Approaches, Issues, and Debates for AQA A2 Psychology
These are areas that are essential for good evaluation for the skills known as AO2 and AO3. You need to know which are
relevant to each sub-topic, and then practise using them on sample/past questions. You cannot do well in A2 without
considerable skill in using evaluation.
• Issues include bias (culture- or gender-based), ethics (for human and non-human animal participants), methodology.
• Debates include nature/nurture, free will and determinism, reductionism.
• Approaches include cognitive, biological/physiological, behavioural/learning, and psychodynamic.
You need to practise using these to comment on, to evaluate, to identify strengths and weaknesses, and to explain the points you
are making.
Below is a set of grids, one for each A2 topic, with suggestions about appropriate/relevant issues, debates, and approaches to use
in evaluation. Checking these out and doing the “Over to you!” sections will help you score good marks in your exam answers.
NOTE: Only some, not all, issues/debates/approaches apply to any one sub-topic or essay question.
For use with A2 Level Psychology by Michael W. Eysenck
Published by Psychology Press. Copyright © 2009 Psychology Press PSY3: BIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS AND SLEEP
Sub-topic
Issue(s)
Debate(s)
Approach(es)
Over to you!
Further resources
The siesta behaviour
Very biological, but
Try writing a 15-minute Check the online
Biological Rhythms Culture bias—many
cultures have a siesta so suggests nurture as well some research suggests evaluation of the
chapters on Approaches,
their sleep rhythm is not as nature is involved in individual differences
research into biological Issues, and Debates for
circadian; case studies the circadian sleep
rhythms using these
additional material to use
and small samples are rhythm
and/or other ideas
as evaluation
not generalisable; animal
studies might or might
not be generalisable
Can we assume that
Endogenous and
This reductionist stages- In what ways can non- Check out what validity
Sleep States
researchers see “normal” exogenous control shows of-sleep approach does human animal studies
means, e.g. in Searle, A.
sleep states when
nature and nurture
not explain the
help our understanding (1999) Introducing
participants are wired up
differences between how of sleep, and what are the Research and Data in
and in a laboratory? Is
long people sleep, or
ethical issues of using Psychology (Routledge),
there a validity or
p. 75
how sleep for an
animals in this way?
mundane realism issue
individual varies
here?
Is insomnia a genetic
Can you contrast what Consider what factors Go to www.bbc.co.uk
Disorders of Sleep What issues are there
when researching a
and search for “sleep
condition (nature), or
the psychodynamic
can affect a person’s
disorder? What are the learned (nurture)? What approach might say
sleep. Can you write a disorders”
ethical concerns for such sort of research could
about somnambulism
10-minute answer on
a sensitive topic?
help answer this
with the biological
how psychological
question?
approach?
knowledge could be
applied to support an
individual with
insomnia?
For use with A2 Level Psychology by Michael W. Eysenck
Published by Psychology Press. Copyright © 2009 Psychology Press PSY3: PERCEPTION
Sub-topic
Issue(s)
Theories of
Perceptual
Organisation
Some research studies Emotional and
are based on deception, motivational factors are
such as the visual
ignored in theories of
illusions. When or why perception, so these
might such deception be could be described as
being reductionist
ethically acceptable?
The majority of research Cross-cultural and other
in this area is based on studies have shown that
western individuals and both nature and nurture
groups. What assumption are involved in the
did the researchers make development of
which leads to criticism perception
that they showed cultural
bias?
Development of
Perception
Debate(s)
Studies of brain damage
Face Recognition
and Visual Agnosias can give valuable
information, but to what
extent would you
consider such a patient
capable of giving fully
informed consent? How
might this issue be dealt
with?
Approach(es)
Over to you
Further reading
Gregory’s theory is
Pick one of the issues, Check out experimental
cognitive, and includes debates, or approaches reductionism in the
the importance of
points and write a 10online Debates in
memory. How does this minute evaluation based Psychology chapter
differ from Gibson’s
on your choice
theory?
