1
Introduction
DISTINCTION BETWEEN CONTEMPORARY HISTORY AND MODERN
HISTORY
It is very difficult to make a definite distinction between modern history and contemporary
history. Interdependence and interaction provide ‘the central theme of world history during
the last fifty years’. It has been held by some that modern history has ended and that recent
or contemporary history has begun. ‘Contemporary history is different, in quality and content,
from what we know as modern history’.
One of the distinctive facts about contemporary history is that it is world history and
that the forces shaping it cannot be understood unless we are prepared to adopt worldwide perspective.
The first half of the twentieth century is marked with revolutionary change comparable
to the social and intellectual upheaval at the turn of the eleventh and twelfth centuries.
It is a debatable point whether the first half of the twentieth century marks a watershed
between modern and contemporary history. Can we call the period from 1890 when Bismarck
retired to 1961 when President John F. Kennedy became President of America a watershed
between modern and contemporary history ?
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF CONTEMPORARY HISTORY
There were four distinctive features of contemporary history. The ‘dwarfing of Europe’
and the power of nationalism outside Europe was manifest by Japan’s victory over Russia
in 1905, ‘a first glimpse of the future global age’. The creation of the Republic of China in
1911 was another significant event. In Europe, the dominant features were not the rivalry
of the Great Powers in the Balkan or elsewhere nor the competition in armaments between
Britain and Germany; they were social, technological, scientific. There was greater classconsciousness, industrial unrest and a demand for equality. The technological and industrial
changes were gradual and those affecting every day life—refrigeration, electricity, telephone
and motor car—had their beginnings in the late nineteenth century. The twentieth century
opened with Marconi’s wireless telegraphy in 1901 and Wright brothers pioneer flight in an
1
2
Contemporary World
aeroplane in 1903. The discovery of atoms and equally the theorems of Planck and Einstein,
transformed physics and led to the exploitation of nuclear power. The discovery of drugs to
cure disease was more dramatic.
The first half of the twentieth century proved to be a period of advance in science
surpassing that of all preceding times in extent, in rapidity and in application; and in
these fifty years the harvest of four centuries of modern science was reaped so
thoroughly that it changed the whole aspect and outlook of our civilisation as well as
our daily lives and our habits of thought.
A BROAD SURVEY OF THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF
CONTEMPORARY WORLD
The domestic politics of the European nations were marked by an increasing amount
of class conflict. In international affairs, the period before 1914 could hardly be described
as years of peace. The mutual suspicions were heightened by tariff wars and competition
for markets overseas. The new trend of forming permanent alliances in peacetime had the
effect of splitting Europe into two armed camps. The uneasy balance always threatened the
peace and led to an increasing tension and insecurity. With the exception of Great Britain,
all the major European states adopted universal military services after 1871. The mounting
military expenditure and the increasing numbers in the standing army, became a matter
of concern. Questions of peace or war tended to be settled on the basis of military
expendency.
SYSTEM OF ALLIANCES
From 1871 to 1914 there were numerous war scares in Europe, but no actual wars did
take place except in the Balkans. For the first twenty years Bismarck tried to maintain
peace whose main purpose was to consolidate Germany’s new-founded national unity. The
key-stone of Bismarck’s foreign policy was to keep France diplomatically isolated and to
make Austria-Hungary his ally. In 1872 Bismarck arranged a conference in Berlin of Emperor
William I of Germany, Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria and Czar Alexander II of Russia.
No written agreement was made, but the meeting demonstrated its hostility against the
Revolution. In the next year an understanding was reached which is usually known as the
League of the Three Emperors (Dreikaiserbund). No actual treaty was concluded, but the
three Emperors agreed to work together to preserve peace and to consult together to
determine a common course of action. But the league did not last long. In consequence of
Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78, Russian ambition came into conflict with Austria and Britain.
In the Congress of Berlin (1878), Bismarck supported Austria and allowed her to occupy
Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bismarck preferred an alliance with Austria as the latter’s frontier
marched closely with that of Germany. In October, 1879, he therefore, concluded an alliance
with Austria. The terms of the Alliance of 1879, were not made public till 1887. The treaty
was the first thread in a network of alliancs, which was soon to cover all Europe. The
Alliance provided that if either power should be attacked by Russia the other would act in
its support. If either of them was to be attacked by any power other than Russia, the other
signatory was to maintain a benevolent neutrality. It was defensive alliance. It left Bismarck
with the problem of preventing Russia from drifting into alliance with France. In June 1881
Bismarck revived the Dreikaiserbund with this end in view. The League of the Three
Emperors, which was in fact a friendship with Russia, led in a round about way to the
Introduction
3
formation of the Triple Alliance. Austro-Russain rivalry in the Balkans was too strong to
cement this alliance. Hence in 1887 Bismarck formed a Secret Reinsurance Compact with
Russia. But the Reinsurance treaty did not prevent a Franco-Russian alliance.
