladimir Illich (1870–1924; Russian statesman) 120–1, 151, 275 Leningrad 274, 276 Lentin, Anthony (historian) 135 index 0333_987101_20_Indx.indd 367 367 28/9/07 6:13:12 pm Leo XIII (Pope 1878–1903) 42 Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (prince) 15–17 Lerman, Katherine (historian) 34, 60 Level of Industry Agreement 326 Ley, Robert (1890–1945; Nazi labour leader) 196 ‘Liberal Era’ 35 Liberal Union 25 Libertas 209 Lidice 311 Liebknecht, Karl (1871–1919; Spartacist leader) 128 Liebknecht, Wilhelm (1825–1900; co-founder of Social Democratic Workers’ Party) 24 Lipstadt, Deborah (historian) 224 Lithuania 130, 260, 263 ‘Little German’ Solution 3 Litvinov, Maxim (1876–1952; Russian Commissar for Foreign Affairs) 262 Lloyd George, David (1863–1945; British Prime Minister) 90, 135, 151 Locarno Pact/Conference (1925) 152, 154, 243 Lodz 297, 303 Loewenberg, Peter (historian) 227 London Conference 139 Longerich, Peter (historian) 205, 304–5 Losener, Bernhard (1890–1952) 223, 231 Lubbe, Marinus van der (1910–34; Dutch arsonist) 179–80 Lübeck 32 Ludendorff, Erich (1865–1937; army Quartermaster General 1916–18) 73, 109, 115, 117, 120, 123, 127, 132, 138, 148-9, 176 Luftwaffe 198, 200, 236, 264–5, 269 Lusitania 113 Luther, Hans (1879–1962; chancellor of Weimar Republic 1925–26) 141 Luther, Martin (1483–1546; Protestant reformer) 202 Luxemburg, Rosa (1870–1919; Polish-born Marxist) 128 MacMahon, Patrice de (1808–93; French President 1873–79) 18 Madagascar plan 296, 304, 309 Maidanek 315 Mallmann, Klaus-Michael (historian) 208 Manchuria 82, 255 Mann, Thomas (1875–1955; writer) 105 Mansion House Dinner (1911) 90, 125 Marks, Sally (historian) 135 Marshall, George C. (1880–1959; US soldier) 330 Marshall Plan 329 Marx, Karl (1818–83; Communist theorist) 51 Marx, Wilhelm (1863–1946; chancellor in Weimar Republic) 141 Masella-Aloisi, Gaetano (1826–1902; papal nuncio in Munich) 42 368 Masurian Lakes (1914–15) 115 Mawdsley, Ewan (historian) 287 Max, Prince of Baden (1867–1929; Imperial Chancellor 1918) 127 May Laws 28, 41 Mayer, Arno (historian) 299 Mefo Bill 242 Meinhof, Ulrike (1934–76) 339 Mein Kampf 142–3, 149, 218, 227, 236–7, 250, 315 Meisner, Otto (1909–92; German diplomat) 167, 171 Memel 130 Memelland 260 Merkel, Angela (1954–; Chancellor of Germany 2005–) 328, 350–2 Miklas, Wilhelm (1872–1956; Austrian President 1928–38) 238 military budget (1874) 36 Military Service Act 231 Ministry of Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda 186 Miquel, Johannes von (1828–1901; National Liberal leader and Prussian Finance Minister) 70–1 Modrow, Hans (1928–; SED politician) 345 Molotov,Viacheslav (1890–1986; Soviet Foreign Minister 1939–49, 1953–56) 262, 271 Moltke, Helmuth, Count von (1800–91; Chief of Prussian General Staff 1858–91) 6, 7, 10–13 Moltke, Helmuth, Count von (1848–1916; Chief of Prussian General Staff 1906–14 and nephew of James) 91, 92, 97, 98, 99, 100, 111, 112, 114–15 Moltke, Helmuth James Count von (1907–45; founder of Kreisau Circle and descendant of Molotov) 210–11 Mommsen, Hans 298, Mommsen, Wolfgang 41, 92 Montgomery,Bernard, Viscount (1887–1977; British field marshal) 285 Moroccan Crisis (1911) 