INCREASING GRADUATION RATES OF
COLLEGE FOOTBALL PLAYERS
____________
A Thesis
Presented
to the Faculty of
California State University, Chico
____________
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Science
in
Social Science
____________
by
Lisa Bernal-Wood
Fall 2014
INCREASING GRADUATION RATES OF
COLLEGE FOOTBALL PLAYERS
A Thesis
by
Lisa Bernal-Wood
Fall 2014
APPROVED BY THE DEAN OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
AND VICE PROVOST FOR RESEARCH:
_________________________________
Eun K. Park, Ph.D.
APPROVED BY THE GRADUATE ADVISORY COMMITTEE:
_____________________________
Lyndall Ellingson, Ph.D.
Graduate Coordinator
_________________________________
Charles G. Zartman, Jr., Ph.D., Chair
_________________________________
Seema Sehrawat, Ph.D.
DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to my family (dad, mom, sister, and three brothers);
thank you for making me who I am. My son, Mataese, and my husband, Bobby - thank
you for being my foundation, inspiration, and motivation. Having you two by my side
means the world to me. Love you guys.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is important that I thank the people who helped me throughout my thesis
writing process.
First, I want to thank God. I can do all things through him who strengthens
me.
Dr. Charles Zartman, committee chair, for your friendly encouragement,
guidance, continuous support and time. I really appreciate all of your help during this
process from beginning to end. Thank you for your patience, knowledge and serving as
my chair. I am so blessed to be able to finish my graduate studies experience with you;
Dr. Seema Sehrawat, committee member, for your friendship, support, time and
assistance in the final writing of my thesis. Both of you helped me accomplish my thesis
goals – thank you so much.
Dr. Beverly Philipp, thank you for your advice and support. Love you sis.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
Dedication ..................................................................................................................
iii
Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................
iv
List of Tables .............................................................................................................
vii
List of Figures ............................................................................................................
viii
Abstract ......................................................................................................................
ix
CHAPTER
I.
II.
III.
Introduction .................................................................................................
1
Division I Collegiate Football ............................................................
Statement of Problem .........................................................................
Introduction of the Study ...................................................................
Methodology ......................................................................................
Questions to be Answered .................................................................
Definition of Terms............................................................................
1
3
6
7
8
9
Literature Review........................................................................................
12
Division I Student Athlete Football Players ......................................
Recruitment ........................................................................................
Athlete vs. Non-Athlete .....................................................................
Graduation Rates ................................................................................
At-Risk Student Athletes ...................................................................
Retention Strategies ...........................................................................
Student Athlete Academic Support ....................................................
Transferring to Improve Graduation Rates ........................................
12
15
17
21
26
27
28
34
Methodology ...............................................................................................
36
Population or Sample .........................................................................
Treatment ...........................................................................................
Data Analysis Procedures ..................................................................
37
38
38
v
CHAPTER
IV.
PAGE
Results .........................................................................................................
39
Discussion of Findings.......................................................................
Limitations to the Study .....................................................................
57
58
Summary .....................................................................................................
59
Recommendations for Further Research (Researcher) ......................
Recommendations for Further Research (Institution)........................
Conclusions ........................................................................................
64
64
65
References ..................................................................................................................
67
V.
Appendices
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Success Academy Student-Athlete Success Program Brochure .................
Student Athlete Success Program (SASP) Tutor Verification ....................
Athlete Timesheet Report ...........................................................................
Top 5 Student Athlete Academic Program Descriptions ............................
Academic Monitoring .................................................................................
vi
74
77
79
81
96
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
PAGE
1. 2006 Freshman-Cohort Graduation Rates: Overall Division I ........................
23
2. 2006 Freshman-Cohort Graduation Rates: Overall Division I ........................
23
3. 2006 Freshman-Cohort Graduation Rates: Overall Division I
Make Student by Sport ..............................................................................
25
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE
PAGE
1. Weekly Schedule .............................................................................................
19
2. Pac-12 GSR and FGR Compared ....................................................................
40
3. Pac-12 GSR .....................................................................................................
41
4. Pac-12 GSR top 5 Institutions .........................................................................
43
5. Pac 12 Student Athlete Program Resources ....................................................
50
6. Pac-12 Common Student Athlete Program Resources ....................................
52
viii
ABSTRACT
INCREASING GRADUATION RATES OF
COLLEGE FOOTBALL PLAYERS
by
Lisa Bernal-Wood
Master of Science in Social Science
California State University, Chico
Fall 2014
Student athletes, especially those who play in high revenue sports like football
have to balance the demand of their athletic requirements without jeopardizing their
academics. An athletic scholarship does not guarantee a degree, which can be seen in
student athlete graduation rates. It is great to see student athletes go to school, but it
would be even better if their schooling culminates with a degree in their hand.
The study uses a combination of quantitative and qualitative data. First I used
quantitative data from the NCAA to investigate Pac-12 graduation success rates.
Specifically, the study explored the graduation success rates by comparing student
athletes and non-athletes, female and male student athletes, then examining individual
sports in comparison to football. From this data we will be able to target the top 5 Pac-12
football teams with the highest graduation rates. With the identified top 5 teams,
qualitative data was collected from program information on websites and athletic
handbooks. This data was used to find consistencies within the top 5 programs and with
this, a master template of what is needed to produce a successful student athlete success
program was created.
The template could be used by institutions to offer more academic support for
their student athletes comprised of resources currently used at Pac-12 institutions with
successful graduation rates. The template I created is described in Chapter IV of my
thesis.
I hope that my research is able to help institutions, administration, coaches
and students understand the need for a student athlete academic support program and
what resources should be part of that student athlete academic support program.
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Division I Collegiate Football
On Monday, January 6, 2014 #1 ranked Florida State Seminoles and the #2
ranked Auburn Tigers played in the Vizio BCS (Bowl Championship Series) National
Championship game. A clash of the two dominant Division I (DI) collegiate football
giants. Playing before a crowd of almost 95,000 people, the game was played in the Rose
Bowl Stadium in Pasadena, California. It was estimated that over 26,000,000 people
watched Florida State make a comeback during the second half to beat Auburn 34-31.
Florida State’s win ended the SEC’s (Southeastern Conference) national championship
streak (Entertainment and Sports Program Network [ESPN], 2014). What a game – but at
what cost?
College football is big money – a high revenue sport especially at the highest
college level, Division I (DI) football. Revenue in the millions per school from this single
sport for many four year institutions comes from ticket sales, donations, sponsors,
television contracts for games played by student athletes who receive no compensation
for their participation in football. With so much money generated off the sweat and hard
work of these young student athlete football players, will they get the same in return from
their schools through academics and an earned degree?
1
2
As amateurs, student athletes are compensated with a free education and the
ability to showcase their talents for a chance to play professionally. Student athletes are
told – they are a student first, athlete second. The majority of student athletes will not go
on to play professionally. The NCAA states that approximately 6.5% of high school
football players will play NCAA football at a four year institution, and approximately on
1.6% of NCAA football players will move on to get drafted by the NFL. With
approximately less than 2% of all football players being able to play professionally after
college, an education and opportunity for a degree is invaluable and offers career
preparation. Winning can bring in higher revenues for schools but not high grade point
averages and graduation rates. The challenge is, can college football players really
balance the high demand of their athletic requirements without jeopardizing their grades,
academic abilities, and possible career opportunities earned with a college degree.
Sports have become an important part of our culture as Americans (Carol,
2007). As popularity of the sport continues to grow, so does the want to participate in the
sport. Children begin playing football as early as pre-teen. Like stated above, some
children will be lucky enough to continue playing into college, and maybe in the National
Football League (NFL). Those student athletes with successful college football careers
and records are more likely to become prospective NFL players, but this is not
guaranteed (Hendricks, DeBrock, & Koenker, 2003). Again, only a small portion of high
school players will go on to play at a DI (Division 1) on full scholarship and even fewer
college football players will make it into the NFL (National Collegiate Athletic
Association [NCAA], 2013), but football helps to foster more than just NFL dreams.
3
Football has become a launching pad to increase college ambition
(DeMeulenaere, 2010), which is the good thing. All students have their own reasons for
seeking a college education, football can be one of those reasons for students either as a
fan or as a student athlete with football ambitions. It is great to see student athletes go to
school, but it would be even better if their schooling culminates with a degree in their
hand.
Statement of Problem
What a great combination, football and academics. College football players
can not only continue to grow physically and mentally in the game of football, but also
earn a degree or degrees in the process. So what is the problem? The problem is that
college football players are being used for their physical attributes on the gridiron but are
being ignored in the classroom. It is viewed as student athlete exploitation at the expense
of the student’s academic career (Singer, 2008). So much emphasis and time is geared
towards winning and growing physically and mentally in the sport – practice, lifting,
team meetings, etc. But is the same amount of emphasis and time geared towards player’s
academic success? Student athletes are more likely to struggle academically due lack of
time (Aries, McCarthy, Salovey, & Mahzarin, 2004). Unfortunately, a winning football
record and statistics do not also correlate to academic success of the players (Mangold,
Bean, & Adams, 2003).
Graduation rates of football student-athletes are usually lower than the
graduation rates of other student-athletes and non-athlete male students (Horton, 2009).
NCAA (2014) shows the average graduation rate of Pac-12 football players from the
4
2006 cohort year was less than 68%. One factor for low graduation rates may also be due
to “special admits”. In order to get better players, coaches will help students get
acceptance into the school as a partial-qualifier which means the student-athlete did not
meet the NCAA requirements as a freshman and/or the student-athlete did not meet the
school’s admission requirements. These partial qualifiers are usually labelled as at-risk
students.
Although evidence shows that graduation rates and transfer rates have
increased in the last few years of student athletes, but when you look specifically at
football, the numbers are still too low to be praised. The federally mandated reported
graduation rates by the NCAA, due to its student athlete population limitations, results
are not accurate to the true student athlete population (Ferris, Finster, McDonald, 2003).
When we dissect the published numbers specific for football, we will see that numbers
are not as high as we might have thought (Matheson, 2007).
There is such a large emphasis on the athletic outcomes that student athlete
academics are easily overlooked (Aries et al., 2004). First, many student athlete football
players aspire to play professionally; they dedicate more time to training than academics
resulting in higher failure rates (Harmon, 2010). Second, student athletes can put athletics
first by choosing courses because it fits their sport schedule versus courses that fit their
career plan. Third, studies have shown the importance of student athlete support can
prevent feelings of isolation and depression which lead to low academic success
(Carodine, Almond, & Gratto, 2001). Outside of football, student athletes still have to
worry about everyday stressors too. Matheson (2007) explains that graduation rates can
be affected by various everyday factors such as working part-time, transferring schools,
5
taking time off for travel, family emergencies, full-time work, or removal due to grades.
Athlete transfer-rate and graduation rates at the two year-level are not tracked. There is
no federal requirement or funding for two-year associations such as the National Junior
College Athletic Association (NJCAA) or California Community College Athletic
Association (CCCAA) to track graduation rates, transfer rates, etc., like the NCAA. This
leaves me with only the NCAA information of DI, II, and III schools and universities.
Although the statistics are coming from a DI, it does not mean the ultimate template for
student athlete programs cannot be used at a lower level.
Intercollegiate football programs have many resemblances, but more
differences can be seen between the numerous divisions. It is these differences that can
affect student athlete success such as:
1. Travel time. DI schools have larger conferences when compared to smaller
divisions and two-year institutions thus resulting in more travel time and/or days for DI
players. This can result in less study time, more missed classes, etc., for DI players.
2. Scholarships. The various divisions offer different types of scholarships. DI is
most likely to offer full scholarships, where smaller divisions like DII offer full and
partial scholarships. DIII – don’t offer scholarships. Two-year institutions- some are able
to offer scholarships, but in California, scholarships are not allowed. Students without a
scholarship or with a partial scholarship might have to work part-time during the
scholastic year and in the summer to make ends meet.
3. Program funding. DIs can generate millions of dollars from high-revenue sports
such as football, but two-year institutions hardly ever generate any revue from sports
(Horton, 2009). This means that the bigger the program and school, the more funding is
6
available to create resources for the student athletes, but it does not mean that these type
of programs do not exist at the two-year level. Full support of campus administration
with the many demands from Athletics, faculty and students it was added to their
annually budgeted funds. Even at the two-year level, athletic programs that are high
profile are more likely the program implementation.
4. Draft. You have to be out of college for at least three years to enter/declare for
the draft. This of course can alter graduation rates as some students may decide to leave
college to play professionally before they graduate.
Introduction of the Study
This researcher grew up in a football family. My husband started his football
career at a junior college and went on to transfer to a DI college on a full-football
scholarship. After school, he continued his passion for football through coaching. He
coached at a Division II (DII) four year for a few years but decided to go back to
coaching at his Alma Matter (Butte Community College) which he viewed as a better fit.
He has now been coaching football for almost ten years. My husband also served as the
supervisor for our campus’s Student Athlete Success Program. I have seen first-hand the
effect such a program has on student athletes. I have also had the luxury of watching his
program grow and change to adapt to his ever changing student athlete population.
This researcher also has had friends and family members that have
played/currently play at all levels collegiate football. My little brother is currently playing
center at a two-year institution. My best friend also played at the DI level on a fullfootball scholarship, my younger cousin recently graduated from a DI institution. He was
7
on a full-football scholarship in the Pacific 12 Conference (Pac-12), and is currently
trying to find a home with a NFL team.
As a football wife, this researcher also gets pulled into this football world by
helping my husband and his team with recruitment, tutoring, campus visits, etc. We want
our student athletes to succeed in and out of the classroom. It is hard to see talented youth
