Advanced Topics in Particle Physics
Probing the High Energy
Frontier at the LHC
Ulrich Husemann, Klaus Reygers,
Ulrich Uwer
University of Heidelberg
Winter Semester 2009/2010
CERN = European Laboratory for Partice Physics
the world’s largest particle physics laboratory, founded 1954
Historic name: “Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire”
2500 employees, almost 10000 guest scientists from 85 nations
Ju
ra
M
ou
nt
ai
n
s
Proton-proton collider
La
ke
Ge
ne
va
8.5 km
Accelerator complex
(approx. 100 m underground)
Prévessin site
(France)
Meyrin site (Switzerland)
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
2
Large Hadron Collider:
Proton-Proton and
Lead-Lead Collisions
CMS Experiment:
Multi Purpose Detector
LHCb Experiment:
B Physics and CP Violation
ATLAS Experiment:
ALICE-Experiment:
Multi Purpose Detector
Heavy Ion Physics
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
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The Lecture
“Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC”
Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN: premier address in
experimental particle physics for the next 10+ years
LHC restart this fall: first beam scheduled for mid-November
LHC and Heidelberg
Experimental groups from Heidelberg participate in three out
of four large LHC experiments (ALICE, ATLAS, LHCb)
Theory groups working on LHC physics
→ Cornerstone of physics research in Heidelberg
→ Lots of exciting opportunities for young people
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
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Scope of this Lecture
Goal: Overview of most important physics topics pursued
at the LHC
High-pT physics (mostly ATLAS and CMS)
Flavor physics (mostly LHCb)
Heavy ion physics (mostly ALICE)
Target audience:
Master/Diploma and graduate students with prior knowledge
of theoretical and experimental particle physics
Builds upon previous lecture(s) “Experimental Particle
Physics” & “Introduction to the Standard Model”
Part of program of the “Heidelberg Graduate School of
Fundamental Physics”
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
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Organizational Issues
Advanced Topics in Particle Physics:
“Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC”
Date: Mondays, 14:00–16:00 c.t. (2 SWS)
Room: INF 227 / HS 2
Lecturers:
Ulrich Husemann (KIP & DESY, ATLAS): High-pT Physics
Tel.: 06221-54xxxx, E-Mail: ulrich.husemann@desy.de
Klaus Reygers (PI, ALICE): Heavy Ion Physics
Tel.: 06221-549317, E-Mail: reygers@physi.uni-heidelberg.de
Ulrich Uwer (PI, LHCb): Flavor Physics
Tel.: 06221-549226, E-Mail: uwer@physi.uni-heidelberg.de
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
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Preliminary Schedule
#
Date
Topic
Lecturer
1
10/12/09
Introduction
All
2
10/19/09
The LHC Multipurpose Experiments
U. Husemann
3
10/26/09
Hadron Collider Basics
U. Husemann
4
11/02/09
QCD, Factorization, Jets
U. Husemann
5
11/09/09
W and Z Boson Production
U. Husemann
6
11/16/09
Top Quark Production
U. Husemann
7
11/23/09
Higgs Physics
U. Husemann
8
11/30/09
Supersymmetry
U. Husemann
9
12/07/09
Exotic Models: Extra Dimensions etc.
U. Husemann
10
12/14/09
U. Uwer
11
12/21/09
U. Uwer
12
01/11/10
U. Uwer
13
01/18/10
K. Reygers
14
01/25/10
K. Reygers
15
02/01/10
K. Reygers
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
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Literature
The Particle Data Book, of course: http://pdg.lbl.gov
Detailed papers on LHC machine and detectors published
back-to-back in open-access journal before startup:
Machine: 2008 JINST 3 S08001
ALICE: 2008 JINST 3 S08002
ATLAS: 2008 JINST 3 S08003
CMS: 2008 JINST 3 S08004
LHCb: 2008 JINST 3 S08005
More detailed literature lists for the individual topics
later (few books, many review articles)
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
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Chapter 1
Introduction
A Little LHC History
The early days
1977: LEP tunnel to be built large enough for another ring
1984: First LHC workshops in Lausanne
→ superconducting 10 T (= 17 TeV) pp collider in LEP tunnel
→ feasibility of magnet design shown in late 1980ies
1990: Aachen workshop → evaluation of LHC physics potential
1992: Évian workshop → experiment proposals
1993: US congress terminates SSC (Superconducting Super
Collider, 40 TeV) → integrate US physics community
1994: Approval by CERN Council
Initial plan: two stages (10 TeV in 2004, 14 TeV in 2008, due
to budget constraints), later changed to 14 TeV in 2005
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
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A Little LHC History
Construction phase
1998: civil engineering
starts (experimental
caverns and surface
buildings)
2000: LEP terminated
and dismantled
from 2000: (pre-)
production of magnets
2005–2007: magnet
installation
[atlas.ch]
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
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A Little LHC History
LHC startup
September 10, 2008: first
beam event, experiments
(partly) switched on
September 19, 2008: magnet
incident stops LHC operation
November 2009: LHC restart
Further details on LHC
history: CERN Courier
(issue of October 2008)
[CERN]
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
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LHC Physics Program
Main LHC goal: search for the Higgs boson and physics
beyond the standard model → high-pT & flavor physics
Broader physics program considered early on:
Collisions at four points around the ring: two with large
collision rates, two with medium collision rates
Allow LHC operation with heavy ions (lead)
Optimize design of machine and detector for above
goals, given technical constraints:
Tunnel: re-use from LEP accelerator → 27 km circumference
Magnets: maximum B field strength with available technology
for superconducting dipole magnets
→ 9 Tesla → approx. 15 TeV center of mass energy
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
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High-pT Physics @ LHC
Hadron collider physics = discovery physics at the
highest available energies (“energy frontier”),
complementary to precision physics at e+e– colliders
CERN Sp!S: 1982–1990 → W and Z boson discovery,
searches for top quarks, SUSY…
Fermilab Tevatron: 1987–2010 (2011?) → top quark discovery,
Bs flavor oscillations, searches for Higgs, SUSY, exotics…
Next step in energy: explore energies around 1 TeV
(“terascale”) → relevant scale for electroweak physics
Machine & detector design goals:
Highest possible energies and collision rates
Versatile multi-purpose detectors
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
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Protons or Antiprotons?