The importance of the Plan, using a mind map The visual illusion
eyes and brain support a or other technique, how section of the Nature–
biological approach to you could write a 20Nurture chapter in Bell’s
perceptual development, minute answer on nature (2002) Debates in
but this goes hand-inand nurture and
Psychology (Routledge),
hand with environmental perceptual development, is worth a close look
factors, so that we make evaluating each approach
sense of what we see
with examples and
explanations
Research suggests that Both the cognitive and The very small number The neurophysiology
section in Jarvis’ (2000)
the ability to recognise biological approaches of people with visual
agnosia means that
faces (as opposed to
must apply here;
Theoretical Approaches
other stimuli) is
cognitive for memory of research is inevitably
in Psychology
determined by the brain, faces, and biological for biased. Does this mean (Routledge), is a very
the research has little
useful and quite detailed
in the right fusiform face recognition and
value? Write a 10-minute account of brain
area, which would make processing of visual
input
answer to this question structure and function
this biological
giving your arguments,
determinism
justification, evidence,
and explanations
For use with A2 Level Psychology by Michael W. Eysenck
Published by Psychology Press. Copyright © 2009 Psychology Press PSY3: RELATIONSHIPS
Sub-topic
Issue(s)
The Formation,
Maintenance, and
Breakdown of
Romantic
Relationships
Culture bias shows up Do we have free will in Social factors would
here, also zeitgeist; very choosing romantic
support several theories,
northern European view partners, or are we
but the cognitive
of romantic relationships influenced or constrained approach is also
i.e. individualist, and
by our social group,
suggested e.g. for equity
very mid twentieth
social/economic status, theory
century
and expectations?
Human
Reproductive
Behaviour
What could be more
socially sensitive than
this? Private behaviour
will always be difficult
to research; are
participants likely to be
representative of the
population?
Adolescence and
childhood are sensitive
topics to many; looking
back from the adult state
also has methodological
issues
Effects of Early
Experience and
Culture on Adult
Relationships
Debate(s)
Approach(es)
Over to you
Further reading
Pick one of these ideas, Check out the section on
or choose another, and free will (and
write a 20-minute
determinism) in the
evaluation of the theories online Debates in
of romantic
Psychology chapter
relationships, including
discussion, evidence, and
explanations
Free will does not seem The evolutionary or
Write a 10-minute
Jarvis’s (2000)
to feature here.
biological approach
discussion of the pros
Theoretical Approaches
Behaviour is determined ignores culture, social and cons of the
in Psychology
by our genes, reduced to norms, emotions, and
evolutionary approach or (Routledge), has an
our biological drive to more
explanation of this
interesting short section
mate and reproduce
behaviour, identifying on mate selection and
strengths and
evolutionary psychology
weaknesses
The topic title suggests Both psychodynamic and Construct a mind map, or The excellent, and very
that nurture may be more behavioural approaches other detailed plan, of interesting, chapter on
influential than nature, can apply
how you could discuss socially sensitive
but this ignores
the ethical issues
research in Banyard and
temperament, which is
involved in researching Flanagan’s (2005)
mainly genetic
early experiences
Ethical Issues and
relating to adult
Guidelines in
Psychology (Routledge),
relationships
is well worth reading
For use with A2 Level Psychology by Michael W. Eysenck
Published by Psychology Press. Copyright © 2009 Psychology Press PSY3: AGGRESSION
Sub-topic
Issue(s)
Debate(s)
Approach(es)
Over to you
Aggression is anti-social If aggression is learned Learning theory, faulty Mind map, or plan in
behaviour, so
as a child from the
cognition? What about some other way with
researching it is
domestic environment, is genes, hormones,
detailed discussion
points, the debates about
sensitive; also, what
this behaviour
neurochemicals?
aggression
counts as aggression
determined by that
varies from one cultural environment as well as
group to another
the effect of nurture?
Research suggests the Some biological
This biological approach Write a 10-minute
Biological
brain’s
limbic
system
has
evidence
suggests
ignores alternative or
discussion of the
Explanations of
a causal function; also aggression could be
additional explanations alternative or additional
Aggression
the pre-frontal cortex and partly innate, so is this and factors such as
factors ignored by the
amygdala. But can we determinism? Does this cognitive, emotional, and biological approach
generalise from animal absolve those people
social
from censure?
studies to humans; or
from murderers to the
population?