Meanwhile, a secret Triple Alliance, was concluded in May 1882 between Germany,
Austria and Italy, explicitly defensive, in part against France, in part against Russia. In 1883
Rumania adhered to the Alliance and gradually Turkey also was drawn into the alliance.
Bismarck’s choice of Austria and Italy against Russia and France was, in large part, dictated
by practical considerations. He regarded France and Russia as independent Great Powers.
And in international affairs, as in domestic affairs, Bismarck disliked equals. The keynote
of Bismarck’s foreign policy was moderation. The Iron Chancellor by his system of alliances
made his Empire secure from attacks; in his hands the Triple Alliance was a weapon of
defence. The moment Bismark fell into disgrace, an immediate change made itself felt in
the foreign policy of Germany. Kaiser William II adopted an ambitious foreign policy in the
form of Weltpolitik or, ‘World policy’ which aroused apprehension among the European
powers as to his ulterior policy. There is a striking parallel between France under Louis XIV
and Germany under William II. Under the guidance of her great statesman, Richelieu,
France in the seventeenth century became the foremost power in Europe. Louis XIV spoilt
the work of Richelieu by his aggressive policy which in turn combined all Europe against
him.
The isolation of France did not long survive Bismarck’s fall in 1890. Moreover, Russia
needed foreign capital to enable her to build railways and factories and by 1890 she was
already financially dependent on France. An understanding was reached in 1891, followed by
a military convention in 1893. Russia promised to aid France in case she were attacked by
Germany, while France promised to help Russia in similar circumstances. Thus the Triple
Alliance of Germany, Austria and Italy was balanced in the 1890’s by the Dual Alliance of
France and Russia.
For a time it appeared that Britain might commit herself to the Triple Alliance. Britain’s
alliance with Japan in January 1902 was mainly directed against their common enemy,
Russia. The Anglo-Japanese agreement ended Russian monopoly in the Far East. But the
mounting menace of German naval power and blundering German diplomacy led Britain
to turn towards France. In April 1904 Anglo-France Entente was signed which was to
survive for more than fifty years. France agreed to allow England to control Egypt while
England promised not to oppose French claims in Morocco. The entente also removed
points of dispute in other parts of the world—in Siam, Madagascar, New-foundland, west
and central Africa. The entente was essential for France. The entente had the practical
effect as in all the international crises that followed France and England solidly supported
each other.
The entente was soon extended by the inclusion of France’s ally, Russia. The defeat of
Russia by Japan in 1905 removed British fear of Russian advances in Asia. In 1907 Britain
and Russia settled their pending conflicts in Asia. Henceforth, the Triple Alliance of Germany,
Austria and Italy was confronted by the Triple Entente of France, Russia and Great Britain.
Thus Europe was grouped into two armed camps, watching each other with suspicion and
distrust.
4
Contemporary World
EXERCISES
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS
1. Can you make a distinction between ‘contemporary history’ and ‘modern history’ ? What are
the characteristic features of contemporary history ?
2. Why it is difficult for a historian to write about contemporary history ?
3. Give brief survey of the historical background of contemporary world.
4. Discuss the characteristic features of contemporary history.
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
5. How is periodization in history done ? What are the various criteria used ?
6. Bring out the characteristic features of the modern period.
7. What is contemporary history ? Mention the views in support of its definition.
OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS
8. What was the victor in war with Russia in 1905 ?
9. Who discovered wireless telegraphy ?
10. Who were the members of the League of the Three Emperors (Dreikaiserbund).
11. Who were the members of the Triple Alliance concluded in May 1882.
12. What was ‘Weltpolitik’ ?
13. Who were the members of the Dual Alliance in 1890 ?
14. When was Britain’s alliance with Japan concluded ?
IMPORTANT DATES
15. 1872
:
League of the Three Emperors or Dreikaiserbund
(Germany, Austria, Russia)
16. 1879
:
Dual Alliance between Austria and Germany.
17. 1881
:
Reinsurance compact between Germany, Austria, and Italy.
18. 1882
:
Triple Alliance between Germany, Austria, and Italy.
19. 1887
:
Reinsurance compact between Germany and Russia.
20. 1891
:
Alliance between Russia and France.
21. 1894-95
:
Sino-Japanese War.
22. 1895
:
Dual Alliance between France and Russia.
23. 1902
:
Anglo-Japanese Alliance.
24. 1904-05
:
Russo-Japanese War.
25. 1907
:
Triple Entente between France, Britain and Russia.