Sp!S and Tevatron: proton-antiproton colliders
At leading order many processes dominated by quarkantiquark annihilation, e.g. W and Z production, but: no
valence antiquarks in proton → antiprotons
p
p
ν̄" , "+
u, d
W±
¯ ū
d,
ū, d¯
−
" , ν"
p̄
e+, µ+
u, d
Z
p̄
e− , µ−
Particle and its antiparticle can be accelerated in the same
structure (single beam pipe, same magnets, …)
Problem: protons are “cheap”, but antiprotons are hard to
produce (in proton beam dump) and to accumulate (“cooling”)
→ performance of collider limited by antiproton availability
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
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Protons!
At LHC energies:
Interesting final states with a few 100 GeV (Higgs, top, …)
produced by partons that carry small fraction x of proton
momentum (more details on proton structure later)
Important HERA result: gluons dominate at small x
→ don’t need valence antiquarks, e.g. for top pair production
p
p
q
W–
!
"
b
t
W+
#’
Ȟȝ
ȝ+
Caveat: need separate acceleration structures (two rings or
double ring)
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
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Heavy Ion Physics @ LHC
Heavy ion collisions: study strongly interacting matter at
extreme energy densities
→ expect new phase of matter: quark-gluon plasma
Experience from previous heavy ion programs, e.g.
CERN fixed target program: ions from SPS
Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) at Brookhaven National
Laboratory: 200 GeV gold-gold collisions
LHC: explore highest available energy densities
Design goals:
Allow for acceleration of heavy ions in addition to protons
Dedicated experiment for heavy ion collisions: ALICE
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
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Flavor Physics @ LHC
Flavor physics: indirect search for new phenomena in
very rare decays via loop effects → multi-TeV
Central tool in flavor physics: B hadrons → long history
of fixed-target and collider experiments, e.g.
LEP and Tevatron multi-purpose experiments
ARGUS & CLEO: e+e– collider experiments on ϒ(4S) resonance
BABAR & Belle (“B Factories”): experiments at asymmetric e+e–
collider on ϒ(4S) resonance
LHC: extremely high production rate of B hadrons
Specialized interaction region with lower collision rates
Dedicated experiment optimized for detecting B hadron decays
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
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Chapter 2
The LHC
Accelerator Chain
Pre-Accelerator Chain
LHC beam to consist of:
2808 proton bunches with spacing
of 25 ns (40 MHz, distance: 7.5 m),
complicated bunch structure
High intensity bunches (1011 protons/
bunch) with small longitudinal and
transverse spread (“emittance”)
Cannot accelerate beams from
zero to 7 TeV in a single structure
→ need chain of pre-accelerators
Re-use existing pre-accelerators
Some upgrades necessary (Proton
Synchrotron: 50 years old!)
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
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LHC Bunch Structure
[ATLAS L1 Trigger, Technical Design Report, 1998]
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
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Pre-Accelerator Chain
7 TeV protons in main LHC ring
450 GeV protons in Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS)
26 GeV protons in
Proton Synchrotron (PS)
50 MeV – 1.4 GeV protons
in LINAC/PS Booster
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
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[atlas.ch]
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
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LHC Layout
Basic layout:
eight interaction points (IP),
four with experiments, others for
acceleration, beam dump, etc.