79 Müller, Admiral George Alexander von (1854– 1940) 92–3, 104, 108 Müller, Hermann (1876–1931; Chancellor in the Weimar Republic 1920, 1928–30) 141, 160 Müller, Klaus-Jürgen (historian) 194, 242 Munich 32, 129, 222 Conference (1938) 239, 253, 260 Putsch (1923) 147 Mussolini, Benito (1883–1945; Italian dictator) 204, 238–9, 243, 253–4, 261, 264, 269, 283 Nachod, Battle of 12 Napoleon III (1808–73; Emperor of the French 1852-70) 10, 15, 18 Nassau, principality of 14 National Democratic Party (NDP) 338 mastering modern German history 0333_987101_20_Indx.indd 368 28/9/07 6:13:14 pm National Liberal Party 24-25, 152, National Liberals 31, 35–6, 41, 43, 327 National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP) 162–3, 169 National Socialists 129, 327 National Socialist Women’s Section (NSF) 192 naval race 87, 91 Navy League 152 Nazi euthanasia programme 205 Nazi–Soviet Pact 266 Near-Eastern crisis 53-4 Neuhaus, Agnes (1854–1944) 125 Neurath, Konstantin, Freiherr von (1873–1956; Foreign Minister 1932–38) 228, 239, 244–6, 249 New Forum 343 Niemoller, Martin (1892–1984; Protestant pastor) 202–3 ‘Night of the Long Knives’ 185, 212 Nikolsburg, Preliminary Peace of (1866) 13 Noakes, J. and Pridham, G. (historians) 270 Nobiling, Karl (1848–78; German anarchist) 43 Nolte, Ernst (1923–; German historian and philosopher) 341 Normandy landings 284–5 North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) 332 North German Confederation 2 (map), 14, 16 North German Plain 163 Norway 268 Nuremberg Laws (1935) 222–3, 225 Nuremberg Rally 231, 255 Nuremberg Trials 171 186, 189, 235, 246–8, 297, 324 Oder–Western Neisse line 326 O’Dochartaigh, Pol (historian) 334–5, 345 Olympic Games (Berlin,1936) 224, 232 Open Door Policy 165 Operation Anthropoid 310 Operation Barbarossa 271–2, 318 Operation Citadel 286 Operation Sea-Lion 269 Operation Typhoon 274 Orlando, Vittorio (1860–1952; Italian Prime Minister 1917–19) 135 Otto-Peters, Louise (1819–1895; founder of German Women’s Movement) 23 Ottoman Empire (Turkey) 85 Overy, Richard (historian) 263, 270, 286 Pact of Steel (1939) 239, 264, 283 Padfield, Peter (historian) 311 Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) 339 Pan-German League 94 Pan-Slavism 57 Panther, German cruiser 90 Papen, Franz, Freiherr von (1879–1969; Chancellor in Weimar Republic 1932) 141, 160, 166–72, 252 Paris Conference (1919) 140 Pasewalk 142, 145 Pastors’ Emergency League 202 Paul, Gerhard (historian) 208 Paulus, Friedrich, Field Marshal (1890–1957) 277, 285 Peace of Frankfurt am Main 16, 18, 37 Pearl Harbor 277 ‘People’s War’ (Volkskreig) 112 Perestroika 342 Peukert, Detlev (historian) 217 Pflanze, Otto (historian) 54 Pieck, Wilhelm (1876–1960; president of GDR 1949–60) 333 Pipes, Richard (historian) 120 Pius IX (Pope 1846–78) 41–2 Pius XI (Pope 1922–39) 232 Plebiscite Campaign (1934) 185, 212 Plotzensee Prison 211 Poincaré, Raymond (1860–1934; French Prime Minister, various terms) 96, 132 Poland 41, 43, 63, 120, 232–3, 265, 270 Poliakov, Leon (historian) 297 Polish Corridor 261 Polish independence 261 Poncet, François (1887–1978; French politician and diplomat) 258 Port Arthur 80 Potsdam 323–4, 