CARPIO’S “INTENTIONAL TORTS IN PHILIPPINE LAW”:
A COMMENTARY*
Rommel J. Casis**
I. INTRODUCTION
This a brief commentary on the paper Intentional Torts in Philippine Law
written by now Senior Associate Justice Carpio when he was still a student in the
University of the Philippines College of Law. The paper is a seminal work which
deserves a far more comprehensive and in depth analysis. This commentary is
merely an attempt to possibly initiate steps in that direction.
This commentary is also by no means an exhaustive discussion of Justice
Carpio's views on intentional torts but is limited merely to the examination of
the contents of his paper as written in 1972. We imagine that Justice Carpio, in
the course of his long and illustrious career as lawyer and magistrate, has spoken
on and written about the subject on numerous other occasions. Hence,
throughout this commentary, we would be examining the arguments made by
"the paper" in deference to Justice Carpio's views written or spoken of
elsewhere.
II. OVERVIEW
Senior Associate Justice Carpio’s 1972 paper entitled Intentional Torts in
Philippine Law argues against what is perceived as an unwarranted focus on quasidelicts in jurisprudence, which results in torts being neglected. This neglect is
attributed to the lack of understanding of tort provisions in the Civil Code and
the tendency of the Supreme Court to inject American tort principles into the
concept of quasi-delict. In fact, the argument is made that actions based on
quasi-delict have pre-empted the area of tort law reserved for intentional torts.
* Cite as Rommel Casis, Review, Carpio’s Intentional Torts in Philippine Law: A Commentary,
88 PHIL. L.J. 579, (page cited) (2014). This article is a review of Antonio Carpio, Note, Intentional
Torts in Philippine Law, 47 PHIL. L.J. 649 (1972).
** Assistant Professor of Law, University of the Philippines College of Law. Ll.M.,
Columbia Law School (2010). Ll.B., University of the Philippines (2001); B.A. Political Science,
University of the Philippines (1995).
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To a large extent, this observation still holds true as the number of cases
involving quasi-delicts far outstrips the number that mentions the term
“intentional tort.” At the time this commentary was written, only 11 Philippine
cases mention the term “intentional tort” or its plural. In two of these cases, the
term “intentional tort” appears to be subsumed within the concept of quasidelict or culpa aquiliana.1 In two other cases,2 the term is not even discussed in
the majority opinion. In another case, the term only appears in a footnote.3 In
six cases, 4 the Court mentioned that intentional torts were examples of
independent civil liabilities, but nothing more. In most of these cases, Articles 32
and 34 of the Civil Code are explicitly identified as intentional torts. But none of
these cases were decided on the basis of intentional torts. Thus, no Philippine
case contains a full-blown discussion on the concept. At best, the only
substantial discussion has been the identification of Article 32 and 34 as
intentional torts.
In essence, the paper attempts to remedy the neglect of the concept of
intentional tort through an inquiry into the nature, origin and scope Articles 20,
21 and 26 of the Civil Code.5 The main theory expounded is that, if people are
made more aware how these articles can be used, people will resort to using
these articles more often.
III. PHILIPPINE TORT LAW AND INTENTIONAL TORTS
Before launching into a detailed discussion of the three articles, the
paper proposes a division of Philippine tort law as follows:
1 “In culpa aquiliana, or quasi-delict, (a) when an act or omission causes physical injuries,
or (b) where the defendant is guilty of intentional tort, moral damages may aptly be recovered.”
B.F. Metal v. Lomotan, G.R. No. 170813, Apr. 16, 2008; Expertravel & Tours, Inc. v. Court of
Appeals, G.R. No. 130030, 309 SCRA 141, 146, June 25, 1999.
2 MVRS Publications, Inc. v. Islamic Da’wah Council of the Philippines, Inc., G.R. No.
135306, Jan. 28, 2003; Li v. Sps. Soliman, G.R. No. 165279, June 7, 2011.
3 “In culpa aquiliana, moral damages may be recovered when the act or omission
complained of causes physical injuries or where the defendant is guilty of intentional tort.” Far
East Bank and Trust Co. v. Court of Appeals, G.R. No. 108164, Feb. 23, 1995.
4 Sps. Santos v. Pizardo, G.R. No. 151452, July 29, 2005; Cancio v. Isip, G.R. No.
133978, Nov. 12, 2002; L.G. Foods Corp. v. Pagapong-Agraviador, G.R. No. 158995 Sept. 26,
2006; Lim v. Kou Co Ping, G.R. No. 175256, Aug. 23, 2012; Safeguard Security Agency, Inc. v.
Tangco, G.R. No. 165732, Dec. 14, 2006; Rafael Reyes Trucking Corp. v. People, G.R. No.
129029, Apr. 3, 2000.
5 However, the treatment given to Article 21 is not as extensive as the treatment given
to Articles 20 and 26.
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CARPIO’S “INTENTIONAL TORTS”: A COMMENTARY
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(a) Intentional torts, which may be broken down into two: those
which were adopted from American jurisprudence, and those which
were taken from the codes of civil law jurisdictions; (b) Negligent
torts, which may also be divided into two: those which are covered by
Article 2176 and those which are not; [and] (c) Strict liability tort, such
as the Workmen's Compensation Act, Articles 1711, 2183 and 2187 of
the Civil Code.6
To date, this tripartite division is the best model to explain the scope
and the relationship among the divisions of Philippine tort law. While court
decisions still conflate the concepts of tort and quasi-delict and confuse the
latter with what is clearly strict liability provisions of the Civil Code, the paper
clearly distinguishes the three classifications. If Philippine jurisprudence would
only adhere to this model, there would be less confusing cases.