We cannot test
This is an extreme nature The evolutionary
Write a 15-minute
Aggression as an
Adaptive Response evolutionary biological explanation, with little approach is part of the discussion on the issues
explanations, and even nurture; it is also
biological approach, and around evolutionary
looking at current very deterministic and
ignores many social and explanations, giving
non-industrial cultures reductionist, which
other factors, though
clear explanations
cannot compensate for makes it a narrow
learning theory and
this lack of empirical
explanation when one identity do support some
evidence, however
considers the complexity of the explanations
appealing the
of human behaviour
evolutionary explanation
Social Psychological
Approaches to
Explaining
Aggression
For use with A2 Level Psychology by Michael W. Eysenck
Published by Psychology Press. Copyright © 2009 Psychology Press Further reading
Clarke (2003) has an
interesting section on
personality and
aggression in Pro-Social
and Anti-Social
Behaviour (Routledge)
The online chapter
Approaches in
Psychology has a section
on the biological
approach which is really
useful reading
The online chapter
Approaches in
Psychology has a section
on the evolutionary
approach which is really
useful reading
PSY3: EATING BEHAVIOUR
Sub-topic
Issue(s)
Eating Behaviour
Food and eating are
emotive and sensitive
issues. To some, food
can equate to love; to
those who have
insufficient food, it
means life. Western
research assumes no
shortage of food, so this
is a bias issue
Biological
Explanations of
Eating Behaviour
Eating Disorders
Debate(s)
Approach(es)
Over to you
Further reading
Discuss, in a 15-minute Access the BBC’s
Clearly the need to eat is Several approaches
written answer with clear website www.bbc.co.uk
nature (innate), but what, could explain this
and search “food and
and how, and when we behaviour, such as the explanations and
examples, how culture mood”
eat is nurture. In some psychodynamic,
behavioural, and
affects eating behaviour
wealthy cultures,
individuals can choose biological views; there
what and when they eat, are also social factors
that could affect eating
which could illustrate
behaviours
free will, but in other
cultures there is no
choice
Much of the empirical The common preference Biological explanations, Mind map, or use
evidence is based on
across many, but not all, including evolutionary another strategy, to make
non-human animals,
cultures for alcohol,
ones apply strongly, with a detailed plan of how
which involves at least could suggest some
their strengths and also you would organise a
two issues, the ethical biological determinism their weaknesses
discussion on the use of
issue and the
non-human animals in
generalisation issue
this research
Main issues with any
Neither free will nor
Biological and
Write a 15-minute
Banyard and Flanagan
disorder are the social determinism explain why psychodynamic
discussion explaining
(2005) in Ethical Issues
explanations do not deal why/how the debates
sensitivity; the ethics
some and not the
and Guidelines in
such as gaining informed majority of people do not with the effect of culture relate or do not relate to Psychology (Routledge),
have an interesting
consent to study
develop these disorders. here; also the majority of these disorders
participants with
Nature, and also nurture, Western girls do not
section on dealing with
disorders; the small
might be able to go some develop these disorders,
cultural sensitivity
sample size, and gender way to explaining this which most approaches
and cultural bias
do not explain
For use with A2 Level Psychology by Michael W. Eysenck
Published by Psychology Press. Copyright © 2009 Psychology Press PSY3: GENDER
Sub-topic
Issue(s)
Debate(s)
Approach(es)
Over to you
Further reading
The social sensitivity of Nature and nurture—
Cognitive theories apply Write a 15-minute
Abbot’s (2001) Social
gender issues, e.g.
why is there little
here, but so also do
discussion on how a
and Personality
gender stereotyping and difference in IQ but
social factors
named theory can or
Development
prejudice; gender
much larger differences
cannot explain the debate (Routledge), has good
difference studies and in school achievement
sections on gender
identified here
sample size
development
between the sexes?
The biological
Learning theory vs.