326–7 war council 79, 91 Prague, Peace of (1866) 13 Princip, Gavrilo 93 Progressive Party 24–5, 36, 41, 43 Prokhorovka 287 Protestantism, Protestants 21, 202 Prussia 1, 3, 4, 6 Prussian army 7 Prussian Landtag 41 Prussian Poland 21 Prussian Westphalia 21 Puttkamer, Johanna von (1824–94; wife of Bismarck) 27 Quisling, Vidkun (1887–1945; Norwegian fascist) 268 Raeder, Erich Johann Albert (1876–1960; German admiral) 246, 268 railways 30–1 Rastenburg 293–4 Rath, Ernst von (1909–1938; German diplomat) 227 Rathenau, Walther (1867–1922; industrialist, Foreign Minister in Weimar Republic 1922) 94, 147, 153 index 0333_987101_20_Indx.indd 369 369 28/9/07 6:13:15 pm rearmament 197, 241 recession (1937) 246 Red Army 288 Red Army Faction 339 ‘Red Election’ (1912) 22 Red Flag, The 211 Red Orchestra 209 Rees, Lawrence (historian) 266 Reich Chamber of Architects 189 Reichsbank 31 Reichskristallnacht (1938) 226–7, 232, 300 Reichstag 31, 35–6, 41, 44, 54, 104, 129, 139, 141, 149, 162, 243, 265, 269, 300 fire 177–81, 220, 250 in North German Confederation 15 of German Empire 23 Reichswehr 129, 138, 145, 166, 170, 182, 184, 239, 241 Reinsurance Treaty (1887) 28, 49, 58 Reitlinger, Gerald (historian) 298 Remak, Joachim (historian) 62 Rentenmark 140, 153 Reparations Commission 139 Resettlement Department 304 Retallack, James (historian) 46, 63 reunification (of Germany) 342 Rhineland 21, 130, 139, 279 Pact 154 reoccupation of 243–6, 255 Ribbentrop, Joachim von (1893–1946; Nazi Foreign Minister 1938–45) 171–2, 242, 244, 255, 262 Riefenstahl, Helene Bertha Amalie ‘Leni’ (1902–2003; German film director) 189, 324 Ritter, Gerhard (historian) 110 Robson, Stuart (historian) 62 Rock, William (historian) 256 Rohl, John (historian) 46, 63, 66, 69–70, 76, 92, 100 Rohm, Ernst (1887–1934; SA leader) 146, 172, 181–5 Rome–Berlin Axis 239 Romer, ‘Beppo’ 211 Rommel, Erwin, Field Marshal (1891–1944) 285 Roon, Albrecht, Count von (1893–1979; Prussian War Minister 1959–73) 6, 26 Roosevelt, Franklin Delano (1882–1945; US president 1933–45) 323 Rosenberg, Alfred (1893–1946; Nazi theorist) 146, 149 Ruhr 33, 130, 139–40, 153–4, 159, 214 occupation of 147, 153 Russell, W. H. (1821–1907; British journalist) 12 Russia 20 Saar 136 Saarland 33, 130, 137, 139 Sachsenhausen 202 370 Sakharov, Andrei (1921–1989; Soviet physicist) 342 Salomon, Alice (1872–1948; German feminist) 125 Sammlungspolitik 71 Samoan Islands 80 Samsonov, Aleksander Vasilyevich (1859–1914; Russian general) 115 San Stefano Treaty 53–4 Sarajevo 93 Saxony 8, 11, 12, 33 Scandanavia 267 Schacht, Hjalmar (1877–1970; financial expert) 228, 242 Schauble, Wolfgang (1942–; Minister of Interior) 349 Scheidemann, Philipp (1865–1939; Chancellor in Weimar Republic 1919) 127, 129, 141 Schenkel, Daniel (1813–85; Swiss theologian) 21– 2 Scheubner-Richter, Ludwig Maximilian Erwin von (1884–1923; early member of Nazi Party) 149 Schiller, Karl (1911–94; federal Finance Minister) 339 Schleicher, Kurt von (1882–1934; Chancellor in Weimar Republic 1932) 160–1, 166, 169–72, 184, 240–1 Schleswig 6, 130 Schleswig-Holstein, duchy of 5, 8–9, 14, 21, 109, 163–5 Schlieffen, Alfred, Count von (1833–1913; Chief of Army General