Using English for Academic Purposes
A Guide for Students in Higher Education
Academic Writing
Andy Gillett
http://www.uefap.com
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INTRODUCTION TO
ESSAY WRITING
2
Writing is necessary for all students in
higher education. It is a process. It
starts from understanding your task. It
then goes on to doing the research
and reading. The next stage is planning
and writing various drafts. This is
followed by proof-reading and editing.
All this should lead to the final text.
3
You always write with a readership
in mind. You always write with a
purpose: to explain, to persuade
and so on.
Academic writing must be learned
by observation, study and
experiment.
4
Academic writing is clearly defined
by having a clear audience; a clear
purpose, either an exam question
to answer or a research project to
report on. It is also clearly
structured.
5
Academic writing in English is
LINEAR:
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- it starts at the beginning and finishes
at the end, with every part
contributing to the main line of
argument, without digression or
repetition. Whatever kind of writing
you are producing, you are responsible
for making your line of argument clear
and presenting it in an orderly fashion
so that the reader can follow.
7
Your written work should have the
following sections:
Introduction
Main body
Conclusion
8
The introduction will usually
consist of some background
information, which will give the
reason for the writing and explain,
to some extent, how this will be
done. This must be closely
connected to the essay question.
9
The main body will then contain
some data - either experimental,
from ideas or from reading - and
some argument.
10
This will then lead to the
conclusion, which will refer back to
the introduction and show that the
purpose has been fulfilled.
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ESSAYS IN ENGLISH
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In English, an essay is a piece of
argumentative writing: it is several
paragraphs long and it is written
about one topic. It is usually based
on your reading. The aim of the
essay should be deduced strictly
from the wording of the title or
question, and needs to be defined
at the beginning.
13
The purpose of an essay is to say
something using the ideas of the
subject, to present ideas you have
learned in your own way. The
emphasis should be on working with
other people's ideas, but expressed in
your own words. The ideas and people
that you refer to need to be made
explicit by a system of referencing.
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“Students are reading to create a
text of their own, trying to
integrate information from sources
with ideas of their own, and
attempting to do so under the
guidance of a purpose”.
(L. Flower, 1990)
15
English essays are
LINEAR:
16
- they start at the beginning and finish
at the end, with every part
contributing to the main line of
argument, without digressions or
repetition. Writers are responsible for
making their line of argument clear
and presenting it in an orderly fashion
so that the reader can follow.
17
Each paragraph discusses one
major point and each paragraph
should lead directly to the next.
The paragraphs are tied together
with an introduction and a
conclusion.
18
The main text of the essay has
three main parts:
1) An introduction
2) A main body
3) A conclusion
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THE INTRODUCTION:
The introduction should introduce
the central idea or the main
purpose of the writing.
It consists of two parts:
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a) It should include a few general
statements about the subject to
provide a background to your essay
and to attract the reader's attention. It
should try to explain why you are
writing the essay. It may include a
definition of terms in the context of
the essay, etc.
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b) It should also include a statement of
the specific subdivisions of the topic
and/or indication of how the topic is
going to be tackled in order to
specifically address the question.
22
THE MAIN BODY:
The main body consists of one or more
paragraphs of ideas and arguments. Each
paragraph develops a subdivision of the
topic. The paragraphs of the essay contain
the main ideas and arguments of the essay
together with illustrations or examples.
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The paragraphs are linked in
order to connect the ideas.
The purpose of the essay must
be made clear and the reader
must be able to follow its
development.
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THE CONCLUSION:
The conclusion includes the writer's
final points.
It should clearly signal to the reader
that the essay is finished and leave a
clear impression that the purpose of
the essay has been achieved.
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a) It should recall the issues raised in
the introduction and draw together
the points made in the main body;
b) It should also explain the overall
significance of the conclusions. What
general points can be drawn from the
essay as a whole?
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I. INTRODUCTION
General Statement
Organisation Statement
II. MAIN BODY
A. Introductory Sentence
Point 1
Point 2
Point 3
...
Concluding Sentence
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B. Introductory Sentence
Point 1
Point 2
Point 3
...
Concluding Sentence
C. Introductory Sentence
Point 1
Point 2
Point 3
...
Concluding Sentence
28
III. CONCLUSION
Recall issues in introduction;
draw together main points;
final comment.
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Which is the process
of WRITING
an essay?
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Task
Skills Needed
1. Read the question and Thinking
understand what you academically
are required to do.
Think about the
subject, the purpose
and the audience.
Product
Essay
subject
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Task
Skills Needed
2. Think about what you Brainstorming
know about the
subject. Write it down
in some way.
Product
Diagrams
or notes
32
Task
Skills Needed
3. Go to the library and Library/ the
find relevant books or Internet
articles; search the
research skills
Internet.