Noticeably, however, the paper does not define the concept of
intentional tort nor enumerate all the different types of intentional torts. It only
identifies its two sources: those which were adopted from American
jurisprudence, and those which were taken from the codes of civil law
jurisdictions. Considering the context of the paper, it may be assumed that all
the intentional torts the author was referring to are found only in the Civil Code.
Although the paper refers to “tort actions found in the chapter on Human
Relations of the New Civil Code,” it is not clear whether it considers all of these
provisions as intentional torts provisions.7
A. Article 20: Breach of Statutory Duty
The paper notes that although Article 20 is a “fertile source of tort
actions,” it “has never been delved upon by our commentators, and the
Supreme Court has not had the occasion to interpret it.”8 True enough, the 1972
paper far outstrips the discussion in modern law books on Article 20 or the tort
on the breach of statutory duty.9 While most modern commentaries do not
discuss Article 20, the paper explores the vast contours of the legal provision.
Antonio Carpio, Note, Intentional Torts in Philippine Law, 47 PHIL. L.J. 649, 650 (1972).
Id. at 649.
8 Id. at 651.
9 Two writers discuss Articles 19 and 20, but only De Leon offers a brief discussion on
Article 20. See J. CEZAR SANGCO, PHILIPPINE LAW ON TORTS AND DAMAGES (1994); TIMOTEO
AQUINO, TORTS AND DAMAGES (2005); HECTOR DE LEON & HECTOR DE LEON, JR.,
COMMENTS AND CASES ON TORTS AND DAMAGES (2012).
6
7
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There have been several Supreme Court cases which employ Article
20.10 In some of these cases, it only seems that Article 20 is applied because the
provision was invoked. However, a closer inspection of the Court rulings raises
doubts on whether Article 20 is used at all. For instance, in some cases,11 there is
no mention of a statute or law that was violated. In others,12 while Article 20 is
mentioned, it is not clear whether the provision was in fact the basis of the
Court's ruling. Therefore, while there have been several cases which mention
Article 20, there is negligible improvement in the body of jurisprudence on this
neglected tort.
Article 20 states:
ARTICLE 20. Every person who, contrary to law, wilfully or
negligently causes damage to another, shall indemnify the latter for the
same.
Though the paper notes that “this provision appears to be so pervasive
that it is extremely difficult to locate its boundary lines,”13 it is able to effectively
explain the legal contours of this tort by going beyond Philippine jurisprudence.
It embarks on a comparative law approach, drawing from statutes of other
jurisdictions. Because of this approach, the paper is able to describe the
requisites for a proper invocation of the tort. It also anticipates possible conflicts
and provides a way to reconcile seemingly inconsistent or overlapping
provisions. 14 The paper's discussion on Article 20 is quite impressive. The
magnitude of the research required to craft this discussion would be better
appreciated if the reader remembers that this was done before the age of the
Internet.
However, we do have points of disagreement.
10 Although none of these cases refer to Article 20 as a tort arising from breach of
statutory duty.
11 Petrophil Corp. v. Court of Appeals, G.R. No. 122796, Dec. 10, 2001; Bautista v.
Mangaldan Rural Bank, Inc., G.R. No. 100755, Feb. 10, 1994.
12 Globe Mackay Cable and Radio Corp. v. Court of Appeals, G.R. No. 81262, Aug. 25,
1989; Garcia v. Salvador, G.R. No. 168512, Mar. 20, 2007. In the first case, the Court lumps
together Article 19, 20, and 21 and gives the reader the option to decide which of the equally
valid options serves as the basis of its decision. In the second case, the Court mentions Article 20
but it also certain elements of actionable conduct, making it unclear as to what was the actual
basis of its decision.
13 Carpio, supra note 6, at 652
14 Id. at 659.
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The paper points out that “[u]nder the German Code, one may be
vicariously liable for breach of statutory duty committed by persons for whom
one is responsible.”15 It further argues that “[t]he principle underlying Article
2180 of our Code may be extended to breach of statutory duty without in any
way straining the rules of statutory construction.”16 It justifies this by pointing
out that “the Supreme Court has deemed it proper and desirable to apply the
principle of vicarious liability to cases involving intentional wrongdoing,” citing
the cases of Salen v. Balce17 and Fuellas v. Cadano.18
This is a point we must respectfully disagree with. First, the language of
Article 2180 is clear—rules on vicarious liability of certain persons responsible
for particular actors are limited to cases falling under the scope of Article 2176.19
It may be possible for a negligent act, which satisfies the elements of Article
2176, to also constitute a breach of statutory duty under Article 20. But if a
plaintiff is trying to hold a defendant vicariously liable for the negligent act of
another, his claim should be based on quasi-delict under Article 2176 and not
breach of statutory duty under Article 20.
The reason is simple. First, the text of Article 2180 suggests that the
provision was intended to limit vicarious liability to actions constituting a quasidelict. If the intention were to allow vicarious liability for all tort actions or for
Article 20, the Civil Code would have expressly provided for such a rule.
Furthermore, to allow the rules explicitly applicable to quasi-delicts to apply to
torts would blur the distinction between torts and quasi-delicts. This is
something the paper argues against. Second, the cases cited do not provide
adequate basis for applying Article 2180 to actions based on Article 20.