be turned away from their football dreams, losing their football scholarship, or being
unable to graduate after their eligibility has expired because they do not have the grades.
At the four-year level, when their eligibility expires, many football players are unable to
complete their degree and/or drop out. Somehow, student athletes are being lost in the
process of grades and games. This researcher wanted to study ways to increase student
athlete football graduation rates at the DI level.
Studies have shown that student athletes who participate in high revenue
sports which include football had lower cognitive outcomes and learning benefits than
their non-athlete male cohorts, and even their fellow female athletes (Howard-Hamilton,
& Sina, 2001). This special student population will dedicate so much time to their sport,
it is their academics that will take a back seat to the sport, and it is their academic career
that pays the price (Harmon, 2010). Student athlete success (athletically and
academically) cannot solely lie on the shoulders of the coach and athlete, but on the
institution as a whole (Horton, 2009).
Methodology
This researcher will conduct the data collection for this study by pulling the
graduation rates from DI institutions available on the NCAA website – comparing student
8
athletes and non-athletes, then examining individual sports. At the DI level of collegiate
sports, it is more likely that we are able to find strong academic support for athletes
because they have larger programs, allocate more athletic scholarships, and have higher
enrollment rates and more funding than smaller DIII or two year institutions (Matheson,
2007).
This data will target only the top 5, Pac-12 institutions. Again, the schools
used in this study will only be those with the highest graduation rates resulting in a
composition of the most elite of student athlete success programs.
An investigation of these top 5 schools will study the various resources
offered to student athlete success programs. Qualitative data will be collected from
program information on websites and available literature. With the consistencies gathered
from the top 5 programs, a master template of what is needed to produce a successful
student athlete success program will be created. The template will be able to be used at
the any college level-two or four-year institutions.
Questions to be Answered
Student athletes are a special population. For sports such as football that
consume a lot of the athlete’s time, it is important that we offer the correct type of
academic support just as schools offer athletic support. Student athlete football players
will spend multiple hours on their sport and their schedule is catered to their sport.
Because of this demanding schedule, this student population is in need of academic
support. Academic support should help students to keep up with their academics and get
good grades to ensure graduation.
9
The main question is: How can we improve graduation rates for DI football
players? All football programs should have a student athlete academic support program –
the correct academic support would generate better student athlete grades and follow
through, ultimately ending with higher graduation rates.
My study will produce a student athlete academic support program template
that is easy to follow for two and four-year institutions that will help improve graduation
rates of their football players. The template should be successful because the template
was mirrored to match other successful DI institutions with the highest graduation rates.
Definition of Terms
Academically Eligible
Academic standards that student athletes must meet in order to participate in
collegiate sports, an NCAA requirement (NCAA.org, 2014).
Amateurism
All participating Division I and II student-athletes must be certified as an
amateur student-athlete. Amateurism status means no current participation, tryouts,
practice or play with professional teams, cannot receive salary for participating in sports,
no acceptance of prize money, no acceptance of benefits or agreement from an agent or
prospective agent, no participation in organized sports competitions, no receipt of
financial assistance based on athletic skills or participation (NCAA.org, 2014).
Division I
As part of the NCAA, it is the highest competition level that a student athlete
can participate in, a four year institution. Division differences mostly depend on number
10
of overall sports, how many sports are available to men and women, and how many
athletes or teams the school has for each sport. Division I must meet attendance
requirements for football and basketball (NCAA.org, 2014).
Division I Qualifier
As a qualifier, a student athlete is eligible to practice and compete during your
first year of college, receive an athletic scholarship during your first year of college, play
four seasons in your sport if you maintain academic eligibility from year to year
(NCAA.org, 2014).
Eligibility
Transfers from two-year colleges must have their academic and amateur status
certified, just as incoming freshmen do in order to participate in collegiate athletics
(NCAA.org, 2014).
Five-year Clock
Division I student-athletes have five calendar years from the first enrollment
at a two- or four-year school to compete four seasons of competition (NCAA.org, 2014).
Full Scholarship
Full financial aid given to a student athlete for tuition and fees, room, board,
and required course related books. This aid does not need to be paid back. A scholarship
is guaranteed at a minimum of one academic year. Division I colleges and universities are
permitted to offer multi-year scholarships (NCAA.org, 2014).
Graduation Success Rate (GSR)
NCAA required tracking of graduation rates of Division I, II, or III level
colleges of all sports teams (NCAA.org, 2014).
11
NCAA
National Collegiate Athletic Association. The regulating body of athletics for
universities (NCAA.org, 2014).
Partial Scholarship
Partial financial aid given to a student athlete for tuition and fees, room,
board, and required course related books. This aid does not need to be paid back. A
partial scholarship is guaranteed at a minimum of one academic year. Division I colleges
and universities are permitted to offer multi-year scholarships (NCAA.org, 2014).
Student Athlete
A college student who receives athletic aid (scholarship), who practices and
competes in college athletics (NCAA.org, 2014).
Transfer Student
A student who transfers from any collegiate institution after having met any
one of the conditions set forth in NCAA Bylaw 14.5.2 (2014, NCAA.org).
Two-year Institution
Institution of higher learning that offers two years of study post high school.
Students complete general education requirements (equivalent to freshman or
sophomore), certificates or receive an associate degree. These institutions are more
affordable when compared to four year institutions (Melguizo, Kienzl, & Alfonso, 2011).
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
Division I Student Athlete Football Players
Going to college can be difficult – having to juggle a full academic schedule,
homework, social activities on and off campus, finances, family life/relationships, living
on your own for the first time, adapting to a new environment (classes, campus, dorm
life, etc.), career searching just to name a few (Hulsey, 2012). From just those few
examples, you can see that college students live very busy lives, but what if you added
playing football at the highest college level to the picture? The life of a student athlete
football player is rewarding, but is also can be very demanding and stressful (Lu, Hsu,
Chan, Cheen & Kao, 2012). This literature review will be examining DI student athlete
football player academic success.
This literature review will look at DI football player graduation rates and the
various types of academic support that can be/should be not only available but required
participation for student athletes to retain and/or increase academic eligibility and success
beginning with recruitment and ending with graduation.
One of the rewards of being a student athlete is the ability to have your tuition
and other college expenses waived with an athletic scholarship. Those who accept this
type of aide are called student athletes. Student athletes can be offered full or partial
12
13
scholarship in exchange for participation in a collegiate sport(s). Scholarships can include
tuition payment, room and board, meal plan, book vouchers, etc. (NCAA.org, 2014).
Scholarships are also beneficial to the schools because they encourage student athletes to
enroll and participate in sports there; scholarships are a big part of recruitment (Hagedorn
& Horton, 2009). Not all schools can offer scholarships. DIII and certain two-year
institutions do not offer scholarships. For example, in the State of California, no athletic
scholarships at two-year institutions are offered.
Football student athletes have the same academic requirements as non-athlete
students but they also have the added requirements for their sport, the combination can be
stressful and it not easy to balance. These student athletes are expected to perform on the
field and in the classroom by various people which can include self-expectations,
coaches, administration, faculty, family, friends and even fans – people they have never
met (Gayles, 2009). The time demands of the sport leave the student athlete fatigued, this
cannot be ignored; at times, athlete injuries and exhaustion from sport participation can
make it hard to focus on academics (Sharp & Sheilley, 2008). Aries (2004) also explains
that student athletes who are highly committed to their sport have lower academic selfperceptions leaving them with an academic disadvantage.
Trends are showing lower transfer and graduation rates at the bachelorette
level which is less than fifty percent (Melguizo et al., 2011). Graduation rates and
academic success at the four-year level are even lower for student athletes especially
student athletes in basketball and football programs (Horton, 2009):
One of the most pressing issues facing American universities is the number of
students who fail to graduate. Low graduation rates cost universities scarce
resources; weaken the ability to meet educational objectives; and are perceived to
14
reflect the university’s ability to meet the educational, social, and emotional needs
of students. (Mangold et al., 2003, p. 540)
Academic success can be difficult for student athlete football players due to
the demands on the student athlete. Outside of class and their academic responsibilities,
football players have the burden of playing in games, traveling for games, daily practice,
daily position meetings, rigorous weight training, meeting grade requirements,
completing required study table hours, possible injuries/injury prevention/injury
recovery, stressors of the constant need to win, fatigue, media attention, and others
(Ferris et al., 2004). Due to the complexity of this student athlete life and the intricacy of
collegiate football there are regulating government bodies in place. Student athletes in a
high profile sport like football take extra provisions for wins, titles, championships, and
bowl games (Sharp et al., 2008). Academic awards are minimal in comparison:
Recent and past incidences of low graduation rates, particularly for football and
men’s basketball, gross misconduct, academic scandals, and student athletes leaving
higher education institutions in poor academic standing have eroded the public’s
confidence concerning the educational benefits of participation in sports at the
college level. Thus, finding the proper balance between intercollegiate athletics and
the goals of higher education so that student athletes experience positive gains in
student learning and personal development has been an enigma unsolved by
institutions of higher education. (Gayles & Hu, 2009, p. 315)
It is important that governing bodies are in place to ensure that studentathletes are not being exploited for only their physical abilities on the field but that
student athletes are on their way to receiving a degree. Student athletes have to
continuously be making degree progress to maintain eligibility (Gabriel, 2005).
Continuous reforms are made to ensure that student athletes are performing academically
(Storch & Ohlson, 2009). Graduation rates are a way that the Federal Government
measures academic success of a program (NCAA, 2014). As academic requirements have
15
changed needing to increase academic success of student athletes, schools have
responded by providing more academic support for student athletes (Gayles, 2009).
All collegiate sports are regulated by an association. The associations are
comprised of committee members who are faculty, administration, and higher education
professionals (NCAA, 2013). For four-year institutions, such as DI schools there are the
National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) or the National Association of
Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA). For-two year institutions there are the National Junior
College Athletic Association (NJCAA). For California two year institutions there is The
California Community College Athletic Association (CCCAA).
These different associations govern all aspects of athletic programs for student
athletes at the college level. They provide conformity, rules and standards for schools,
administration and student athletes to follow. Depending on your level of competition,
student athletes are required to meet all eligibility requirements if they want to participate
in collegiate sports. Non-compliance can result in probation and loss of scholarship.
Recruitment
Student athletes can be recruited out of high school or from a two-year
institution. Colleges can spend numerous hours and dollars on recruiting players. The
recruitment process can be long and disappointing if the student athlete does not decide to
attend; or rewarding if the student athlete does attend. Sometimes even if the student
athlete does decide to attend and play, there can still be disappointment if the student
athlete does not perform to the expectations of the coach, is sidelined by injury, or are not
able to stay academically eligible.
16
If students don’t have the grades or athletic skills to play at the four-year
level, they can start at a two-year institution and hope to transfer to a four-year. A twoyear institution can provide entryway for all students to postsecondary education and also
by allowing student athletes time to develop their academic and athletic skills (Horton,
2009). These types of student athletes are called transfer students.
DI schools are eager to get the best football players for their school because a
winning team can bring in a lot of revenue, for some schools this can be in the millions
(Bricker & Hansen, 2013). Examples can be from bowl games, merchandise sales,
television endorsements, etc. (Upthegrove, Roscigno & Charles, 1999).
After contact has been made, depending on the coach’s evaluation of the
player the act of recruitment will begin. Student athlete school evaluations for accepting a
scholarships includes facilities, what offense is ran (this is football specific), what
educational resources are available, conference, winning record, alumni, media coverage
at games, living arrangements, financial expectations (Bricker et al., 2013). Student
athletes can commit to coming verbally, but it is not until they sign their National Letter
of Intent that the commitment becomes binding.
To be in compliance with NCAA players cannot profit from the sport they
play even if their name, likeliness, photo, videos, etc. are being sold for a profit
(LaVerne, 2012). Schools can make a lot of money from athletic events, but due to
association regulations, student athletes cannot profit from the sport. This is possible
under the disguise of the amateurism rule basically stating the student cannot profit due to
the fact that student athletes motivation for participation in their sport is their education
(LaVerne, 2012).
17
Recruitment is an art. Not all coaches are good at this. The most important
part in getting a player to commit is building a rapport with the potential player. The
player has to feel comfortable with the coach who they are going to be spending time
with and be able to trust and feel good about making their decision.
Sometimes athletes don’t live up to the coach’s expectations so there is
opportunity to leave a program. Students can leave because they are unhappy or they can
be asked to leave a program. Coaches or administration also can ask players to leave for
different reasons such as poor athletic performance, violation of the school’s code of
conduct, injuries, academic ineligibility, however the most common reason players
choose to leave is if they are not getting enough playing time or they are unhappy with
their role on the team (Bricker et al., 2013).
Athlete vs. Non-Athlete
Student athletes have their own specific needs and challenges that are unlike
those who are non-athletes. Research shows that student athletes who participate in over
ten hours of sports a week do not do as well academically as non-athletes because they
spend so much time and dedication to their sport (Aries et al., 2004). In high profile
sports like football, athletes academically performed higher failure rates than others
(Shulman & Bowen, 2001). It is important to try to understand what works and what
doesn’t work for student athletes as they juggle athletics and academics.
An example of a day in the life of an in season DI football player begins with
workouts beginning at 5:30am, class from 9:00am-2:00pm, treatment before practice,
position meeting from 2:00pm-3:00pm, and practice from 3:00pm-6:00pm then
18
mandatory study table from 6:00pm-8:00pm, then players go home to finish homework.
This is just an example because player schedules can vary if they are injured – they need
more treatment, some players may need to life longer than the required minimum. Game
days can vary; usually games are on Friday or Saturday. If it is an away game, depending
on what time the game is at, student athletes might have to miss class for travel (Gayles,
2009). Extensive traveling for games can be a burden academically for the student athlete
with the stressors of trying to make up exams, catch up on lectures and assignments
(Jolly, 2013). Student athletes may lose on valuable coursework time for exams, papers,
quizzes because they have less preparation time as they will have to turn in/take exams
earlier than their non-athlete cohorts due to game travel. Balancing student life with
athletics can be exhausting mentally and physically to the student athlete (Lu et al.,
2012), The constant demand from their sport especially in season can make it hard for
student athletes to be academically successful (Jolly, 2013).
Figure 1 is representative of a school with a fair amount of resources
(resources are defined as academic center, weight room, meeting room, film room,
training table, athletic training room, etc.). Football student athlete schedules are
formatted around the sport schedule. Sport schedule can vary by coach. Coaches can
choose the schedule that fits their preferences, for example, some coaches like to practice
in the morning, and some like to practice in the late afternoon. Some coaches prefer to lift
in the morning, some prefer to lift in the evening. Factors that commonly affect the