Staff 1891–1906) 98, 109 Schlieffen Plan 109 Schliemann, Heinrich (1822–90; archaeologist) 74 Schmidt, Helmut (1918–; Chancellor of GFR 1974– 82) 328, 339–41 Scholl, Hans (1918–43) and Sophie (1921–43; members of White Rose Resistance) 210 Schröder, Gerhard (1944–; German Chancellor 1998–2005) 328, 346, 349–51 Schroeder, Kurt von 171 Schulze-Boyen, Harro 209 Schumacher, Kurt (1895–1953; SPD leader 1946– 53) 327 Schuschnigg, Kurt (1897–1977; Austrian Chancellor 1934–38) 238, 251–2 Schutzstaffel 312 see also SS Schwarz, Meier (historian) 227 Second Moroccan Crisis 89–91 Second World War 265–95 Secret Service (SD) 281 Sedan, Battle of (1870) 15, 18, 30, 49 Seldte, Franz (1882–1947; founder of Stahlhelm) 159 Serbia 86, 94, 96 Seyss-Inquart, Arthur (Nazi official) 251–2 Shirer, William (historian) 243 mastering modern German history 0333_987101_20_Indx.indd 370 28/9/07 6:13:17 pm Shore, Zachary (historian) 244 Showalter, Dennis (historian) 10 Siege Laws (1871) 104 Siemens (engineering company) 65, 102 Siemens, Werner von (1816–92; industrialist) 29 Silesia 21, 265 Simplicissimus 105 Sixth German Army 277 Skalitz, Battle of 12 Sobibor 315 Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) 22, 24–5, 38, 42, 91, 161, 171, 180, 202, 211–12 Social Democratic Workers’ Party 24 Socialist Unity Party (SED) 327 Socialist Youth League 107 Socialists 36, 43, 63 social welfare legislation 36 Somme, Battle of the (1916) 116, 117, 122 SOPADE (SPD in exile) 213–14 South Africa 81 South Tyrol 136 Spanish Civil War (1936–39) 245 Spanish-American War (1898) 80 Spartacists 127–8 Speer, Albert (1905–81; Nazi minister of munitions and armament) 186, 189, 197, 213, 290, 293 Spicheren, Battle of 15 Spiegel, Der 338, 347 SS 226–28, 232, 250, 267, 287, 296, 309, 311, 314 see also Schutzstaffel Stahlhelm 159 Stalin, Josef (1879–1953; Soviet leader 1941–53) 246, 261–2, 268, 272–3, 323, 325, 333 Stalingrad 276, 286–7 Stasi 343 Sterilisation Law 205 Stauffenberg, Claus von (1907–44; German army officer and bomb plotter) 294 Stoiber, Edmund (1941–; German politician) 350–1 Storm Detachments (SA) 146–7, 166–7, 181–2, 226, 240 Strasser, Gregor (1892–1934; prominent Nazi) 163, 169–71, 181 Streicher, Julius (prominent Nazi) 147, 217, 220 Streit, Christian (historian) 299 Stresa 239 Stresemann, Gustav (1878–1929; Foreign Minister in Weimar Republic) 125, 141, 150, 152–3, 156, 159, 336 Stuart-Wortley, Edward (1857–1934; English soldier) 72 Subversion Bill (1894) 71 Sudetenland 252–3, 256–7, 261 Supreme War Office 117 Surkov, Alexsei (Russian poet) 276 Sussex Pledge 113 swing groups 209 Syllabus errorum of 1864 40 Tannenberg, Battle of (1914) 115, 176 Tariff Act (1879) 64 Taylor, A. J. P. (historian) 10, 132 Taylor Thesis 248 Thalman, Ernst (1886–1944; communist leader) 161, 166 Theatre Law 189 Third Reich 215 Thompson, A. J. (historian) 132 Three Emperors’ Agreement 28 Three Emperors’ Alliance (1881) 55–6 Three Emperors’ League (1873) 28, 51, 53–4, 56 Thuringer, German cruiser 126 Tirpitz, Alfred von (1849–1930; Imperial Secretary of State for Navy) 87, 91, 113 Tooze, Adam (historian) 195,197, 240, 244 Trautenau, Battle of (1866) 12 Treaty of Alliance (1939) 264 Treaty of Brussels (1948) 331 Treaty of London (1852) 8, 98 Treaty of Neutrality (1926) 262 Treaty of Rapallo (1922) 140, 151 Treaty of Vienna (1864) 8 Treblinka 297, 315 Tripartite Pact (1940) 277 Triple Alliance (1882) 28, 51, 56–8, 84, 86, 94 Triple Entente (1907) 81, 85–6, 89 Trittin, Jurgen (1954–; federal Minister for the Environment 1998–2005) 350 Triumph of the Will 189, 324 Trotsky, Leon (1879–1940; Russian revolutionary) 120–1 Truman Doctrine 329 Truman, Harry S (1884–1972; US president 1945– 53) 325 Turkey 53–4 ‘turnip winter’ 118 Twain, Mark (Samuel Langhorne Clemens) (1835– 1910; US writer) 20 Ukraine 264, 273–4 Ulam, Adam B. (historian) 121 Ulbricht, Walter (1893–1973; communist leader in GDR) 327, 333–4, 337 Ulm 31 Unification Treaty 345 USA 274 Upper Silesia 33, 139 Vatican Council (1870) 40 Venetia 10 Verdun 113 Versailles 120, 129, 138 Treaty (1919) 130, 136, 139, 150, 152, 241–2, 250, 254 index 0333_987101_20_Indx.indd 371 371 28/9/07 6:13:19 pm Vichy 269 Vienna peace settlement 1, 2 (map) Vogel, Hans-Jochen (1881–1945; German politician) 341 Völkischer Beobachter 146 Volksempfanger 189,196 Volksgemeinschaft 196, 214, 218 Volkskammer 333, 345 Volkswagen (VW; car) 196–7 Wagner, Walter (?–1945, notary) 223 Waldersee, Alfred, Count von (1832–1904; Chief of Army General Staff 1888–91) 71, 82 Wall Street Crash 155–6, 158, 160 Wannsee Conference (1942) 297, 299, 306–7, 311, 320 War Food Office 116 ‘War in Sight’ Crisis (1875) 28, 52, 53, War with Austria (1866) Warsaw 291, 304 Pact (1955) 332, 336 Weber, Max (1864–1920; sociologist) 207 Wehler, Hanz-Ulrich (historian) 4, 14, 34, 69–70 Wehrmacht 250, 260, 267, 287 Weimar Republic (1919–23) 125 Weizsacker, Ernst Freiherr von (1882–1951; Secretary of State, Foreign Office 1938– 45) 262 Wels, Otto (1873-1939; socialist politician) 180 Weltpolitik 69, 79–80 Western Front 111 White Rose (resistance group) 210 Wilhelm I (1861–88; King of Prussia and German Emperor 1871–88) 4, 7, 10, 13, 14, 18, 25–28, 44–5, 48, 60 Wilhelm II (1888–1918; King of Prussia and 372 German Emperor 1888–1918) 28, 45–6, 60, 67, 78, 104, 111–12, 113, 117, 123, 127, 132, 141 Wilhelmine Germany 62, 126 Wilhelmine New Course 58 Wilhelmshaven 126 Wilmot, Eric (historian) 31 Wilson, Woodrow (1856-1924; US President 1913–21) 113, 114, 132–3, 135–6, 153 Windthorst, Ludwig (1812-91; Centre Party leader) 41 Winter Help 196 Winter Olympics (Garmisch-Partenkirchen) 224 Winter, Jay (historian) 103, 106 Wirth, Joseph (1879–1956; Chancellor in Weimar Republic 1921–2) 139, 141 Wissembourg 15 Wohltat, Helmut (head of Four-Year Plan) 262 Wolf ’s Lair 288, 289, 291, 294 Württemburg 14, 15, 21 Wyneken, Gustav (1875–1964; educational reformer) 75 Yalta 323–5 Yangtze Agreement 82 Yergin, Daniel (historian) 323 Yom Kippur War (1973) 339 Young German Order 209 Young, Owen (1874–1962; US banker), Young Plan (1929) 155, 156, 159, 161 Zabern incident (1913) 73–4 Zegota 297 Ziemann, Benjamin (writer) 109 Zollverein 1, 4, 14, 31, 35 Zollparlament 14 Zuber, Terence (historian) 110 Zuchmayer, Carl (writer) 105 Zyklon B 317 mastering modern German history 0333_987101_20_Indx.indd 372 28/9/07 6:13:20 pm