Salen v. Balce involved the defendant’s minor child shooting and killing
the plaintiffs’ child. The defendant’s child was convicted of homicide and the
plaintiffs sought to recover damages from the father in a civil action for
damages. The issue was whether the father was liable despite the absence of a
provision in the Revised Penal Code making him subsidiary liable for his son,
who was above 15 years old and found to have acted with discernment. The
Court ruled that the applicable rule was Article 2180. It added:
Id. at 661.
Id.
17 Salen v. Balce, G.R. No. 14414, 57 O.G. No. 37, 6603, Apr. 27, 1960.
18 Fuellas v. Cadano, G.R. No. 14409, Oct. 31, 1961.
19 The first sentence states: “The obligation imposed by article 2176 is demandable not
only for one's own acts or omissions, but also for those of persons for whom one is responsible.”
CIVIL CODE, art. 2180, ¶ 1.
15
16
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To hold that this provision does not apply to the instant case because
it only covers obligations which arise from quasi-delicts and not
obligations which arise from criminal offenses, would result in the
absurdity that while for an act where mere negligence intervenes the
father or mother may stand subsidiarily liable for the damage caused
by his or her son, no liability would attach if the damage is caused with
criminal intent. Verily, the void that apparently exists in the Revised
Penal Code is subserved by this particular provision of our Civil Code,
as may be gleaned from some recent decisions of this Court which
cover equal or identical cases.20
In Fuellas v. Cadano,21 the issue was the civil liability of a father under
Article 2180 for an act done by his son, which injured his classmate. It was
contended that the act complained of was deliberate and did not fall under
Articles 2176 and 2180. In upholding the decision of the lower court, the
Supreme Court cited the ruling in Salen v. Balce.
What these cases establish is a rule allowing for the application of Article
2180 to criminal acts. These cases did not explicitly discuss the applicability of
Article 2180 on actions based on Article 20. While the paper admittedly only
uses these cases to highlight that the principle of vicarious liability may be
applicable to intentional wrongdoing, it may be inappropriate to apply Article
2180 to all forms of intentional wrongdoing based on these two cases alone.
One must remember that the Court applied Article 2180 in the two cases only
because the lacuna in the Revised Penal Code would have left the plaintiff
without a legal remedy.
Another point of disagreement is the applicable rule when an act
constitutes both a quasi-delict under Article 2176 and a breach of statutory duty
under Article 20. The paper argues:
It is submitted that a breach of statutory duty, although it may
coincidentally constitute a quasi-delict, should be regulated by Article
20, this being the provision which specifically governs such type of
torts.22
The invocation of lex specialis may not resolve the issue because lex
specialis can also be used to justify the primacy of Article 2176 as the special rule
applicable to acts committed via negligence and Article 20 as the general rule
Salen v. Balce, G.R. No. 14414, Apr. 27, 1960.
Fuellas v. Cadano, G.R. No. 14409, Oct. 31, 1961.
22 Carpio, supra note 6, at 662.
20
21
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CARPIO’S “INTENTIONAL TORTS”: A COMMENTARY
585
applicable to intentional and negligent acts. Any primacy given to Article 20 over
Article 2176 would also suggest a hierarchy among tort actions, which is not
supported by the Civil Code.
B. Article 21: Willful Acts Contrary to Morals,
Good Customs, or Public Policy
Article 21 states:
ARTICLE 21. Any person who wilfully causes loss or injury to
another in a manner that is contrary to morals, good customs or public
policy shall compensate the latter for the damage.
The paper observes that “more than any article in the Civil Code, Article
21 comes closest to prescribing moral norms as a legal standard of conduct.” It
adds:
It will not be far-fetched to speculate that the courts can utilize Article
21 to build up a whole system of case law, moderating if not
completely negating, the rigidity of the Civil Code. The wide swath
cut by this provision may furnish a catch-all sanction to every conceivable
unreasonable conduct.23
This prophecy has been fulfilled as Article 21 has been used in broad
spectrum of cases, many involving moral seduction, public humiliation,
malicious prosecution and oppressive dismissal.24
The paper also warns that “its scope can also be very easily stretched to
the breaking point” and that “among all the causes of action recognized by the
Code, the most susceptible to abuse.”25 But the paper identifies a word in
Article 21 “that could either make it a veritable tool of oppression or a laudable
source of relief for justly aggrieved persons.”26 That word is “willful.”
As the paper explains:
It is significant that the Code uses the motive-laden word “willfully”
rather than the comparatively weaker word "intentionally." An act
23
24
Id. at 662-63. (Emphasis supplied.)
See ROMMEL CASIS, ANALYSIS OF LAW AND JURISPRUDENCE ON QUASI-DELICTS 541-
593 (2012).
25 Carpio,
26 Id.
supra note 6, at 663.
at 664.
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which is “willful” connotes an evil or malicious motive, while an act
which is merely intentional has ordinarily no such implication.27
Thus, the paper argues that the “willful act under Article 21 requires
malice or deceit as an essential element.”28 True enough, the Court included the
element of an act done with intent to injure in its enumeration of the elements
of actions based on Article 21.29
C. Article 26: Violation of Personal Rights
The paper devotes an extended discussion on various types of actions
that may fall under the scope of Article 2630 as violations of the “principal rights
covered by the protective mantle of this provision.”31 It identifies the following
personal rights:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The right to personal dignity;
The right to personal security;
The right to family relations;
The right to social intercourse;
The right to privacy; and
The right to peace of mind.32
The paper notes:
Id. at 664.
at 665.