schedule are the sport (is it in season or not/some sports travel more than others), school
location, academic resources, and funding.
TIME
6:00 AM 8:00 AM
8:00 AM
8:30 AM
9:00 AM
Mon.
Lift
Tues.
No Lift
Wed.
Lift
Thurs.
No lift
Fri.
No lift
COM 105
9:10-10:00
MURW 373
M-W-F
ECONS 102
9:10-10:25
TODD 102
Tu-Th
COM 105
9:10-10:00
MURW 373
M-W-F
ENGLISH 101
11:00-11:50
AVER 104
M-W-F
CRM_J 201
11:00-12:15
TODD 120
Tu-Th
ENGLISH 101
11:00-11:50
AVER 104
M-W-F
12:00 PM
1:00 PM
1:30 PM
2:00 PM 5:00 PM
Shower/dress
Training Table (Breakfast)
COM 105
ECONS 102
9:10-10:00
9:10-10:25
MURW 373
TODD 102
Tu-Th
M-W-F
Tutoring
ENGLISH 101
CRM_J 201
11:00-11:50
11:00-12:15
AVER 104
TODD 120
M-W-F
Tu-Th
Training Table (Lunch)
Treatment/Dress for Practice
Position meeting
Practice
2:00ish to 5:00ish
5:00 PM
6:00 PM 7:00 PM
OT (Opportunity Time)/Training Table (Dinner)
Evening Study Hall
6-8
10:00 AM
11:00 AM
Sat.
Sun.
Game Day
Lift
Break down
film/Position
meeting
Make-up Study
Hall Session
Note. Fall semester weekly schedule of student athlete on the Washington State University team. Student’s class sport obligations,
classes, and study times.
Figure 1. Weekly schedule.
Source: Personal Communication. Figure obtained from Odell Howard, (2014). Pullman, WA: Personal weekly schedule example
Washington State University, football player.
19
20
There is such a large emphasis on the athletic outcomes that student athlete
academics are easily overlooked (Harmon, 2010). First, many student athletes aspire to
play professionally; they dedicate more time to training and academics resulting in higher
failure rates (Harmon, 2010). Second, student athletes can put athletics first by choosing
courses because it fits their sport schedule versus courses that fit their career plan (Sharp
et al., 2008). Sports participation has been shown to a negative impact on career
development and maturity for student athletes when compared to non-athlete students
(Burns, Jasinski, Dunn & Fletcher, 2013). Third, studies have shown the importance of
student athlete support can prevent feelings of isolation and depression which lead to low
academic success (Corodine, Almond, & Grotto, 2001). Finally, underprepared or at-risk
students must perform at the same academic level as their peers with stronger academic
backgrounds (Ferris et al., 2004).
Student athletes do not have easier loads than non-athlete students. The
minimum amount of units to be eligible to play is nine academic, three nonacademic for a
total of twelve units. Student athletes can take a maximum of twenty one units without
special permission. This might be necessary if student are “behind” credits to graduate
due to things such as transfer or changing majors. To continue to play there are eligibility
requirements that you have to meet that include GPA (2.0) and have had to pass twenty
four total units, eighteen academic (academic year). There are NCAA
requirements/reforms and institution requirements (Gayles, 2009). For example, the
NCAA 40/60/80 progress-toward-degree is supposed to move student athletes toward
graduation within five years, but it can be problematic because it forces student athletes
to stay with a major even if the student athlete changes their mind about their career path
21
– to stay eligible to play (Meyer, 2005). The combination of a sport and academics is
sometimes hard on the student athlete, usually more so for freshman who are new to the
routine (Wolverton, 2008).
Graduation Rates
The Federal Law requires DI, II, and III schools to disclose graduation rates in
hopes to increase institutional control over athletic programs, place more academic
accountability on the student athlete, and to rebuild the integrity of college sports (Meyer,
2005). Graduate Success Rates (GSR) are tracked by the NCAA and Federal Graduation
Rates (FGR) are tracked by the federal government (NCAA, 2014). Both the NCAA and
federal government track the graduation rates of the entire student body and scholarship
athletes; rates can be separated by race, gender, sport, institution and conference
(Matheson, 2007). The main difference between GSR and FGR, GSR includes transfer
students and FGR are only a requirement for schools that receive federal funds (LaForge
& Hodge, 2011).
A newer NCAA academic standard includes a reform called Academic
Progress Rates (APR). APR is a progress-toward-degree requirement where student
athletes have must have major percentage completion at 40% beginning their 3rd year,
60% beginning their 4th year, and 80% beginning their 5th year (Meyer, 2005). GSR and
APR only apply to student athletes who are on scholarship (LaForge et al., 2011). All
used to increase student athlete academic success and moving student athletes toward
graduation in five years total. Only full-time student athletes who are on athletic
scholarship will appear on these reports. Depending on where the student athlete will
22
transfer, rules will be different for Division I, II, or III institutions. Again, there is no
such tracking with the two-year institutions. It is argued that APR hold coaches and
administration accountable, but it is unfair as it does not account for students who leave
school early to play professionally (Meyer, 2005). For high revenue sports such as
basketball and football, players going professional are a high possibility.
In 2014, the NCAA reported the highest ever DI student athlete graduation
rate was accomplished at 81% for those who entered college in 2006 (this number
includes transfers). That means, more than 1800 student athletes were able to get their
degree within six years. Since tracking began in 1995, GSR has increased by eight
percentage points (NCAA, 2014). In the same report, non-athlete graduation rate average
show as much lower than student-athletes. Superficially, the trend looks to be increased
and that student athletes are graduating at a rate almost 20% higher than non-athletes. Let
us review why this is.
The reexamination of GSR are important because since 1995, student athletes
have an extra two years to graduate, before it was only four years; stats include male and
female; athlete sport participation times have been restricted/reduced; and student support
services at all levels have increased due to the recognized student need:
. . . when the data are disaggregated by sport, gender and rate, the numbers tell a
different story. Several conclusions can be drawn from the evidence to date. First,
male athletes tend to enter college and perform at lower levels compared to their
peers. (Gayles, 2009, p. 37)
Table 1 compares 2006 freshman-cohort graduation rates of all DI studentathletes to non-student athletes. Out of 50,526 male student athletes had a graduation rate
of 75%. Out of 41,175 female student athletes had a graduation rate of 88%. Combining
23
Table 1
2006 Freshman-Cohort Graduation Rates: Overall Division I
Student-Athletes
All Students
Gender
Male
Percentage
75
Gender
Male
Percentage
61
Female
88
Female
65
Total
81
Total
63
Note. Freshman-cohort rate indicates the percentage of freshman who entered during the
2006 academic year and graduated within six years.
Source: Data taken from National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). (2014). 2014
Aggregate Federal Graduation Rate Data Reports – Division I. Retrieved from
http://www.ncaa.org
male and female student athletes (91,701) resulted in a median graduation rate of 81%.
Out of 1,354,962 all student males had a graduation rate of 61%. Out of 1,608,475 all
student females had a graduation rate of 65%. Combining male and female all students
(2,963,437) resulted in a median graduation rate of 63%.
By including female athletes, our GSR is increased for several reasons.
Horton (2009) explains that more popular, male-high revenue sports such as football put
more pressure on the player to win thus resulting in more focus placed on athletic versus
academics. The opportunity for female athletes to leave college to play professionally is
not as high as men; because of this, women athletes focus more on academics as there is
no looming multi-million dollar contract at bay (Rishe, 2003). Umbach (2005) states that
female student athletes have more academic success because of their engagement in
24
effective educational practices such as they are more likely to interact with faculty and
collaborative and active learning activities.
Table 2 now compares 2006 freshman-cohort graduation rates of all DI
student athletes to all DI football student athletes. Out of 50,526 male student athletes had
a graduation rate of 75%. Out of 41,175 female student athletes had a graduation rate of
88%. Combining male and female student athletes (91,701) resulted in a median
graduation rate of 81%. Out of 18,875 male FBS/FCS football players had a graduation
rate of 69% (average). For the 2006 freshman-cohort, there were no female DI football
players thus resulting in a N/A.
Table 2
2006 Freshman-Cohort Graduation Rates: Overall Division I
Student-Athletes
Football
Gender
Male
Percentage
75
Female
88
Gender
Male FBS/FCS
Female
Percentage (Average)
69
N/A
Note. Freshman-cohort rate indicates the percentage of freshman who entered during the
2006 academic year and graduated within six years.
Source: Data taken from National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). (2014). 2014
Aggregate Federal Graduation Rate Data Reports – Division I. Retrieved from
http://www.ncaa.org
Significant differences can also be found between athletes of different sports.
Specific male graduation rates for different sports can be found in the NCAA reports.
GSR can also be skewed because of the sport combination. When you specifically look at
football, the GSR is lower when compared to other sports. A combination of pressure to
25
having a winning season, importance placed on eligibility over academics, and the high
time demand of the sport are all factors of low GSRs for football (Gayles, 2009). Table 3
compares 2006 freshman-cohort graduation rates of male student athletes separated by
sport.
Table 3
2006 Freshman-Cohort Graduation Rates: Overall Division I Male Student Athletes by
Sport
Sport Total
GSR Percentage
Baseball
74
Basketball
70
CC/Track
76
Football FBS/FCS
69
Men’s Other
83
Note: Men’s other are all other men’s sports outside of baseball, basketball and football.
Source: Data taken from National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). (2014). 2014
Aggregate Federal Graduation Rate Data Reports – Division I. Retrieved from
http://www.ncaa.org
Men’s other came in with the highest GSR percentage at 83% of 16,279
student athletes. CC (Cross country)/Track had the second highest GSR percentage of
76% of 6,963 student athletes. Baseball had the third highest GSR percentage of 74% of
7,099 student athletes. Basketball had second to the last lowest GSR percentage of 70%
of 4,260 student athletes. Football had the lowest GSR percentage at 69% of 18,875
student athletes.
26
Table 3 shows differences can be seen between all sports. Football shows with
the lowest GSR percentage. Taking the median of all sports will produce a higher GSR
for student athletes at 74.4%, but the actual numbers for football falls below this median
at 69%. In actuality, as you can see, all the sports vary in their GSR.
At-Risk Student Athletes
Unfortunately, many football student athletes come from low-income, first
generation backgrounds – usually deeming them “at-risk.” They are at-risk because of the
high dropout or failure rate of this population. Most of these high commitment student
athletes are academically unprepared for college academics (Aries et al., 2004). Tinto
(1993) explains that previous academic performance can be the blueprint to the academic
future and ability for degree completion. At-risk students are more likely to have negative
educational experiences such as consistent low test scores and grades, high absences and
truancies, low classroom participation and disengagement, not feeling supported by
faculty and staff, and failing multiple classes (Jerald, 2006).
For at-risk students to be successful, it is recommended that their academic
progression needs to be closely monitored so early intervention can be implemented if
necessary (Seidman, 1996). Student engagement and exposure to academic resources are
recommended for academic success of at-risk students (Kuh, Shoup, Kinzie, & Gonyea,
2008). Without proper support, the rate of retention will be low with increased possibility
for at-risk student athletes to drop out (Ferris et al., 2004). At-risk student athletes might
feel more academic pressure because they have to take preparatory courses to improve
their basic skills making it difficult to meet degree-percentage reform requirements
27
(Meyer, 2005). Poor grades may leave the student athlete ineligible for sport
participation, which can eventually lead to loss of scholarship, then resulting in an even
higher dropout rate as they can become overwhelmed academically without the guidance
and monitoring they were receiving while participating in their sport (Weiss & Robinson,
2013). At-risk student athletes can be successful academically with the proper support
and to get on track and stay on track.
Retention Strategies
To address the low graduation rates, the NCAA administered several different
reforms to measure and track academic performance of student athletes, even adding
penalties for schools with low academic success (Hosick & Sproull, 2012). The premise
behind the NCAA and the various academic reforms is to change the student athlete
academic performance for the better (Meyer, 2005).
The introduction and continuance of student athlete academic support
programs are now a requirement for DI programs is also a reason for the increased
GSRs – specifically academic advising and tutoring (Meyer, 2005). Although only
required for DI programs, many smaller programs even down to the two-year institution
level have also adopted such support programs for student athletes (Storch et al., 2009).
Second, new restrictions placed on weekly sports participation hours have been decreased
with the expectation that student athletes will be able to dedicate more time to their
studies (Corodine et al., 2001). Third, DI schools are now able to fund their own
academic support program (Meyer, 2005).
28
Due to the recent NCAA reforms, student athletes have to abide to stricter
academic standards. Although reports are showing a steady increase in GSR and APR,
students have had to adapt to the changes by being more academically aware and
proactive in their education. Most student athletes were able to meet the new academic
requirements by utilizing student athlete academic programs.
Student Athlete Academic Support
Student athletes are a special population. In order to increase student athlete
academic success, a focus should be placed on the unique needs of this population.
Implementation of the proper strategies that produce higher academic success through
appropriate academic support can be available for all student athletes. Combining specific
successful student athlete academic support programs can be the key to academic
success. With proper academic support, athletics and academic success can exist together.
Emphasis on academics – academic excellence should be enforced from the
very beginning of recruitment. Athletes need to know that success in athletics is just as
important as being successful in the classroom (Horton, 2009). The responsibility of
academic success should fall on the shoulders of the student athlete and administration
(Benson, 2000). Importance of academic excellence should be reiterated each semester.
This is important because at times student athletes will get bad grades (lose academic
eligibility) while in season so they can focus more on their sport, then use off season to
regain academic eligibility. It is critical that coaches are actively demanding academic
excellence on and off season and the institution praising coaches for doing so.
29
First, coaches can set the bar for academic importance by allowing a balance
between athletics and academics for student athletes; second, coaches can mentally
prepare student athletes to know that they are more than the sport by creating
consequences for incomplete study table hours, missed class, poor grades, etc.; finally,
coaches can work with administration so that student athletes are career goal oriented and
not just choosing a major that fits their sport schedule (Sharp et al., 2008).
Mentoring
Meetings once a week, one on one with individual student athletes with a
mentor. Mentors can vary from an advisor, position coach or even fellow teammates
recommended by staff. Mentors can help student athletes stay on task by providing an
open line of communication for the student athlete, assisting by reviewing grades and
assignments, access to resources, but mainly holding the student accountable for their
own academic success through student engagement (Umbach, 2006). Monitoring student
participation can serve as motivation for the student to be continuously engaged in class.
Mentors can monitor student successes and failures and make adjustments as needed.
Mentors can also provide an outlet for discussion of personal or social difficulties that
can also affect student athlete academic performance (Carodine et al., 2003).
Academic Advising
Academic advising specific to the student athlete is necessary because this
person will serve as an expert in the area of student athletes knowledgeable of the
problems, needs, and issues of student athletes (Rhatigan, 2009). Student athletes are a
special population and have special needs:
30
. . . a practical approach to advising and counseling college student athletes is to
classify their needs into four areas: academic advising, life skills development,
clinical counseling, and performance enhancement. (Broughton & Neyer, 2001,
p. 48)
This position not only serves as an advisor, but also mentor and confidant.
Advisors create an education plan for the student athlete every semester, assist with major
discovery or career planning, personal counseling, eligibility clarification, transfer
counseling by reviewing four-year requirements (two-year institutions) all created
specifically to fit their sport’s schedule which includes training, games, travel, etc.
Advisors serve as a liaison between athletics and academics by not only keeping the
student athlete eligible but by also progressing the student athlete toward graduation
while exposing the student athlete to available academic resources to enhance their
academic success (Meyer, 2005):
A model program would include appropriately trained personnel who can assess
and tread student athletes’ academic, athletic, and personal needs. Without this kind
of support, student athletes will continue to have needs unmet… (Broughton et al.,
2001, p. 51)
Life Skills
Life skills development for student athletes serves as an important ability to
help them balance their academic and athletic pressures (Storch et al., 2009). Life skills
can be offered as a course, workshops, or through counseling. Life skills will focus on
areas of emotional support, practical problems, and personal issues (Broughton et al.,
2001). Many life skills program focus on personal growth in forms of leadership, time
management, goal accomplishment, communication, etc. Personal counseling can also
offer assistance that focuses on their emotional well-being such as stress management,
media pressure, performance anxiety, eating disorders, substance abuse, and anger issues,