[http://lhc.web.cern.ch/lhc/]
Status of LHC cool-down last Friday:
everything below 4.5 K
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
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Typical LHC “Fill”
Acceleration and preparation for “physics:”
Injection from pre-accelerator chain (approx. 4 minutes)
→ protons circulating at 450 GeV
Acceleration to 7 TeV (“ramp to flat top,” approx. 20 minutes)
Beam focusing at interaction points (“squeeze”) → collisions
Collimation: remove non-bunched protons → ready for physics
Experiments switch on and take data (< 24 hours)
Controlled beam abort (“dumping the beam”)
Extraction (“kicker”) magnets deflect beam into carbon block
Abort can also be triggered by accelerator problems
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
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RF System
Radio-frequency (RF)
system provides:
Beam acceleration and
beam energy loss
compensation
Formation of bunch
structure
LHC RF system:
400 MHz superconducting
niobium/copper cavities:
field 5.5 MV/m
Two independent RF
systems of 8 cavities
First LHC
RF capture
[O. Brüning, CERN]
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
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RF Cavities
Switching every 1.25 ns
(400 MHz)
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Probing the High Energy Frontier at
the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
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Sophisticated cryogenic system
$
Dipole magnets assembled and tested on surface, inter-magnet
connections in LHC tunnel
More than 7000 additional magnets: focusing & higher
order corrections of beam orbit
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
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LHC Dipole Magnets
[CERN]
Dipole magnets
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
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Interaction Regions
Complicated sequence of dipole,
quadrupole, and correction magnets
to create collisions:
MQXA Quadrupole
Beam pipes are joined into same vacuum
Interaction region at ATLAS
[KEK]
Triplet of “low-β” quadrupole magnets
to focus beam (Q1–Q3): 31 m long,
±23!m from interaction point
[2008 JINST 3 S08001]
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
Figure 2.4: Schematic layout of the right side of IR1 (distances in m).
30
200
magnets with separate beam pipes for each ring. From the IP up to the DS insertion the layout
comprises:
Cryogenic System
Previous superconducting accelerators (Tevatron, HERA):
supercritical helium (T > 4.2 K, boiling point of He)
→ magnetic field limited to B < 5 T
LHC: superfluid helium (T < 2 K)
The world’s largest
connected cryogenic system:
10000 tons of liquid nitrogen,
130 tons of liquid helium
LHC Helium Refrigeration Plant
Advantage: zero viscosity &
entropy, infinite thermal
conductivity
Caveat: heat capacity of
superconducting cables drops
by more than factor of two
[CERN]
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
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Vacuum System
Inside beam pipe: ultra-high vacuum (UHV)
Low background from beam-gas interactions → long lifetimes
From scattering cross section for protons in typical gases:
pressure < 10-13 hPa (equivalent of 1013 H2 molecules per m3)
UHV techniques at the LHC:
Ion Pump
Mobile pumps for initial vacuum
Sputter ion pumps: ionize gas &
accelerate in electric field
→ molecules bound on surface
Bake-out: heat beam pipe to 250°C
→ outgassing of volatile compounds
[lesker.com]
Beam pipe coating with TiZrV alloy (“non-evaporable getter”,
forms compounds with active gasses)
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
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Safety Systems
Large amount of energy stored in small area:
Beam: 360 MJ (kinetic energy of ICE-3 at 150 km/h in
3×1014 protons → kinetic energy of a mosquito per proton)
Magnets: 600 MJ of magnetic energy
Danger of uncontrolled beam loss & “quenches”
Typical problem of superconducting magnets: local loss of
superconductivity (e.g. energy deposit by spray of protons)
Consequences: high magnet currents (>10 kA) feel resistance
→ heat & helium vapor: danger of destroying magnet
→ magnetic field drops: danger of losing beam
Specialized electronics to detect quenches and induce
controlled beam abort (“Quench Protection System”)
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
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The Incident
Incident on Sept 19, 2009
Faulty connection between
two dipole magnets (“busbar”)
ruptured
Massive helium evaporation
→ collateral damage from
pressure wave: displaced
magnets
Dipole
Busbar
Repair work:
53 magnets (39 dipoles)
repaired on surface, beam
pipe cleaned
[CERN]
Better helium pressure relief
and instrumentation
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
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ElectricalDipole
joint in 12Busbars
kA bus bar
Upper Tin/Silver
Soldering alloy Layer
Inter-Cable Tin/Silver
Soldering Alloy Layer
³:KDWPDNHVDJRRGMRLQW"´
Superconducting
Cable in Copper
Stabilizer
Lower Tin/Silver
Soldering Alloy Layer
Completed
Junction
Lower Copper U
Profile
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Cable Junction Box
Cross-section
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with the bus on at least 1 side of the joint
No bonding at joint with the
U-profile and the wedge
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
23/03/2009
LHC status and commissioning
35
4
LHC: Facts & Figures
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
36
[M. Lamont, LHC status and commissioning, La Thuile ‘09]
Upper Copper
Profile
Current Plans for Startup
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~one month to first collisions
[S. Myers, Talk at ATLAS Collaboration Meeting, October 5, 2009]
5K
Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
37
Current Plans for Startup
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Probing the High Energy Frontier at the LHC, U Heidelberg, Winter Semester 09/10, Lecture 1
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