29 Albenson Enterprises Corp. v. Court of Appeals, G.R. No. 88694, Jan. 11, 1993;
ABS-CBN Broadcasting Corp. v. Court of Appeals, G.R. No. 128690, Jan. 21, 1999.
30 CIVIL CODE, art. 26. The provision reads:
Every person shall respect the dignity, personality, privacy and peace of
mind of his neighbors and other persons. The following and similar acts,
though they may not constitute a criminal offense, shall produce a cause of
action for damages, prevention and other relief:
(1) Prying into the privacy of another's residence;
(2) Meddling with or disturbing the private life or family relations of
another;
(3) Intriguing to cause another to be alienated from his friends;
(4) Vexing or humiliating another on account of his religious beliefs,
lowly station in life, place of birth, physical defect, or other personal
condition.
31 Carpio, supra note 6, at 670. Thus, it seems proper under the circumstances to label an
Article 26 violation as a violation of personal rights.
32 Id. at 670. (Citations omitted.)
27
28 Id.
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587
Although up to the present it has remained sorely neglected, perhaps
one of the most fertile sources of tort action in the Civil Code is
Article 26, which practically incorporates a large portion of American
tort law.33
1. Violation of the Right to Personal Dignity
The paper explains that the violation of the right to personal dignity is
“analogous to the American law concept of defamation, made up of the twin
torts of libel and slander.”34 If this were true, there would be an overlap with
Article 33, which provides:
ARTICLE 33. In cases of defamation, fraud, and physical injuries, a
civil action for damages, entirely separate and distinct from the
criminal action, may be brought by the injured party. Such civil action
shall proceed independently of the criminal prosecution, and shall
require only a preponderance of evidence.35
Perhaps the overlap can be rectified by limiting the application of Article
26 to cases where the alleged defamation does not constitute a crime but is
nonetheless defamatory in the common sense of the term. The Court has ruled
that actions based on Article 33 are ex delicto,36 or an obligation arising out of a
crime. 37 It has also used the elements of the crime of libel in determining
whether an action based on Article 33 would prosper.38 Therefore, Article 26
may be used for cases in which there were defamatory remarks but the
jurisprudential requirements of Article 33 were not complied with.
2. Violation of the Right to Personal Security
The paper explains that the violation of the right to personal security is
identical to the American intentional tort of battery and assault. If this were the
case, there would be an overlap with Article 33, which includes “physical
injuries.” The Court previously held that this civil action for physical injuries is
“similar to the civil action for assault and battery in American Law.”39 However,
the solution offered for defamation can also be used here. In other words, if all
Id. at 669.
Id. at 672.
35 CIVIL CODE, art. 33.
36 Madeja v. Caro, G.R. No. 51183, Dec. 21, 1983.
37 People v. Garcia, G.R. No. 45280, June 11, 1981.
38 Yuchengco v. Manila Chronicle Publishing Corp., G.R. No. 184315, Nov. 25, 2009.
39 Carandang v. Santiago, G.R. No. 8238, May 25, 1955.
33
34
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jurisprudential requirements for Article 33 are not complied with, the Court may
resort to Article 26.
3. Violation of the Right to Social Relations
The paper explains:
The right to social relations embodied in Article 26 imposes liability
for “intriguing to cause another to be alienated from his friends.” The
cause of action created by this provision is quite unique and seems to
have no exact parallel in American law.40
While the word “intrigue” may imply malice or ill will the paper argues
that the right to social relations can be violated without malicious acts. It adds:
[S]imple intentional acts are sufficient where the violation does not
assume the form of an intrigue, as when a person is unreasonably
barred from joining a social club although he possesses the necessary
qualifications.41
Though the argument may seem reasonable, it departs from the plain
language of Article 26 and offers no justification for this departure.
4. Violation of the Right to Family Relations
The paper explains that the right to family relations in Article 26 may be
a source of tort actions between husband and wife. It also argues that “the right
to family relations includes the right to consortium and to recover damages in
case of breach thereof.”42 The right to consortium was precisely one of the
issues in Kierulf v. Court of Appeals,43 where both claimant and ponente could have
used Article 26 to determine whether the right to consortium existed. However,
seemingly unaware of Article 26, the Court relied on a California case as basis of
its decision.
In this case, loss of marital consortium was defined as “loss of conjugal
fellowship and sexual relations.”44 Lucila Kierulf was badly disfigured as a result
of a vehicular collision, which the defendant was liable for. The spouses Kierulf
Carpio, supra note 6, at 675.
Id. at 675-76.
42 Id. at 677.
43 Kierulf v. Court of Appeals, G.R. No. 99301, Mar. 13, 1997.
44 Id.
40
41
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CARPIO’S “INTENTIONAL TORTS”: A COMMENTARY
589
alleged that “the disfigurement of Lucila's physical appearance cannot but affect
their marital right to ‘consortium’ which would have remained normal were it
not for the accident.”45 It would seem that “consortium” mainly, if not solely,
consists of intimate acts expected of husband and wife. In contrast, the paper’s
concept of “consortium” is broader in scope, consisting of “a bundle of legal
rights, namely: services, society, sexual intercourse, and conjugal affection.”46
The paper's discussion on violation of the right to family relations is
more extensive than any other section. Drawing from American jurisprudence, it
explores the various situations covered under this violation. In so doing, it also
raises intriguing possibilities for tort actions under Article 26.