Product
Reading
list
33
Task
Skills Needed
Product
4. Find the books on your Reading skills: List of
reading list and study skimming and materials
them.
scanning
studied
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Task
5. Make notes on these
books and articles.
Record full details of
the materials you use.
Skills Needed
Product
reading in detail; Notes
selecting and
note-taking;
paraphrasing/
summarising
35
Task
6. Organise your
essay/assignment.
Skills Needed
Planning;
organisation
Product
Essay plan
36
Task
Skills Needed
7. Type or write your first writing from
draft.
notes;
Synthesis;
writing
paragraphs;
Typing/wordprocessing
Product
First draft
37
Task
8. Discuss your first draft
informally with
friends, other
members of your class
and your lecturer if
possible.
Skills Needed
Product
speaking skills; List of
listening skills; revisions/
discussion
changes
skills
38
Task
9. Revise your first draft,
bearing in mind any
comments that were
made in your
discussions. Go back to
2. if necessary.
Produce your second
draft.
Skills Needed
Product
use of
Second
dictionaries and draft
reference
books;
writing
introduction
and conclusion;
quoting/writing
a list of
references
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Task
10. Proofread your
draft.
Skills Needed
Product
checking for spelling
Assignment
mistakes; checking
with changes
punctuation and
marked.
grammar;
checking vocabulary
use;
checking style;
checking organisation,
references etc.;
checking for plagiarism
40
Task
11. Produce a final
typed version.
Skills Needed
typing/wordprocessing;
writing
title/contents page
Product
Final
assignment
41
Task
12. Check everything.
Skills Needed
Final check
Product
Hand in
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Understanding the
question
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Students often do worse than they
should in examinations or when
writing assignments in English in the
UK, not because their writing skills are
weak or because their knowledge of
the subject matter is insufficient, but
because they have not fully
understood what they have been
asked to do.
44
To score high marks in an
examination or an essay, it is
important to fully understand what
a question means and how it
should be answered.
45
In order to understand the
question it is useful to analyse the
questions and to search for certain
components. The following
technique is very useful.
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The components of a question:
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Most essay titles or examination
questions contain the following
components:
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1) Subject matter or topic. What, in
the most general terms, is the
question about?
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2) Aspect or focus. This is the angle
or point of view on the subject
matter. What aspect of the subject
matter is the question about?
50
3) Instruction or comment. This
refers to the instruction word or
phrase. These instructions tell the
student exactly what to do.
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Some questions may also contain
the following components:
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4) Restriction or expansion of the
subject matter. This is the detailed
limitation of the topic. What, in
specific terms, is the question
about?
53
5) Viewpoint. This refers to the
requirement, in the question, that
the writer writes from a point of
view dictated by the setter of the
question.
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Analysing the question:
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To analyse the title, it is useful to
follow the following steps:
1) Identify the topic.
[ecotourism]
2) If the topic has a restriction or
expansion, identify it.
[in the 90s; and the Australian
continent]
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3) Search for the aspect. This is the angle
or point of view on the subject matter.
Often, the aspect is a phrase ending in 'of',
e.g. 'the importance of', 'the contribution
of'. Be sure you are clear about how the
aspect relates to the subject matter. It can
be an example of it, a stage in its sequence,
the cause or effect, one of the solutions to
it as a problem etc.
[the pros and cons of ecotourism]
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4) Identify the instruction (which often
comes at the beginning) and decide
what it means and what it requires you
to do.
5) Check whether there is a viewpoint
and if so, if it is the same as your own.
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The vocabulary of questions:
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Here is a list of the most common
instruction key-words with an
explanation for each.
Note: The explanations given for these
words can be a rough guide only. You
must always go by the total meaning of
the title or question. Read the question
carefully: do not jump to conclusions
about what is required on the basis of
these words only.
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Account for requires an answer
that gives the reasons for the
subject of the question.
to account for = to give
a reason for something
that has happened
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Analyse requires an answer that
takes apart an idea, concept or
statement in order to consider all
the factors it consists of. Answers
of this type should be very
methodical and logically organised.
62
Compare requires an answer that
sets items side by side and shows
their similarities and differences. A
balanced (fair, objective) answer is
expected.
63
Consider requires an answer in
which the students describe and
give their thoughts on the subject.
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Contrast requires an answer that
points out only the differences
between two items.
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Criticise requires an answer that
points out mistakes or weaknesses,
and that also indicates any
favourable aspects of the subject
of the question. It requires a
balanced answer.
66
Define requires an answer that
explains the precise meaning of a
concept.
67
Describe requires an answer that
says what something is like, how it
works and so on.