31
interpersonal conflicts with coaches or teammates, burnout, or dealing with injury.
Student athletes have a life experience that is unique and very different than that of their
non-athlete counterparts that needs distinct support (Lu et al., 2012). “The life skills
development approach, by contrast, focuses on personal, practical, and emotional issues
such as drug and alcohol education, interpersonal communication skills training, time
management, career development and selection, and appropriate sexual relationships
(Broughton et al., 2001, p. 49).
Time Management (Life Skill)
MacCann (2011) explains that effective time management is linked with high
academic achievement. Just doing enough to pass is a way that student athletes manage
the combination of sports and education (Tully, 2013). Some athletes use the quote “Cs
gets degrees” meaning just doing enough to stay eligible to play and putting sports above
education. The opposite of the NCAA premise of student first and athlete second.
Time management is crucial for student athletes who have a high demand
schedule (Figler & Figler, 1991). Tully (2013) research results explained that an obstacle
of elite athlete’s academic success was time management. Athletes have to figure out
ways to balance athletics and academics equally. Bad time management and organization
can be a reason for academic difficulties (Carodine et al., 2003). Effective time
management can maximize the student athlete’s limited schedule. Students with good
time management skills have a higher range of positive outcomes and greater multi-year
retention (Karp, Bickerstaff, Rucks-Ahidiana, Bork, Barragan, Edgecombe, 2012). Ways
in which students can improve time management skills include taking a time management
workshop, taking a Counseling or Life Skills course that have components of time
32
management, or working with a mentor in creating an effective schedule. Time
management is a skill that can be developed through learning, practice, and knowledge
(MacCann et al., 2013).
Career and Professional Development
Career and Professional Development is an important factor in for the student
athlete during and after sports. Career/Professional Development helps the student athlete
to focus on choosing a major, assessment of skills and interests, researching careers, and
job searching. Depending on the institution, some offered workshops, courses specific to
career development, or one-on-one counseling with a mentor, advisor, faculty, or alumni.
Student athletes especially need career and professional development because
of their inconsistent roles (being an athlete and being a student) and seclusion with a peer
group that can focus on athletics versus academic goals (Burns, 2013). This type of
learning helps the student athlete to focus on life after college and potentially after their
sports career has ended. The majority of student athletes’ sports careers will end once
they leave college. Ending of a student athlete career can be a life altering occasion
especially if the student athlete is not equipped with skills outside athletics (Chartrand &
Lent, 1987). Keep in mind that student athlete careers can end at any time with
unexpected injury, losing eligibility, loss of scholarship, etc. Career and Professional
Development should begin freshman year and extend throughout their collegiate career.
A successful program will help the student athlete learn skills and worth to face future
challenges with career fulfillment (Storch et al. 2009).
33
Community Service
Community service is a great way for student athletes to give back to the
community that supports them. Student athletes are often viewed as role models.
Community Service helps student athletes realize the impact that they have on others
beyond athletics and helps student athletes with personal growth. Student athlete
participation in community outreach programs help them develop leadership qualities,
public speaking skills, raise awareness of their civic responsibility and adds to the
development of a well-rounded citizen. Community service is a purposeful activity that
keeps student athletes engaged because it teaches student athletes how to collaborate
effectively with their peers, learn to problem solve, and team work (Umbach et al., 2006).
Tutoring
Tutoring is an essential part of academic success for student athletes. In 1991,
tutoring became a mandatory academic service for all DI to increase academic success of
all student athletes (Meyer, 2005). Their demanding sport schedule can result in missed
class and course work. When it comes to classroom challenges and academic problems,
tutoring is way provide immediate assistance on material comprehension. Tutors help to
promote learning and motivate students (Rosenblatt, 2002). Tutors assigned to student
athletes can work around the student athlete’s schedule. Many institutions offered various
subject tutoring services Sunday through Friday, after hours tutors, study hall tutors,
travel and appointment tutors. Student athletes find tutoring to be a valuable resource to
their detailed learning experiences (Thompson, 2008).
34
Transferring to Improve Graduation Rates
Two-year institution athletics is attractive because it gives the opportunity for
players to transfer to a four-year institution if they did not initially qualify. Rarely do
student athletes come to play at a two-year with no intention of transfer. At the two-year
level, students have the opportunity to raise their grade point average (GPA), earn
transfer degree, and gain publicity for recruitment to a DI with possibility of scholarship
(Horton, 2009). Going to a two-year then transferring to a four-year can allow for student
acclimation to “college life” at a smaller scale versus going directly to a four year
institution right after high school.
Beginning with enrollment, coaches and administration should be gearing
student athletes towards transfer. Freshman year – student athlete academic assessment
and an academic plan will be implemented. For the next two years, student athletes are
working on their academic plan to make them transfer ready. If students fail courses on
their academic plan, this postpones the timeframe in which the student athlete can be
transfer ready. To make up failed classes student athletes take additional courses to
supplement for failed classes. If student athletes have to take additional courses to
supplement for failed course which can mean additional semesters at the two-year level,
but they will still be subject to the five year eligibility rule (two years at two-year
institution, two-years at four year institution, one year red-shirt). Two-year institution
coaches assist in recruitment by four-year institutions.
Football players at the college level have responsibilities to not only their
sport but also to their academics. Playing football and trying to keep up with academics
would be demanding and a difficult combination to balance (Tully, 2013). Playing on
35
scholarship gives student athletes the opportunity to play and further education but it does
not come without a cost. It can be hard for student athlete football players to balance
academics and athletics, which are seen by the low graduation rates, and lower levels of
academic success when compared to other sports and even non athlete peers. For many
student athletes, an athletic scholarship is the only way that they would be able to manage
to pay for a post-secondary education. A college degree increases career level
opportunities for the student athlete since only a small percentage of student athlete
football players will play at the professional level. Academic support for student athletes
will assist in academic success and graduation rates that can prepare student athletes for
life after sports (Tully, 2013).
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
The NCAA posts GSRs, FGRs and APRs for DI schools. NCAA similarly
posts academic success rates for DII and DIII schools, for greater numbers, DI schools
were chosen for this investigation. DI is the highest level of competition at the collegiate
level, therefore, will also have the largest enrollment, athletic programs, and scholarship
offerings (Matheson, 2007) in which to access data. The GSR and APR were created for
school presidents that wanted more academic data (NCAA, 2014). Mainly, rates were a
way to track academic success within the student athlete population (Ferris, 2004). Both
GSR and APR include transfer students, where the FGR do not include transfer students.
Choosing to use the top 5 Pac-12 schools because this is the conference was only due
familiarity.
The Pac-12 includes the following schools: Arizona State University,
University of Arizona, University of California – Berkley, University of California – Los
Angeles, University of Colorado – Boulder, Oregon State University, University of
Oregon, University of Southern California, Stanford University, University of Utah,
Washington State University, and University of Washington.
Of these 12 schools, qualitative data was collected of athlete academic support
that is offered by the five schools with the highest GSR scores and I identified common
resources. All program information was found on their websites, and literature. A
36
37
combination of the common resources was used to create a master template of what is
needed to produce a successful student athlete academic program.
For my template, success would is rated by football graduation rates. When
we focus specifically on not the over athlete graduate rate but the sport specifically, this
allows me to localize and focus specifically on how the needs are being met for our
football players.
Population or Sample
Population was selected specifically for this study. Specific focus was placed
on DI football teams. This is the target population. Due to low graduation rates, this
population seems in need of student athlete academic support, more so than other sport
teams.
Although there are several NCAA divisions and sports to choose from, DI
football teams were the population of interest. DI will have the most football players on
scholarships, thus will provide me with the highest number of athletes for my study. DI
institutions are required by the NCAA to have certain academic support services for
student athletes (Gayles, 2009). Because of this, it was known that the information
needed would be available, with just variances between program offerings and
requirements.
Pac-12 is known as the Conference of Champions with dominance in many
male and female sports (www.pac-12.com). The Pac-12 currently supports eleven women
sports, and eleven men sports which also include football. The conference has shown
38
success on and off the field, which equates to a perfect conference to choose for this
study.
Treatment
Quantitative data were collected from the NCAA website. The NCAA now
tracks the Graduation Success Rates of participating athletes. This was a response to the
public criticism of low graduation rates of athletes stating that the NCAA was using
student athletes only for financial gains and no emphasis was placed on education
(Amato, Gandar, & Zuber, 2001). Due to this, the NCAA also imposed a new set of
academic standards that were developed to hold schools accountable for student athlete
success. On the NCAA website, Graduation Success Rates can be identified by
conference, school, sport, sex, etc.:
The GSR, like the FGR, starts with all freshmen who enter college in a given year.
The GSR is different in that it excludes from the denominator those athletes who
leave the institution in good academic standing and includes in the numerator those
who transfer into the institution and go on to graduate. The GSR better accounts for
the high mobility of student-athletes. (NCAA, 2014)
Data Analysis Procedures
Existing data were used in this research. Quantitative data (Graduation
Success Rates and Federal Graduation Rates) was collected from the NCAA website.
Student athlete academic program (qualitative data) information for each institution was
found on their individual websites. This researcher was also able to use personal
knowledge from watching firsthand the evolving of a Student Athlete Success Program in
which my husband was the supervisor at the institution where we are both employed.
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS
In this chapter, this researcher will review several areas having to do with the
template for a Student Athlete Success Program (SASP). This chapter will consist of: 1)
Review GSRs of Pac-12 institution football teams. 2) Examine and describe the academic
support programs resources offered exclusively to student athletes of the top 5 Pac-12
institutions based on football team graduation rates. 3) Compare the top 5 Pac-12
academic support programs for student athletes and identify common resources. 4)
Combine findings to create a template that any institution, two-year or four-year can use
to create or enhance their own Student Athlete Success Program.
1) Review GSRs of Pac-12 institution football teams.
As a way for the NCAA to address and increase academic success in athletes, an
academic reform program was implemented in 2003 which required schools to track and
report APRs and GSRs, (NCAA, 2014). This program only tracks the graduation rates of
scholarship athletes. The Department of Education also tracks athlete graduation rates
with the FGR established in 1990 as part of the Student Right-to-Know and Campus
Security Act (Southhall, 2012). Schools also receive federal funds for a separate tracking
of first-time, full-time freshman on scholarship graduation rates with FSRs. FSRs do not
account for part-time athletes, transfer students, “walk-on” recruits and non-recruits
(Ferris et al., 2004). This study will not look at APR and FSR. APR is an overall team
39
40
rate that will fluctuate per semester and varies per athlete (Meyer, 2005). GSR is used
because it is able to capture a broader scope of athletes versus the FSR; for example the
GSR will also track transfers, midyear enrollees, part-time student athletes and
institutions will not get reprimanded if student athletes leave in good academic standing
(NCAA, 2014). GSR also gives a better headcount of graduating football players, versus
APR which gives me a team total. Again, these all rates serve only as tracking tools; no
schools are penalized for low graduation rates. Figure 2 shows the 2006 freshman-cohort
GSR and FGR rates specifically for football players only in Pac-12 schools. The NCAA
website allows you to filter data per sport, institution, race, and gender. At all institutions,
the FGR is lower than GSR. The addition of those missed student athlete populations do
make a difference if you are wanting to track a more accurate graduation rate.
Figure 2. Pac-12 GSR and FGR compared.
Source: Data taken from National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). (2014). 2014
Aggregate Federal Graduation Rate Data Reports – Division I. Retrieved from
http://www.ncaa.org
41
The institution with the highest GSR and FGR is Stanford. The institution with the
lowest GSR (44%) and FGR is UC Berkley. The institution with the highest GSR (93%)
and FGR is Stanford. When we compare the lowest UC-Berkley GSR at 44% and
Stanford GSR at 93% is a huge difference of 49%. If we compare all the different Pac-12
institutions, the numbers are scattered between the highest and the lowest ranked. The
Pac-12 football median GSR is at 67%. The GSR mode for this is 66.
Figure 3 shows the 2006 freshman-cohort GSR rates (FGR removed) for football
players only in Pac-12 institutions which gives us a clearer picture. It can be seen that
graduation rates vary across the board from a low 44% GSR from UC Berkeley, to the
highest GSR from Stanford at 93%. The Pac-12 average GSR for football is at 67%. The
Pac-12 GSR mode is 66.
Figure 3. Pac-12 GSR.
Source: Data taken from National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). (2014). 2014
Aggregate Federal Graduation Rate Data Reports – Division I. Retrieved from
http://www.ncaa.org
42
There are a total of twelve schools in the Pac-12 division. In alphabetical order,
those schools include Arizona State University, University of Arizona, University of
California Berkley, University of California Los Angeles, University of Colorado
Boulder, Oregon State University, University of Oregon, University of Southern
California, Stanford University, University of Utah, Washington State University, and
University of Washington. The chart above shows the GSR and FGR of each school’s
football team. Both reflect students who entered college in 2003-2006. 2006 was the
latest year posted on NCAA’s website, with student athletes graduating within six years.
The GSR is higher for every school as it is able to include a wider variety of student
athletes described previously.
2) Examine and describe the academic support programs resources offered
exclusively to student athletes at the top 5 Pac-12 institutions based on football team
graduation rates.
Figure 4 shows the top 5 2006 freshman-cohort GSR Pac-12 football teams. If
ranked per highest graduation rate, the top 5 institutions are (1) Stanford with 93%, (2)
University of California Los Angeles with 82%, (3) University of Washington with 74%,
(4) University of Utah with 73%, and (5) University of Colorado Boulder with 70%. The
difference between the highest graduation rate (93%) and the lowest graduation rate
(70%) is a GSR of 29%.
For all the top 5 Pac-12 institutions, a compiled list of academic program resources
offered exclusively to student athletes is examined below. Additional to the student
athlete academic program resources, all institutions had other academic resources also
available but for the entire student population. Focusing on the student athlete
43
Pac‐12 top 5
93
82
Stanford
UC Los Angeles
74
73
UW
UU
70
UC Boulder
Figure 4. Pac-12 GSR top 5 institutions.
Source: Data taken from National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). (2014). 2014
Aggregate Federal Graduation Rate Data Reports – Division I. Retrieved from
http://www.ncaa.org
specific program resources are important because athletes are more likely to use these
resources as they are catered specifically for them. Some four-year institutions had more
than one of the same resources.
DI institutions have some mandated academic support services with the goal of
maximizing student athlete academic performance in 2003 (Meyer, 2005). Below listed
are all of the program resources that are offered at each institution, but in the final tallied
graph, to make it easier, program resources are tallied with a “yes” (the program does
have it) or “no” (the program doesn’t have it).
Figure 4 shows Stanford University as the top Pac-12 institution with a football
GSR of 93%. Stanford’s overall male student athlete GSR was 97%. Stanford’s overall
44
GSR mode is 100% with sports such as fencing, golf, gymnastics, soccer and baseball.
The lowest of all Stanford male student athlete sports is basketball with a GSR of 83%.
Football’s GSR (93%) is lower than the overall male GSR (97%) by 4% out of a total of
7 sports (baseball, basketball, football, fencing, golf, gymnastics, and soccer).
The below are Stanford’s academic program resources currently available to their
student athletes in alphabetical order. All Stanford information below can be found at:
https://undergrad.stanford.edu/advising/about-advising/advising-student-athletes