5. Violation of the Right to Privacy
Because Philippine jurisprudence on the right to privacy was barren, the
paper argues that resort to American jurisprudence was inevitable. Thus, the
paper seems to advocate the adoption of the common law rules on the right to
privacy, which involves four distinct types of tort:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Intrusion upon the plaintiff's physical and mental solicitude;
Public disclosure of private facts;
Placing the plaintiff in false light in the public eye; and
The commercial appropriation of the plaintiff's name.
Whether or not these common law torts can properly be subsumed
under Article 26 requires a more comprehensive discussion and would be
beyond the scope of this commentary. Article 26 itself does not mention the
right to privacy, nor does it specifically mention any of the four torts previously
enumerated. However, it does say that every person shall respect the privacy of
his neighbors and other persons. It also lists “prying into the privacy of
another's residence” as one of the acts that can produce an action for damages.47
But whether the current language of Article 26 is sufficient for Philippine courts
to allow the four distinct torts is a question that must be threshed out elsewhere.
Id.
Carpio, supra note 6, at 677. Consortium is defined as “[a] spouse's interest in his
relation with the other spouse.”
47 CIVIL CODE, art. 26(1).
45
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6. Violation of the Right to Peace of Mind
The paper argues that “[v]iolation of the right to peace of mind under
Article 26 is akin to the American tort of intentional infliction of mental distress,
which is now recognized by American courts as a distinct tort.”48 It adds that
recovery may be granted even without physical illness resulting from the
offensive words or acts under Article 26. The paper also points out:
Intentional infliction of mental distress has been impliedly recognized
in this jurisdiction without being labelled as a tort, and where it was
found to be a tort, there was doubt from what article of the code it
draws life.49
A perfect example for the application of this rule would be Singapore
Airlines v. Fernandez.50 In this case, acclaimed soprano Andion Fernandez was
invited to sing before the King and Queen of Malaysia. Unfortunately, her flight
was delayed and she missed her connecting flight. When she tried to explain her
predicament to the employees of Singapore Airlines, they treated her rudely. The
Court narrated:
As a result of this incident, the respondent's performance before the
Royal Family of Malaysia was below par. Because of the rude and
unkind treatment she received from the petitioner's personnel in
Singapore, the respondent was engulfed with fear, anxiety, humiliation
and embarrassment causing her to suffer mental fatigue and skin
rashes.51
The courts treated the case as breach of contract as a result of which the
courts had to determine if there was bad faith in order to entitle her to moral
damages. Had this been decided on Article 26, such a finding would not have
been necessary.
D. Intentional Torts and Quasi-Delicts
The paper argues that “there is a need to distinguish intentional torts
from quasi-delicts for the simple reason that the principles applicable to one may
not be relevant to the other.”52 We agree with the paper completely on this point
Carpio, supra note 6, at 687-88.
Id. at 688.
50 Singapore Airlines Ltd. v. Fernandez, G.R. No. 142305, Dec. 10, 2003.
51 Id.
52 Carpio, supra note 6, at 690.
48
49
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CARPIO’S “INTENTIONAL TORTS”: A COMMENTARY
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and its observation that the Court has taken to equating intentional torts with
quasi-delicts. In a masterful display of analysis, the paper dissects several cases
which display the Court's propensity to conflate quasi-delicts with intentional
torts.
However, to be fair to the Court, there is one instance when it is
justifiable to treat intentional torts as quasi-delicts. This is when the kind and
amount of damages to be awarded in cases involving intentional torts must be
determined. As Article 2195 of the Civil Code provides, the provisions of Title
XVIII of the Civil Code on Damages is applicable to all obligations mentioned
in Article 1157. On the other hand, the latter lists the following as sources of
obligations:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Law
Contracts
Quasi-contracts
Acts or omissions punished by law
Quasi-delicts
The terms “intentional tort” or “torts” are noticeably absent from the
list. The Court has resolved the problem of calculating damages by applying
provisions pertaining to quasi-delicts to cases involving torts.53 Therefore, with
respect to the award of damages, torts are treated as quasi-delicts.
E. Quasi-Delicts and Pre-Existing Contractual Relationships
One of the most baffling aspects of the Philippine law on quasi-delicts is
whether a quasi-delict can exist despite the existence of a pre-existing contractual
relationship between the parties.54 The paper squarely addresses this issue:
We are disposed to think that the second sentence did not add any
requirement to those already recognized under the old law for the
existence of a quasi-delict. The second sentence can best be explained
as an attempt to distinguish an action based on quasi-delict from one
founded on breach of contract, particularly in cases where a quasidelict is coincident with a breach of contract. An action under Article
2176 may lie although the relation between the parties which gives rise
to the quasi-delict emanates from a contract, as when the defendant
53
Globe Mackay Cable and Radio Corp. v. Court of Appeals, G.R. No. 81262, Aug. 25
54
CASIS, supra note 24, at 74-104.
1989.