68
Discuss requires an answer that
explains an item or concept, and then
gives details about it with supportive
information, examples, points for and
against, and explanations for the facts
put forward. It is important to give
both sides of an argument and come
to a conclusion.
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Elucidate requires an answer that
explains what something means,
makes it clear (lucid).
70
Evaluate/Assess require an answer
that decides and explains how great,
valuable or important something is.
The judgement should be backed by a
discussion of the evidence or
reasoning involved.
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Explain requires an answer that
offers a rather detailed and exact
explanation of an idea or principle,
or a set of reasons for a situation
or attitude.
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Explore requires an answer that
examines the subject thoroughly
and considers it from a variety of
viewpoints.
73
Illustrate requires an answer that
consists mainly of examples to
demonstrate or prove the subject
of the question. It is often added to
another instruction.
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Justify requires an answer that
gives only the reasons for a
position or argument. Note,
however, that the proposition to
be argued may be a negative one
(e.g. Justify the abolition of the
death penalty.)
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Prove/Disprove both of these require
answers that demonstrate the logical
arguments and/or evidence connected
with a proposition. Prove requires the
'pro' points, and disprove requires the
'contra' points.
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State requires an answer that
expresses the relevant points
briefly and clearly without lengthy
discussion or minor details.
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Summarise/Outline require an
answer that contains a summary of
all the available information about
a subject, i.e. only the main points
and not the details should be
included. Questions of this type
often require short answers.
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Trace is found most frequently in
historical questions (but not only in
History courses); it requires the
statement and brief description in
logical or chronological order of the
stages (steps) in the development of
e.g. a theory, a person's life, a process,
etc.
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To what extent is X true? requires
an answer that discusses and
explains in what ways X is true and
in what ways X is not true.
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Some other important words used
in questions:
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concept: an important idea
concise: short, brief
in the context of: referring to,
inside the subject of
82
criteria : what standards you would
expect; what questions you would
expect to be answered
deduction : the conclusion or
generalisation you come to after
looking carefully at all the facts
factor(s) : the circumstances bringing
about a result
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function : what something does its
purpose or activities
implications : results that are not
obvious, long term, suggested results
limitations : explain where something
is not useful or not relevant
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with/by reference to : make sure you
write about the following subject
in relation to : only a certain part of
the first topic is needed
role : what part something plays, how
it works, especially in co-operation
with others
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scope : the area where something acts
or has influence
significance : meaning and importance
valid/validity : is there evidence and
are there facts to prove the
statement?
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Examples of questions:
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- Account for the large-scale
immigration into Malaya in the late
19th Century.
- Analyse the changes in US policy
towards China during the 1970s.
- Assess the contribution of Asoka to
the spread of Buddhism in India.
88
- Explain the concept of 'role'. Of what
use is the concept to a practising
manager?
- Compare and contrast cellulose and
lignin decomposition in soil.
- List the criteria you would apply to
the presentation of government
expenditure policy.
89
- Critically discuss economies and
diseconomies of scale.
- What deductions can be made after
studying the cell exhibited at C?
- Evaluate the contribution of political
parties to the development of public
policy in the United States and Canada.
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- To what extent does the British public
participate in the political process?
- What factors determine the elasticity of
demand curves?
- Describe the histology and functional
importance of striated muscle.
- Illustrate your answer by typical
temperature profiles.
91
- Discuss the implications of the Milgram and
Zimbardo experiments for understanding people's
behaviour in situations involving authority.
- Discuss the use of behaviour therapy in clinical
psychology and comment on its limitations.
- Illustrate the diversity of anaerobic bacteria by
reference to either practical importance or
mechanism of energy generation.
92
- Outline the requirements as to 'locus standi' in
relation to injunctives and declaratives.
- Discuss the role of international capital
movements in a world payments system.
- Define Administrative Law indicating its
general scope and function.
- Consider the significance of the year 1848 for
the Hapsburg Empire.
93
- Summarise the main requirements of
the law in respect of the employeremployee relationship.
- “They are often at a disadvantage in
dealing with industry at a technical
level”. How valid is this criticism of
British Civil Servants?
94
- To what extent is an understanding of the
various approaches to industrial relations
useful in allowing us to make better sense
of the changing nature of the employment
relationship?
- Discuss the extent to which Human
Resource Management and its associated
individualism has led to a demise in
collectivism and the role of trade unions.
95
- Discuss the respective influences of
states and markets in the
contemporary world economy
characterised by globalisation.
- Analyse the process of transition
from a command economy to a market
economy, drawing upon the many
recent examples.
96
Exercise
Analyse the example questions
mentioned above:
Identify the topic.
If the topic has a restriction or
expansion, identify it.
Search for the aspect.
Identify the instruction.
Check whether there is a viewpoint.
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