Academic Advising

Academic Monitoring

Alumni Mentoring

Career Development

Community Service

Facility

Financial Aid

Graduate School Prep

Laptop Check out

Life Skills

Mentoring

Tutoring
Figure 4 shows the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) as the second
ranked Pac-12 institution with a football GSR of 82%. UCLA’s overall male student
athlete has a GSR of 87%. UCLA’s overall male student athletes have a mode of 82.
45
Tennis scores the highest GSR at 100%. Baseball has the lowest GSR at 69%. Football
ties for the fourth highest GSR with soccer out of seven sports (baseball, basketball,
football, golf, soccer, tennis and track). Football’s GSR (82%) is lower than the overall
male student athlete GSR (87%) by 5%.
Below are UCLA’s academic program resources currently available to their student
athletes in alphabetical order. All UCLA information below can be found at:
http://www.uclabruins.com/ViewArticle.dbml?&DB_OEM_ID=30500&ATCLID=20827
2554. See appendix D for resource descriptions.

Handbook:
http://www.uclabruins.com/fls/30500/pdf/SA-Handbook.pdf?DB_OEM_ID=30500

Academic Advising

Academic Monitoring

Athlete Council

Career Development

Community Service

Facility

Financial Aid

Graduate School Prep

Life Skills

Mentoring

Tutoring
46
The below are UW’s academic program resources currently available to their
student athletes in alphabetical order. All UW information below can be found at:
http://www.gohuskies.com/ViewArticle.dbml?DB_OEM_ID=30200&ATCLID=2085961
60. See appendix D for resource descriptions.

Handbook:
http://gohuskies.com/pdf9/2601325.pdf?DB_OEM_ID=30200

Academic Advisors

Academic Monitoring

Athlete Council

Career Development

Community Service

Facility

Graduate School Prep.