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through negligence violates a legal duty which arises when the contract
is made but which legal duty is not identical with the contract obligation.55
Thus, the paper argues that a quasi-delict can exist even if there is a preexisting contractual relationship between the parties provided that the legal duty
violated by the defendant through negligence is not identical with the legal duty
under the contract. The rule forwarded by the paper is:
[I]f a legal duty exists between the parties, separate and independent from that
imposed by the contract, a quasi-delict may lie for violation of such legal
duty notwithstanding a concurrent breach of the contractual
obligation.56
While jurisprudence has not been consistent, there is a body of cases
which reflect this rule.57
IV. CONCLUSION
Intentional Torts in Philippine Law redraws the blurred line between
intentional torts and quasi-delicts by charting the substantial content of Articles
20, 21, and 26. It does this in a seamless discussion of law, jurisprudence and
policy, employing the comparative law approach when appropriate.
The paper promotes a better administration of justice by offering
existing but oft-neglected remedies under the Civil Code. It does this by
exploring the possibilities offered by intentional torts and by asking the difficult
questions and providing sensible answers to them. Unfortunately, while the
paper was written more than four decades ago, a cursory review of modern
jurisprudence reveals that its recommendations have been largely ignored.
Certainly, the fault does not lie in the paper as it suffers no infirmity as far as
legal reasoning and extensive research is concerned.
- o0o -
Carpio, supra note 6, at 693-94. (Emphasis supplied.)
Id. (Emphasis supplied.)
57 See CASIS, supra note 24, at 74-104.
55
56
EXCERPTS FROM
INTENTIONAL TORTS IN PHILIPPINE LAW*
Antonio T. Carpio
I. INTRODUCTION
***
At present, almost every tort case is treated as a quasi-delict, with the
result that quasi-delicts have pre-empted the area of tort law reserved for
intentional torts. The differences which distinguish a quasi-delict from an
intentional tort are beginning to be eroded. Yet even prior to the infusion of
American intentional tort principles into quasi-delict, Philippine jurisprudence
was already replete with cases wherein intentional torts were decided as if they
were quasi-delicts without any discussion as to the differences between the two.5
[…] As a result of all this, our jurisprudence on torts other than quasi-delict has
suffered from atrophy and unless interest in these neglected torts is whipped up,
our law on torts will be marrred by an uneven growth that may eventually lead
to a confusing merger of vastly different tort concepts. It is therefore our belief
that an inquiry into the nature, origin and scope of the more important newlycreated tort actions in the Civil Code, specifically Articles 20, 21 and 26, may
somehow help to facilitate the utilization of these neglected tort actions. […]
II. BREACH OF STATUTORY DUTY: INTENTIONAL AND
NEGLIGENT TORT FROM CIVIL LAW JURISDICTION
***
In American jurisdictions, an action for breach of statutory duty does
not lie when the purpose of the statute is to (1) protect the interest of the state
or any subdivision thereof, (2) secure to individuals the enjoyment of rights or
privileges to which they are entitled only as members of the public, (3) impose
upon the actor the performance of a service which the state or any subdivision
thereof undertakes to give to the public, (4) protect a class of persons other than
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
* These are excerpts from Antonio T. Carpio, Intentional Torts in Philippine Law, 47 PHIL.
L.J. 649 (1972). The excerpts, including the accompanying footnotes, are republished as they were
in the original.
5 Exconde v. Capuno, 101 Phil. 843; Araneta v. Arreglado, 104, 104 Phil. 529; Belen v.
Balce 107 Phil. 748; Mercado v. Court of Appeals, 108 Phil. 414; Fuellas v. Cadano, 3 SCRA 361.
593
594
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the one whose interests are invaded and, (5) guard against any other hazard than
that from which the harm resulted.21
Notwithstanding the outstanding parallelism between the rules
governing German and Anglo-American breach of statutory duty, there remains
one conspicuous variance. The German tort may be committed either willfully
or negligently while the Anglo-American tort may be committed only through
negligence. In American jurisdictions, depending on the doctrine followed by a
court, the violation of a statute may itself constitute negligence per se, or create a
presumption of negligence, or may be taken only as evidence of negligence. The
difference in the manner of committing the tort does not, however, affect the
type of law to which both the German and Anglo-American concepts of breach
of statutory duty apply. In either case, the statute violated must be intended for
the protection of a class of persons to which the plaintiff belongs and the
resulting harm must be that which the statute seeks to guard against.
Rules Governing Article 20
[…] It is elementary in breach of statutory duty that tortious conduct
consists in the failure to perform a duty owed to someone, if it is one involving
negligence, or in the commission or omission of a willful act contrary to a duty
owed to someone, if it is an intentional tort. Thus, in the absence of a duty owed to
an individual or a class of persons as distinguished from a duty owed to the
community, there can be no tortious conduct known as breach of statutory duty.
[…]
The failure to satisfy the requirements of Article 20 will not necessarily
consign an injured person to a legal limbo. The loss or injury suffered may still
be redressed by resorting to other types of torts, like quasi-delict should
negligence be involved, or Article 21 if the act or omission was willful, or Article
26 in proper cases. These articles, inter alia, provide an ironclad guarantee that all
loopholes in the erstwhile sieve-like tort law have been plugged. In fact a
violation of a statute which does not fulfill the requisites for breach of statutory
duty will invariably fall under other torts recognized by the Civil Code. […]
***
Statutes Providing for Liability
[…] It seems therefore that Article 20 furnishes a sanction to all
violations of applicable laws where the latter do not themselves provide for
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
21
Restatement, Torts 2d § 288.