Laptop Checkout

Life Skills

Mentoring

Tutoring
Figure 4 shows the University of Utah (UU) ranked as fourth a GSR of 73%. The
overall male student athlete GSR is at 83%. UU’s male student athletes have a mode of
83% (basketball, swimming and diving, and swimming). 83% is the highest GSR for
male student athletes – meaning basketball, swimming and diving, and swimming all ties
for first. The lowest GSR is skiing at 67%. Football’s GSR (73%) is lower than the
47
overall male student athlete GSR (83%) by 10% out of 7 sports (baseball, basketball,
football, golf, skiing, swimming and diving, and swimming).
The below are UU’s academic program resources currently available to their
student athletes in alphabetical order. All UU information below can be found at:
http://utahutes.cstv.com/academics.html. See appendix D for resource descriptions.

Handbook
http://grfx.cstv.com/photos/schools/utah/genrel/auto_pdf/201213/misc_non_event/StudentHandbook2013.pdf

Academic Advising

Academic Monitoring

Athlete Advisory

Career/Professional Development

Community Service

Facility

Financial Aid

Laptop Checkout

Life Skills

Mentoring

Tutoring
Figure 4 shows the University of Colorado Boulder (CU) as fifth with a GSR of
70%. The overall male student athlete GSR is 77%. CU’s male student athletes have a
mode of 82. The highest GSR is track with 82%. The lowest GSR is basketball with 67%.
48
Football’s GSR (70%) is lower than the overall male student athlete GSR (77%) by 7%
out of 6 sports (basketball, football, golf, skiing, track (mountain pacific sports
federation), and track (Pac-12 conference).
The below are CU’s academic program resources currently available to their student
athletes in alphabetical order. All CU information below can be found at:
http://www.cubuffs.com/ViewArticle.dbml?&DB_OEM_ID=600&ATCLID=1527451.
See appendix D for resource descriptions.

Academic Advising.

Athlete Council

Career/Professional Development

Community Service

Facility

Laptop Checkout

Life Skills

Tutoring
3) Compare the top 5 academic support programs for student athletes and identify
common tools.
When Figure 4 institutions are compared by student athlete support programs, the
majority of the schools offered similar but not completely identical program tools. Every
program tool that was offered to student athletes at each institution was compiled
(common components). All program tools fell into one of these fourteen categories.
49
These resources included Academic Advising (Advisors who only assist student
athletes); Academic monitoring (Designee monitors student athlete academic progress);
Alumni Connections (student athletes can connect with alumni as mentors/career
development); Athlete Council (Advocates comprised of student athletes for student
athletes); Career/Professional Development (Development of skills for career
advancement in industry or on a professional team); Community Service (volunteer work
performed by student athletes); Facility (a specific area designated for athletes to study);
Faculty Connections (student athletes can connect with faculty outside of office hours);
Financial Aide (funding to help student athletes pay for education related expenses);
Graduate School Prep (student preparation for graduate school); Laptop Checkout; Life
Skills (Essential skills for success); Mentoring Program (any type of mentoring program
specifically for student athletes); and Tutoring (tutors only for student athletes).
It was observed that four-year institutions that had higher GSRs offered the most
academic resources for student athletes. As the football team GSRs fell, so did the
amount of program resources offered at the four-year institution. Figure 5 lists all the top
5 Pac-12 Student Athlete Program Resources.
Figure 5 shows Stanford at 93% offered 13/14 of the collective student athlete
academic program resources. Stanford’s Student Athlete Academic Resources include
academic advising, academic monitoring, alumni connections, career/professional
development, community service, facility, faculty connections, financial aid, graduate
50
Pac‐12 Student Athlete Program Resources Figure 5. Pac-12 Student athlete program resources.
Source: Data taken from listed institution websites.
school prep, laptop checkout, life skills, mentoring, and tutoring. The only resource that
Stanford didn’t have out of the fourteen was athlete council.
UCLA at 82% offered 13/14 of the collective academic program tools for student
athletes. UCLA’s Student Athlete Academic Resources include academic advising,
academic monitoring, alumni connections, athlete council, career/professional
development, community service, facility, financial aid, graduate school prep, laptop
checkout, life skills, mentoring, and tutoring. The only resource that UCLA didn’t have
out of the fourteen was faculty connection.
51
UW at 74% offered 12/14 of the collective student athlete academic program
resources. UW’s Student Athlete Academic Resources include academic advising,
academic monitoring, alumni connections, athlete council, career/professional
development, community service, facility, graduate school prep, laptop checkout, life
skills, mentoring, and tutoring. UW was missing two resources out of the fourteen which
were faculty connection and financial aid.
UU at 73% offered 11/14 of the collective student athlete academic program
resources. UU’s Student Athlete Academic Resources include academic advising, athlete
council, career/professional development, community service, facility, financial aid,
laptop checkout, life skills, mentoring, and tutoring. UU was missing three resources out
of the fourteen which were alumni connections, faculty connection, and graduate school
prep.
CU at 70% offered 8/14 of the collective student athlete academic program
resources for student athletes. CU’s Student Athlete Academic Resources include
academic advising, academic monitoring, alumni connections, career/professional
development, community service, laptop checkout, life skills, and tutoring. CU was
missing six resources out of the fourteen which were academic monitoring, alumni
connections, faculty connection, financial aide, graduate school prep and monitoring.
Carodine et al. (2001) explains that effective academic support programs for student
athletes share the same core components. The need can be seen that academic support is a
need for football as all of the top 5 Pac-12 football GSRs was lower than the overall top 5
Pac-12 male athlete GSRs.
52
In accordance with this, the common components in all five programs were
combined. To do this, all student athlete academic program resources that were not
included in all five institutions was removed. The result of this was a total of seven
academic program resources specific to student athletes used at all five institutions.
Figure 6 lists all the top 5 Pac-12 academic program resource offerings similarities for
student athletes.
Pac‐12 Student Athlete Program Resources Figure 6. Pac-12 common student athlete program resources.
Source: Data taken from listed institution websites. The final tally resulted with the following program resources: Academic Advising,
Career/Professional Development, Community Service, Facility, Laptop Checkout, Life
Skills, and Tutoring. When viewing the remaining programs, all of the schools included
53
not just program resources that focused on academic growth and programs that can
increase graduation success rates (academic advising, tutoring), but also still include
personal growth such as life skills, career/professional developments and community
service.
Therefore, because of the inconsistency throughout our top 5 Pac-12 academic
program resources, I removed the following: Athletic Council (4/5), Mentoring (4/5),
Graduate School Prep (3/5), Financial Aide (3/5), Faculty Connections (1/5), Alumni
Connections (3/5), and Academic Monitoring (3/5). It would be recommended that these
resources be considered as supplementary resources in a Student Athlete Success
Program as 6/7 of these programs were used in more than two of the top 5 Pac-12
institutions. Supplementary resources can vary per institution depending on student
athlete population needs.
4) Combine findings to create a template that any institution, two-year or four-year
can use to create or enhance their own Student Athlete Success Program.
Combining the findings to create a template to use will include our final tally
resulted in the following resources: Academic Advising, Career/Professional
Development, Community Service, Facility, Laptop Checkout, Life Skills and Tutoring.
Let us spend some time to discuss the specifics of these items. Definitions of each
resource below in alpha order, is a composition of each of the top 5 institution’s
description. The top 5 institutions used each of the tools in similar capacities, so it was
easy to combine them.

Academic advising: Advisors specific to the needs of student athletes.
These advisors would be responsible for helping the student athlete select
54
appropriate classes considering major, eligibility, and graduate school.
Advisors help student athletes with major declaration, faculty connections,
and available academic resources. Advisors would monitor academic progress
and help student athletes with registration. Advisors would be knowledgeable
of sport schedules. Academic advisors can also help student athletes with
psychological issues and personal counseling.

Career/Professional Development: Specific resources that help student
athletes with career planning, major exploration, resume development, and
interview skills all administered in the Student Athlete Success Program
area/facility. This resource can be offered in the form of a course (credit or no
credit), workshops, guest speakers and individualized consultations. Similar to
life skills, these faculty/workshop presenters/guest speakers can be paid
through student athlete support program funds, athletic funds, or individual
department funds.
Specific to athletics this resource can help with student athlete transition
from sports to the workplace, evaluation of professional sports career
potential, guidance in professional sports tryouts, understanding contracts and
professional advisors/agents.

Community Service: Specific opportunities for student athletes to
participate in community service projects that allow them to develop
leadership qualities and awareness of civic responsibilities.The community
views student athletes as role models so it is important for the student athletes
to give back to the community that has supported them.
55

Facility: A room, place, building, or space designated where all
student athlete specific resources are housed. All resources would minimally
include a staff offices (academic advisor and clerical staff), computer lab and
study room(s). Study hall for student athletes would be a requirement for each
sport and monitored within this space. Coaches would determine study hall
time requirements and penalty for incomplete hours per coach preference.
Supplemental resources for the facility could include group study(s), tutoring
area and/or room(s), wireless internet, free printing, material check out area –
textbooks, calculators, iPads, etc. In the facility, the academic advisor(s) and
tutor(s) should also be housed nearby for easy accessibility by student
athletes. Housing multiple resources in the same area would increase student
athlete accessibility, thus increasing voluntary student athlete participation.

Laptop Checkout – Laptop checkout is available for student athletes to
check out. All top 5 institutions listed this resource. It can be a valuable
resource especially since student athletes are traveling sometimes several
times a week. Student athletes may not have the funds to afford the luxury of
having a personal laptop. Checkout resources should not be limited to only
laptops. Other check out items that would be of use to student athletes:
textbooks, ipads, loaded print cards to use at other campus facilities where
there are printing costs.

Life Skills - Specific resources that help student athletes build skills
commonly associated with communication, leadership, time management and
56
goal accomplishment. Life skills can be presented in many ways – workshops,
one-on-one counseling, offered as a course for credit or no credit, and guest
speakers. Life skills would include any and all items that foster a balanced
lifestyle that is healthy and positive. Life skills should not only be about
excelling as an athlete but as a well-rounded person.
Life skills resources should be housed in the student athlete success
program area. Workshop(s) attendance can be a student athlete requirement by
coaches and/or faculty. Faculty can increase workshop participation by
offering extra credit for attendance.
Life skills course faculty, workshop presenters, guest speakers can be paid
through student athlete support program funds, athletic funds, or individual
department funds. Life skills topic examples include: skills for success, time
management, stress management, and teambuilding skills.

Tutoring: Subject specific tutoring for student athletes. Tutoring can be
in the form of one-on-one or in small groups. Tutors should be available
during area/facility peak hours, study hall hours or if possible during all
operational hours. To maximize availability tutors should be available during
evening and Sunday hours via text or email for homework questions. Some
tutors should be made available for travel with teams if necessary. If tutors are
limited, student athletes can be allotted a certain number of hours for tutoring
per week. Similar to life skills, tutors can be paid through student athlete
support program funds, athletic funds, or individual department funds.
57

Supplemental Student Athlete Success Program Resources: All of the
removed resources should be considered as supplemental resources because if
the top 5 Pac-12 institutions have found a current need, other institutions
might feel the same way. These supplemental resources are: Athletic Council
(4/5), Mentoring (4/5), Academic Monitoring (3/5), Alumni Connections
(3/5), Financial Aide (3/5), Graduate School Prep (3/5), and Faculty
Connections (1/5).
Discussion of Findings
Unfortunately, an athletic scholarship does not guarantee student athletes a
college degree but it does help make schooling more accessible and affordable. With the
assistance of student athlete academic programs, student athletes have a greater chance of
being academically successful throughout their collegiate career, graduating with a
college degree, and enjoying success after college.
I believe that the program resources outlined above are all necessary to create
a solid foundation or beginning groundwork for a student athlete success program for not
only football players but all student athletes. Student athletes dedicate a lot of time and
effort for their team’s success. Just like how we provide these student athletes the
resources they need to be successful on the field, we should also make sure that they have
the resources they need to be successful in the classroom. A student athlete success
program will provide the academic support necessary for student athlete to be successful
academically thus increasing graduation rates.
58
Limitations to the Study
This study was limited to a description of data, accessed in the Spring 2014
semester through the NCAA website for Pac-12 institutions and the websites of
individual institutions. This researcher did not analyze the importance of individual
variables in the academic success of student athletes.
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY
This research showed that for the top 5 investigated institutions, the more
academic resources that were available, the higher the GSRs. The top 5 institutions
offered the majority of the same student athlete academic support resources. The top 5
gave me a total of fourteen different resources which included Academic Advising
(Advisors who only assist student athletes); Academic monitoring (Designee monitors
student athlete academic progress); Alumni Connections (student athletes can connect
with alumni as mentors/career development); Athlete Council (Advocates comprised of
student athletes for student athletes); Career/Professional Development (Development of
skills for career advancement in industry or on a professional team); Community Service
(volunteer work performed by student athletes); Facility (a specific area designated for
athletes to study); Faculty Connections (student athletes can connect with faculty outside
of office hours); Financial Aide (funding to help student athletes pay for education
related expenses); Graduate School Prep (student preparation for graduate school);
Laptop Checkout; Life Skills (Essential skills for success); Mentoring Program (any type
of mentoring program specifically for student athletes); and Tutoring (tutors only for
student athletes).
The common resources were compiled; we ended up with seven resources that
were put into a student athlete success program master template. Those resources
59
60
included Academic Advising, Career/Professional Development, Community Service,
Facility, Laptop Checkout, Life Skills and Tutoring. Resources that were not part of the
common seven resources were not discarded but should be considered as supplemental
resources as we have seen the need and use for all these resources, resource variations
can be based on specific student athlete population needs.
I wanted to touch on a few important points academic support for student
athletes. Student athletes are a special population with special academic and athletic
needs. Because of their demanding schedules, all student athletes are in need of
academic support. Expectations for student athletes is a two sided coin; just as student
athletes need to be physically prepared for practice and gaems, they also need to be
academically prepared for grades and graduation. This researcher would like to take this
chance to express my reactions and thoughts of this study.
I do think that institutions of higher education are making an effort to increase
academic success of their athletes with evidence like increased transfer rates from a two
year institution to a four year, increased grade point averages, increased retention rates
and increased graduation rates. I also think that there is a growing understanding that
academic support is one way to help ensure that the student athlete is able to continue
playing and earn a college degree. With the various tracking abilities that are now visible
on the NCAA website, it is more apparent that the public and administration are
interested in the academic success of our student athletes.
My research and experience has shown that support for student athlete
academic support has to come from many avenues. The student athlete has to feel
encouraged, receive guidance and support from coaches, faculty, staff and administration.
61
Here are my suggested Student Athlete Success Program Requirements: For
the program to work, the coaching staff and administration have to be fully supportive
and have full buy in. The coach will be a very important and influential factor in
requiring academic excellence. This can start at the recruitment phase were academic
expectations are explained, and then when the student athlete starts their first semester
until the last semester – academic expectations are enforced with consistency and there
are consequences for non-compliance. The coach will be important, but still needs help
from others.
Athlete academic success is a team effort. Assistant coaches will help with
enforcing expectations and consequences. The athletic department and institution would
be involved in academic success by developing or providing necessary program
resources. Feedback from faculty and staff on student athlete struggles will also be
useful to in the process of academic monitoring for the mentor, coach, or resource
coordinator/supervisor is easily accomplished with a quick email or feedback response
form.
Student athlete academic program participation needs to be mandatory. With
the hectic schedules of the student athletes an optional program will most likely not be
utilized by the players as they might believe that they are already too busy to fit in any
more activities. Weekly participation with an hourly requirement would be most useful
for student athletes because coursework is daily.
Program participation can be enforced mainly through required study hall
hours, academic monitoring with a mentor, and attendance of at least life skills
workshops or required one-on-one tutoring if necessary. Study hall should be a
62
participation requirement for all entering freshman or new transfer student athletes. For
example, five hours or more of program use in the facility each week (study hall,
tutoring, mentor meetings, etc.) documented by logging in at entrance and exit of the
facility. See appendix C for athlete timesheet hour participation example.
Study hall participation requirement can be waived if a satisfactory grade
point average has been achieved and has to be maintained. Grades will be based off only
academic grades – excluding any sport specific grades. Grades from the previous
semester will have to be evaluated on an individual student athlete basis prior to the start
of the semester. Coaches would be informed from the resource coordinator/supervisor on
who will participate. The resource coordinator/supervisor will also coordinate a time
with each coach to meet with the team to explain participation rules and regulations,
operation hours, participation requirement hours, etc.
Coaches have to implement consequences for players who do not participate
to the program requirements. Consequences would be based on coach preference. For
example, if a student athlete does not complete their required study hours during the
week or they do not abide by the facility rules (being disruptive during study time), they
will have opportunity time (OTs) after practice or in the early morning, partial game
suspension, or even game suspension. If coaches do not implement consequences, student
athletes will not take the program seriously. Student athlete buy in is not as critical as
coach by in because the coach will be able to require and enforce participation by student
athletes.
The facility is also really important resource, or even just a designated space.
The facility would need at least one resource coordinator/supervisor that would manage
63
the area(s) and track student athlete study hall hour participation. Management of the area
includes monitoring student athlete behavior, help with resource accessibility, and act as
a liaison for student athletes. If possible, academic advisors, tutors, and coaches should
also be housed in this area to serve as a “one-stop-shop” for student athletes. Student
athlete participation hours could be tracked with a computer software program where
student athletes sign in with their student identification number. If funds cannot be
afforded for this, student athletes can be tracked with a time punch card or even tracking
done manually by the coordinator/supervisor. Office space for the coordinator/supervisor
would be ideal, but not a requirement.
In the facility, a best case scenario would be to have student athletes work
separately in cubicles. The usage of just a large open space should be discouraged as it
can encourage socializing not only among teammates but also non-athletes who want to
socialize with the student athletes. Computer labs should also be limited to academic
work only as student athletes can also be distracted by social media, youtube, etc. The in
house resource coordinator/supervisor would be the one to monitor these areas/items.
If facility funds are an issue, try to work in conjunction with another student
academic program. For example if your institution already has a student resource center
(for all students), see if you can work in coordination with them to utilize resources that
are already in existence. If they have tutors, see if it is possible to block off a timeframe
each week with their tutors. If they already have study areas, see if one room can be
changed into a designated student athlete study area. If they have a computer lab, see if
you can reserve a block of time each week for student athletes.
64
Recommendations for Further Research
(Researcher)
It would be of benefit for future researchers to analyze additional factors to
determine the specific influence these variables may have on the academic success of
student athletes.
Researchers may want to study the effects of entrance requirement standards
on the later academic success of the student athletes.
This same study could be replicated for one entire conference (I only did top
5) and all NCAA conferences to see if the same resources would be identified or would
new resources surface.
Recommendations for Further Research
(Institution)
It would be of benefit for future research at the institution level to analyze the
costs for student athlete success programs at the two year and four year level. If
institutions are interested in adding such a program, estimated costs would be useful to
include in grant writing, unit planning, or program development or the program can start
as an addition to an already existing student resource program/center.
Further research at the institution level that provides a comparison on types of
administrative support that is available to institutions with high graduation rates and low
graduation rates. By surveying institutions to analyze who is in support of student athletes
(coaches, faculty and other instructional staff, professional non-faculty,
secretarial/clerical, executive/administrative/managerial, etc.). If support is low,
65
interviews at the institution level with all involved administration could be conducted to
explore why support is not there.
It would be of benefit for future research at the institution level to analyze or
survey student athletes who did not graduate to see if student athletes were place
appropriately, were they advised effectively, and did they receive the correct education
plan.
Conclusions
What this researcher has tried to communicate is that academic support for
student athletes is very important if we want to see the athletes succeed in more ways
than one.
Academic support is very important for student athletes because of the high
demand of their sport especially high profile sports such as football. One leading factor to
student athlete academic success is a strong student athlete success program at the two or
four year level (Storch et al. 2009). Academic resources should be provided for our
student athletes at any institution level beginning at the two-year level to the four-year DI
level.
All student athletes are in need of academic support and should be required to
participate in an academic support program. Student athlete academic programs are a
requirement for DI institutions, but this requirement should be implemented at all
institutions that have sports as the student athlete population has proven to show a need
for such support. The student athlete academic program template is proven successful at
the four-year level since it was taken directly from institutions that have shown academic
66
success through high GSRs in their conference. I am confident that it is a template can be
implemented by any athletic program.
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APPENDIX A
SUCCESS ACADEMY STUDENT-ATHLETE SUCCESS PROGRAM BROCHURE
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APPENDIX B
Student Athlete Success Program (SASP)
Tutor Verification
Student Name: ___________________________________________
Date
Time In-Time
Out
Tutor
Subject
Tutor
Initials
Attendance verified: _________________________________________________
(Valid only with SASP official stamp)
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APPENDIX C
11/26/2012
ATHLETE TIMESHEET REPORT
Punchclock Version 4.0.4
Copyright(c) 2011
Division: Baseball (1 hour minimum)
A., Jason
11/20/12
Total Hours: 1h 02m
10:35 AM
11/20/12
11:37 AM
1h 02m
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------B., Mason
11/19/12
Total Hours: 0h 29m
10:33 AM
11/19/12
11:02 AM
0h 29m
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------B., Cameron
11/20/12
Total Hours: 1h 01m
12:12 PM
11/20/12
01:13 PM
1h 01m
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C., Zeke
11/19/12
11/20/12
Total Hours: 1h 26m
08:38 AM
11:45 AM
11/19/12
11/20/12
09:24 AM
12:25 PM
0h 46m
0h 40m
No Show D., Josh
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------G., Travis
11/19/12
Total Hours: 1h 02m
12:18 PM
11/19/12
01:20 PM
1h 02m
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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APPENDIX D
TOP 5 STUDENT ATHLETE ACADEMIC
PROGRAM DESCRIPTIONS
The below are Stanford’s academic program resources currently available to their
student athletes in alphabetical order. All Stanford information below can be found at:
https://undergrad.stanford.edu/advising/about-advising/advising-student-athletes

Academic Advising - Their academic advising includes five advisors that
help with course section, scheduling conflicts, major declarations, four-year plans,
research opportunities, personal issues, faculty connections, tutoring/study skills,
exams while traveling, and summer school.

Academic Monitoring – Expanded Advising Programs (EAP) consists of
two programs: Partners for Academic Excellence for Academic Excellence
(PAE); and LGBT Community Academic Support & Advising (LGBT-CASA). A
graduate student mentor will provide direction in a variety of areas which include
academic monitoring.

Alumni Mentoring - Career Services offers student athletes to be paired
with an alumni mentor. Resources are also available for student athletes to meet and
have dinner with alumni working in their field of interest.

Career Development - Student athletes also have access to achieving their
career aspirations through their Career Services and/or Graduate Studies Program.
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
Community Service - Student athletes are involved in a variety of
community service programs via Cardinal for the Community, Cardinal Speaker’s
Bureau, and Local Heroes. An advisory committee consisting of student athletes
exists to address student athlete concerns on campus.

Facility - Their student athlete main resources and programs include a
private facility reserved for only student athletes. The facility is open six days a
week. The area includes study tables and computers.

Financial Aid - Summer school financial aid are available based on
availability of funding and student athlete eligibility. Fifth year aid is also available
but must be approved by the athletic director. Student athlete assistance fund is
additional financial assistance to student athletes determined by the financial aid
office.

Graduate School Prep - Student athletes also have access to achieving
their graduate school aspirations through their Career Services and/or Graduate
Studies Program.

Laptop Check out - Stanford has a laptop checkout program for student
athletes to use during road trips and competitions.

Life Skills - To also help with transition, first-year students enroll in a
one-unit class, in which small groups of student athletes will meet with mentors to
learn about time management, campus resources, communicating with faculty,
research opportunities, internships, meet alumni in your field of interest, and
dinners with faculty and alumni.
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
Mentoring - Partners for Academic Excellence is their mentoring program
(PAE). PAE was created to help student athlete’s transition successfully at Stanford
by taking a 1 unit course that helps transitioning to Stanford academically and
socially.