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EXCERPTS FROM INTENTIONAL TORTS IN PHILIPPINE LAW
595
indemnification for damages arising from such violations. If the law provides for
such indemnification, then Article 20 cannot be utilized as a ground for the
recovery of damages[…]
***
III. ARTICLE 21: WILLFUL ACTS CONTRARY TO MORALS, GOOD CUSTOMS OR
PUBLIC POLICY— INTENTIONAL TORT FROM CIVIL LAW JURISDICTION
***
Element of Malice
[…] It is significant that the Code uses the motive-laden word "willfully"
rather than the comparatively weaker word "intentionally." An act which is
"willful" connotes an evil or malicious motive,36a while an act which is merely
intentional has ordinarily no such implication. In American tort law, an
intentional act is one done with the belief or knowledge that the result is
substantially certain to follow from the act. Neither malice nor ill will is
essential.37 But in construing Article 826 of the German Civil Code (from which
our Article 21 originated), German courts require that the damage sustained by
the plaintiff must have been brought about deceitfully. […]
It is submitted that a willful act under Article 21 requires malice or
deceit as an essential element. In the natural course of events, even a prudent
and well-meaning person may, without negligence, commit an act which offends
or injures another in a manner contrary to morals and good customs. To hold
him liable for an innocent act which he commits with neither malice nor
negligence will not only put a premium on litigation, but will also terrorize him
and place him at the mercy of extortionists. […]
***
IV. ARTICLE 26: INTENTIONAL TORTS ADOPTED
FROM AMERICAN JURISPRUDENCE
***
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
36a The word “willful” in Article 2220 of the Civil Code appears to have a similar
meaning. Francisco v. GSIS, 7 SCRA 577; Martinez v. Gonzales, 6 SCRA 331.
37 PROSSER ON TORTS, (1957 ed.) p. 93.
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It is said that the sanction for the violation of the rights enunciated
above is the "catch-all"65 provision of Article 20.65a To our mind, Article 26
provides for its own sanction in case of breach thereof. The article itself
expressly states in no uncertain terms that acts which violate the rights embodied
therein "shall produce a cause of action for damages, prevention and other
relief." And Article 20 has no room for interplay not only because Article 26
carries its own sanction but also because Article 20 refers to a violation of a law
intended for the protection of a class of persons to which the plaintiff belongs.
Article 20 is inapplicable where the law violated is for the protection of the
public at large, as Article 26 definitely is. The sanction allowed by Article 26 may
include moral damages, injunction against the act complained of, and other
reliefs, such as a bond to keep the peace.
***
The Right to Personal Security
Violation of the right to personal security may be the basis of a tort
action under Article 26. Such an action is identical with the American intentional
torts of battery and assault. […] Battery is the actual and willful infliction of any
unlawful or unauthorized violence on the person of another, irrespective of its
degree. The interest protected by this action is the freedom from intentional and
unpermitted contacts with the plaintiff's person. […]
***
[…] Assault therefore cannot be committed through negligence. But the
intent need not be to inflict physical harm, it being sufficient that there is an
intent to arouse apprehension,94 as when the defendant fires a gun in the air for
the purpose of frightening the plaintiff.95
***
The Right to Family Relations
a. Husband and Wife
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
SANGCO, PHILIPPINE LAW ON TORTS AND DAMAGES (1973), p. 305.
TOLENTINO, p. 89.
94 Ibid., p. 37. [PROSSER, p. 36.]
95 Burgress v. Commonwealth, 118 S.E. 273.
65
65a
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EXCERPTS FROM INTENTIONAL TORTS IN PHILIPPINE LAW
597
[…] The right to family relations enshrined in Article 26 may
consequently be a source of tort actions between the husband and wife.99a
[…] The doctrine of marital authority, based on the putative inferiority
and incapacity of the wife, has yielded to the theory of unity of direction, under
which the spouses enjoy legal equality,104 although a certain power of decision
has been left to the husband.105 Litigations between members of the same family
are expressly allowed by the Code as long as earnest efforts towards a
compromise have been made.105a Moreover, the Code defines family relations as
including those between husband and wife. It is therefore our belief that in this
jurisdiction a personal tort action, like battery, can be maintained by a wife
against her husband, or vice versa. […]
b. Interferences by Third Persons
***
A form of interference with the interest of the husband is adultery with
the wife. […]
Another form of interference is alienation of affection. The gist of the
tort is the interference with the wife's affection and mental attitude toward the
husband. […]
***
c.
Parent and Child
***
Although our jurisprudence is sprinkled with a few cases involving a
child filing a criminal suit against the parent, as in rape by a father of his own
daughter, there is no decided case of a tort action by a child against the parent,
or vice-versa. If ever a minor child can sue a parent for tort, the former will of
course need the assistance of the parent who is not being sued, or a guardian ad
litem if both parents are being sued. But does a minor child possess the right to
bring the action? […] Under Articles 2181 and 2182, minors are liable for quasi!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Report of the Code Commission, see note 64.
TOLENTINO, pp. 307-308; Women’s libbers in the Philippines may add this to their
growing arsenal of arguments in favor of equality between the sexes.
105 See Articles 61, 110, 112, 117, 165 and 320 of the New Civil Code.
105a Article 222, New Civil Code.