Tutoring - Tutoring at Stanford includes drop-in tutoring, and group.
The below are UCLA’s academic program resources currently available to
their student athletes in alphabetical order. All UCLA information below can be
found at:
http://www.uclabruins.com/ViewArticle.dbml?&DB_OEM_ID=30500&ATCLID=
208272554
The mission of the UCLA Academic & Student Services Office (AS2) and its
S.U.C.C.E.S.S. Program is to provide an interactive learning environment that
emphasizes life-long learning habits, goal setting, teamwork, leadership and character.
This program is centered on the idea of the self-sufficient, independent learner, the
S.U.C.C.E.S.S. Program features academic counseling, academic and student support
services, and student-athlete development programs that support and motivate studentathletes to reach their full potential academically and personally.
The AS2 team promotes a healthy balance between academics and athletics, and
embraces UCLA's "True Bruin" philosophy setting forth the ethical standards of integrity,
excellence, accountability, and respect. Our commitment is to assist student-athletes in
their transition to the university, earn their UCLA degree, and develop their skills and
confidence to be champions in life.
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
Academic Advising - UCLA has four student athlete academic advisors.

Academic Monitoring - An Academic Accountability Program monitors
the academic behaviors of student athletes. Student athletes attend mandatory
academic support sessions. Unexcused absences have penalties such as runs,
suspension from practice, game suspension, etc.

Athlete Council - UCLA has a leadership group consisted of twenty four
teams called the Bruin Athletic Council. The council meets every three weeks
throughout the academic year to provide a voice for the student athletes regarding
experience, programming needs, outreach projects, and legislation.

Career Development - Career development is a two-part resource. Athletes
to Business helps with student athlete job placement with career planning,
recruitment development, interview skills help, even help with arranging interviews
with fortune five hundred companies. Career Athletes provides current and former
student’s athletes the opportunity to build a professional network with
current/alumni student athletes for business organizations interested in hiring
student athletes. They also help in the transition from sports to the work place.

Community Service - Community service is also available for each team
to participate in. These service opportunities give student athletes a chance to
mentor youth, give back to the community and serve as ambassadors for UCLA
athletics.

Facility - UCLA provides student athletes with their own dedicated facility
that includes various study areas and computer lab.
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
Financial Aid - Summer financial aid is available to eligible student
athletes.

Graduate School Prep – UCLA offers several post-graduate school
scholarships for student athletes. Student athletes can receive graduate school
guidance from the academic advisors or career development.

Life Skills - Various workshops conducted by Athletic department staff,
UCLA staff/faculty and community professionals to teach student athletes life skills
such as interpersonal communication, leadership, teambuilding, substance use and
misuse, nutrition, etiquette, time management, stress management, etc. The Wooden
Academy Seminars, team workshops and the Leadership Development Program are
also offered to teach student athletes about leadership, character and teamwork.
Student athletes are required to attend both.

Mentoring - Student Athlete Mentoring (SAMS) is their student athlete
mentor program. Specific mentor(s) assigned to each team trained and available as a
role model or resource to the student athletes on various issues such as alcohol and
drug abuse, nutrition and eating disorders, counseling and referral skills, safety,
stress, and sexual harassment and misconduct.

Tutoring – Tutoring is offered as part of a student athletes benefits.
The below are UW’s academic program resources currently available to their
student athletes in alphabetical order. All UW information below can be found at:
http://www.gohuskies.com/ViewArticle.dbml?DB_OEM_ID=30200&ATCLID=2
08596160
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Founded in 1861, the University of Washington is a public school located in Seattle,
Washington. UW has sixteen colleges and schools and offer 1,800 undergraduate courses
each quarter with over 12,000 students graduating with their bachelor’s, master’s,
doctoral, and professional degrees annually.
UW was the first to develop a student athlete academic service program started in
1970. Every program developed since has been modeled after this program’s business
model. UW employs fourteen staff and eighty-five tutors specifically for student athletes.

Handbook:
http://gohuskies.com/pdf9/2601325.pdf?DB_OEM_ID=30200

Academic Advisors - Academic advisors are also available to provide
guidance with aspects of educational planning, including developing class
scheduled, admission to majors, planning for graduation and reviewing career
interests. Student athletes are also given priority registration. Schedules are
developed to accommodate team schedule.
UW also offers sports psychological services knowing that student athletes
face unique challenges while in school. This service may apply to a variety of
psychological principles to assist student athletes in enhancing their performance in
the sport, in the classroom and in life.

Academic Monitoring – Academic advisors monitor student athlete
academic progress.

Athlete Council - There is also an advisory council that is composed of
members from each team, and represents the opinion of their peers and strives to
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create a positive experience for all student athletes. This group coordinates social
activities, community outreach projects, and discuss issues of concern to fellow
student athletes.

Career Development - Career Coaching assists student athletes with
resume prep, job search communications, marketing, interview strategies via large
sessions or one on one session. Student athlete career development helps student
athletes build their professional network and prepare for jobs via social networking.

Community Service - Student athletes participate in a number of
community service events each year. Community service is an excellent team
building activity and provides lifelong lessons on giving to one’s own community.
Community service reinforces leadership development; strengthen public speaking
skills, organization, and teaching and communication skills. Student athletes serve
as positive role models for children and support various causes. Students also
participate in DAWG PAWS that promotes healthy lifestyles within Seattle Public
Schools.

Facility - Student athletes also have The Ackerley Academic Center which
houses a computer lab, study rooms, tutoring rooms, wireless internet and printing
services in the center of the practice facilities. The Academic Center and tutoring is
available all days except Saturday.

Graduate School Prep - Post graduate scholarships and awards are
available to student athletes through various sponsors.

Laptop Checkout - Laptops are also available for checkout during travel.
89

Life Skills - Coordinators refer student-athletes to academic support
services that exist on campus. The Developing Athletes through Wellness, Growth,
and Service (D.A.W.G.S.) provides student athletes with the tools and resources to
reach their maximum potential as students, athletes, and individuals.
Life skills classes available to student athletes that will prepare them for life at
UW and after. The classes discuss topics such as leadership and money
management. To improve study skills coordinators work one-on-one with their
student-athletes to teach skills such as time-management, lecture note processing,
active reading, academic writing, database researching, test preparation and testtaking strategies.

Mentoring - The UW Alumni Association offers alumni mentoring of
student athletes through career development process; but also offers peer mentors.

Tutoring - All student-athletes, from full scholarship to walk-on students,
are eligible, at no charge, to request tutoring for selected classes. Tutoring is often
done in small groups of two to three students, but one-on-one tutorial support is also
available. Tutors typically are graduate students or undergraduates who have
demonstrated excellent academic skills.
Learning Specialists help students assess academic strengths and weaknesses and
develop individual education plans. Learning Specialists work directly with students on
academic issues and perform preliminary diagnostic testing for students who feel they
may have some form of learning difference. Learning specialists work closely with
Disability Resources for students to receiving necessary learning accommodations.
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The below are UU’s academic program resources currently available to their student
athletes in alphabetical order. All UU information below can be found at:
http://utahutes.cstv.com/academics.html
The UU is located in Salt Lake City, Utah and was founded in 1850. It has more than
eighty undergraduate majors and serves more than 31,000 students. Their Student-Athlete
Support Services staff is dedicated to help student-athletes succeed in the class room and
in life after college. This staff support students academically, and we help them develop
the skills necessary to excel outside of athletics. Their services include academic
advising, content tutoring, career development, and community services. Academic
support includes one administrator, five advisors, three learning specialists, one Life
Skills coordinator and two mentor interns.

Handbook
http://grfx.cstv.com/photos/schools/utah/genrel/auto_pdf/201213/misc_non_event/StudentHandbook2013.pdf

Academic Advising - Advisors help with major explorations, priority
registration, and life skills planning.

Academic Monitoring – Academic Advisors will monitor student athlete
academics and eligibility.

Athlete Advisory - Student Athlete Advisory Committee (SAAC) serves
as a liaison between the administration and the student athletes. It provides a means
for athletes to have a voice in the departmental policies and NCAA rules. Members
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include representatives from each team who disseminate meeting information to
their respective teams.

Career/Professional Development - Career Planning is available to student
athletes by enrolling in ED PS 3860 – Successful Career Planning course. UU’s
Career Development Program offers a variety of services available to student
athletes to help student athletes develop and implement career plans. Services
include major selection, job shadowing, internships, networking, resume
development, and interview skills through workshops.

Community Service - As a University of Utah student athlete, athletes are
viewed as a role model in the Salt Lake community. Student athletes have many
opportunities to become involved in the community, thus giving back to the
community in return for all the support it gives to Utah Athletics.

Facility - There is a full-service academic facility for student athletes via
computer labs, study space, lunge, conference room, and academic counseling,
while also providing a social gathering place for the student-athletes. Facilities are
open all week except Saturday.

Financial Aid - Eligibility for athletics financial for the summer session is
available, athletics aid for injured student athletes, and fifth year aid also available.

Laptop Checkout - Laptop/iPad checkout available for student athletes for
travel and competitions.

Life Skills - Preparing U for the Future is an athlete’s affairs/life skill
program which helps to prepare students for life after sports and college. This
92
program provides student athletes with skills and experiences through mentoring,
shadowing and internships that focus on the student athlete as a whole emphasizing
on academics, athletic and professional development. All freshmen are required to
enroll in Life-Skills for student athlete’s course.
There is also a personal development program. This program provides an
avenue for student athletes to realize their potential while in college by promoting a
healthy, positive and balanced lifestyle by being proactive and focusing on
prevention. Various workshops are available on health related and student success
issues.

Mentoring - Student Athlete Mentors (SAMS) are also available to help
students with academics, study for tests, academic planning, and time management.
Mentors usually work with at-risk and freshman student athletes.

Tutoring - Tutoring - Tutors are available Sunday-Thursday via drop in
hours or by appointment. Study Table is available to any or all student athletes may
be assigned study table at the choice (tutoring) of their coaches or athletic academic
advisor. Attendance is mandatory if assigned. Student managers work with coaches
or supervisors to monitor academic progress of each student athlete each year.
The below are CU’s academic program resources currently available to their student athletes in alphabetical order. All CU information below can be found at: http://www.cubuffs.com/ViewArticle.dbml?&DB_OEM_ID=600&ATCLID=1527451 CU is a public institution that was established in 1876 located in the city of Boulder
near Denver. The CU Athletic Department Student Services group is comprised of Sports
93
Medicine, Strength and Conditioning, Student-Athlete Development (including the
NCAA CHAMPS/Life Skills program), Equipment and Apparel, Sports Video and food
service. All units of Student Services are integral to the educational and athletic
experience for student-athletes. They work collaboratively to prepare our young people
both athletically and personally.

Academic Advising - Their academic advising includes staff of thirteen
dedicated to student athletes.

Athlete Council - There is a Student-Athlete Advisory Committee (SAAC)
that is a dynamic group of student-athletes dedicated to providing a voice for the
interests and concerns of the student-athletes. The committee focuses on fostering
camaraderie in areas such as: academics, community service, university relations,
student-athlete welfare and career development.

Career/Professional Development - For career development, for student
athletes, the program offers various programs, workshops, events that differ each
year for the student athletes. With items such as assessments, resume preparation,
professional development, mock interviews, etc. Student athletes have required
study hall hours to complete each week.
CU offers a Professional Sports Counseling Panel which provides
individualized consulting on the process for evaluating pro sports career potential,
including guidance concerning participation in combines, tryouts, and camps;
opportunities to meet sports agents through an annual “agent fair”; assistance in
94
interviewing agents or other professional advisors; workshop on managing personal
finances; assistance in understanding agent contracts.

Community Service - Teams participate in various community service
events as a way to give back to the community and promote leadership through
service.

Facility - Specific for student athletes, their facility includes a computer
lab, study hall, and lounge with computers also available for non-academic use. The
lab is open all week except for Saturday.

Laptop Checkout - Laptop checkout available for tutor sessions or travel.

Life Skills - The Leadership Development Program is student centered and
educationally based, targeting all student-athletes. Through a culture of positive
leadership, all student-athletes will inherently contribute to excellence in their
academic work, in their athletic pursuits and in their personal lives by practicing
basic leadership principles and skills. UC also participate in NCAA leadership
forum each year.

Success Training and Excellence Planning (STEPS) offered through our
life skills program will provide student-athletes with an environment for growth that
enables their development as exemplary citizens, lifelong learners and champions
on and off the field. Their student athlete counseling and psychological services
guides student athletes by providing opportunities in increase self-confidence, selfawareness, advance personal grown and strengthen communication and decision
making skills.
95

Tutoring - Tutoring is available specific for student athletes at study hall
or via student athlete request. Review sessions can also be arranged periodically
during the term.
APPENDIX E
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