99a
104
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delicts and they are, under Article 101 of the Revised Penal Code, also civilly
liable for crimes committed by them even if they are exempt from criminal
liability. The fact that the parents may be civilly liable for the children's torts140
does not relieve the latter from liability.141 Thus the law places minors on almost
equal footing as capacitated persons insofar as civil liability for crimes and quasidelicts is concerned. This being the case, it certainly is unjust to deny minors the
right to recover damages when they are at the receiving end of tortious acts,
whether from third persons or from family relations. It should be noted that
nowhere in our law is there a prohibition against a child suing the parent. And if
a minor daughter is allowed to file a complaint tor rape against her father, and
recover civil liability therefrom,142 there seems to be no reason why the same
minor cannot bring a personal tort action against the father for the same offense
under Article 26. […]
[…] Moreover, when parents punish the child excessively, they violate
Article 316, a provision which is clearly intended to protect minors from
excessive corporal punishment by parents. Under Article 20, the parents may
become liable for damages to the child.
On the other hand, can a parent institute a personal tort action against
the child under Article 26, like an action for assault or battery? […] We do not
have any law which prohibits a parent from suing his own child on a personal
tort; the latter of course will have to be represented either by the other parent or
by a guardian ad litem. If as advanced earlier a child can sue the parent upon a
personal tort, by parity of reasoning the parent must also be allowed the same
action against the child.145
[…] This duty of obedience lasts only while the children are
unemancipated, while the duty of reverence lasts for the whole lifetime of parent
and child.146 Violation of these duties may, under Article 20 be the basis of a tort
action. […]
d. Enticement
Under Article 26, a parent may institute a tort action against a person
who entices a child away from home. […] The right to family relations is quite
broad, and includes within its embrace the right of parents to the custody of the
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Article 2180, New Civil Code.
39 Am. Jur. § 55.
142 Article 100, Revised Penal Code.
145 In People v. Manos, 36 SCRA 457, the Supreme Court held that indemnity to the
mother, as well as to the brothers and sisters of one accused for killing his own father, is proper.
146 TOLENTINO, p. 613.
140
141
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599
child. Hence, intruding upon the parents' right to the child's custody is an
actionable tort under Article 26. […]
Does the right to family relations enunciated in Article 26 give the child
a cause of action against a person for enticing his mother away from home? […]
In this jurisdiction, the child in the foregoing example should have the right to
bring the action since the basis thereof is not loss of services of the mother as in
American law, but interference with family relations. And family relations
include those between ascendants and descendants.153 […]
***
V. INTENTIONAL TORTS AND QUASI-DELICTS
[…] As we had occasion to state at the introduction of this inquiry, there
is a need to distinguish intentional torts from quasi-delicts for the simple reason
that the principles applicable to one may not be relevant to the other. An
intentional act in American tort law is one done with the belief that the result is
substantially certain to follow from the act. Neither hostile intent nor desire to
do any harm is necessary.193
A quasi-delict, on the other hand, requires the presence of fault or
negligence. Fault, in civil law, is an improper act or omission, injurious to
another, and transpiring through negligence, rashness or ignorance.194
Negligence is the failure to observe that degree of care, precaution and vigilance
that the circumstances justly demand, whereby another suffers injury.195 […] In
this jurisdiction, the foundation of quasi-delict, as Article 2176 of the present
Code and Article 1902 of the old Code starkly bear out, has always been fault or
negligence. Quasi-delict, as understood by modern civil law writers and jurists,
means negligent wrongdoing.197 Intentional torts do not form part of quasidelict and are entirely different from the latter. […]
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Article 217, New Civil Code.
PROSSER, p. 40.
194 BLACK’S LAW DICTIONARY, p. 738.
195 U.S. Barrias, 23 Phil. 434.
197 This modern understanding of quasi-delict is, however, a marked departure from the
Roman Law concept of quasi ex delicto. The obligationes quasi ex delicto mentioned by Justinian
(Institutes of Justinian IV, 5, 3, 1) were in truth cases of strict liability, or cases in which the law
drew an inference of fault from the event and consequently imposed liability independently of
proof of fault. WALKER, p. 21.
153
193
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The Supreme Court, nonetheless, has taken to equating intentional torts
with quasi-delicts.198 […]
***
In Zulueta v. Pan Am World Airways Inc.,204 the plaintiff, a passenger in a
plane that had stopped over at Wake Island, went to a secluded area in the beach
near the terminal building to answer a call of nature since the toilets in the
terminal were filled. When the plaintiff returned to the plane, the captain
remonstrated at him in an intemperate and arrogant manner for having delayed
the departure of the plane. The plaintiff answered back in the same vein. The
captain then ordered that the plaintiff, his wife and daughter, as well as their
luggage, be off-loaded from the plane. The Court held that the case involved a
breach of contract "as well as a quasi-delict,” notwithstanding its own
pronouncement that the act causing the damage was caused "intentionally by an
employee" of the airline carrier.
***
VI. CONCLUSIONS
***
[…] The need to inject intentional tort principles into quasi-delict in
order to furnish a remedy to injuries that otherwise may be written off as
damnum absque injuria no longer exists, as it existed prior to the New Civil Code.
With the protective mantle provided by Articles 20, 21 and 26, inter alia, it is
inconceivable that intentional acts which fall short of being crimes will be left
unredressed. Intentional torts, then, must not be allowed to gravitate closer to
quasi-delict for the latter was designed to govern only negligent wrongdoing.
Instead the immensely rich source of tort actions found in the chapter on
Human Relations, presently suffering from a benign neglect, should be
religiously exploited and applied to intentional wrongdoing.
- o0o !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
198
204
See note 3 and 5.
49 SCRA 1.