For either the biosocial The evaluation of the
Biological Influences An issue here is that
seeing gender-related
determinism of the
evolutionary explanation or the evolutionary
evolutionary explanation
on Gender
behaviours as
evolutionary explanation
explanation, draw up a is covered very clearly in
biologically driven can does not allow for the
list of discussion points the online chapter
lead to bias if an
variety of behaviours
for and against the
Approaches in
individual does not show seen within each gender
theory, including
Psychology
the typical gender
in everyday life
evidence and
behaviour expected
explanations
Cross-cultural
studies
Social
factors
show
the
Social
factors
are
clearly
Mind map, or use
Search the BBC site
Social Contexts of
give global and valid,
importance and
important but the
another strategy, to plan www.bbc.co.uk, for
Gender Role
rather than ethnocentric, interaction of nature and biological approach is an essay discussing the “gender development”
data about gender roles nurture
also relevant and should effects of social
for more information
not be ignored
influence and culture on
gender development
Psychological
explanations of
Gender
Development
For use with A2 Level Psychology by Michael W. Eysenck
Published by Psychology Press. Copyright © 2009 Psychology Press PSY3: INTELLIGENCE AND LEARNING
Sub-topic
Issue(s)
Theories of
Intelligence
Different groups and
The cultural aspects of
cultures define
intelligence suggest that
intelligence differently, much research is
yet research focuses on a wrongly determinist in
narrow definition
its assumptions
Animal Learning
and Intelligence
Evolution of
Intelligence
Debate(s)
Approach(es)
Over to you
Cognitive vs.
behavioural—though
neither addresses
emotional IQ
Mind map, or use
another strategy, to
produce a detailed plan
for an essay discussing
one theory of
intelligence, including
evidence and
explanations
A main ethical issue is Conditioning studies
The behavioural
Write a 10-minute
the use of non-human
have quite a reductionist approach is challenged answer discussing the
animals in research, even basis, as in “A follows or by studies showing self evidence for animal
in research about
leads to B”; this is
recognition and social learning and what this
themselves
challenged by the
learning
tells us
ecological explanation
because of e.g. instinct
It is impossible to gather The ongoing debate here Evolutionary, also
Write a 15-minute
significant amounts of is that we can only guess cognitive and social
discussion of the
empirical evidence for an the influences of nature explanations, join here influence of ecological
evolutionary theory,
and nurture, because of
demands OR social
even though the fossil lack of evidence, plus the
complexity and brain
record does provide
fact that we are unable to
size on the evolution of
some such
assess the genetics of
human intelligence
intelligence; only brain
size and structure
For use with A2 Level Psychology by Michael W. Eysenck
Published by Psychology Press. Copyright © 2009 Psychology Press Further reading
Banyard’s (1999)
Controversies in
Psychology (Routledge),
has a good section on
psychometric tests, such
as IQ tests
Search for “octopus +
IQ” tests on
www.bbc.co.uk and read
the CBBC report, then
watch the videos to
decide whether you think
the tests are valid
If you Google “human
evolution” you can
watch the video clip
“Human Evolution: The
Evidence”
PSY3: COGNITION AND DEVELOPMENT
Sub-topic
Issue(s)
Development of
Thinking
Methodological issues Assuming that all
Biological and cognitive Map out in detail the
There is an interesting
include sample size and children develop
explanations combine support and the
section on Issues in
experimenter bias
cognitively in the same with social factors—they challenges you could use Oakley’s (2004)
way implies a
are not mutually
in a discussion of one
Cognitive Development
determinist view, which exclusive
theory of cognitive
(Routledge)
other evidence
development
challenges
Write a 15-minute
Oakley (2004) has a
Ethical issues relate to Kohlberg’s view can be The cognitive
regarded as reductionist explanation is useful, but discussion of the
stimulating section on
having children as
participants, especially in that the focus is on
emotions also play an
challenges to one theory gender and moral
when judgements are
of moral development, development in
cognition, with human important part
being made about other emotions being ignored
including evidence and Cognitive Development
sensitive areas such as
explanation
(Routledge)
morality
Researching a disorder is Theories can be regarded Both biological and
Compare the theory of Search the BBC website
always highly socially as biologically
www.bbc.co.uk for
cognitive explanations mind and the
sensitive, especially if deterministic, because contribute here, but other perspective-taking
articles on “Theory of
there is a suggestion of a cognitive factors are
factors are also needed in theories, looking for
Mind”
genetic input or a gender emphasised, based on
points in common and
the explanations
points of difference.
issue
brain function, and
Organise your points into
motivation tends to be
a table
overlooked
Development of
Moral
Understanding
Development of
Social Cognition
Debate(s)
Approach(es)
Over to you
For use with A2 Level Psychology by Michael W. Eysenck
Published by Psychology Press. Copyright © 2009 Psychology Press Further reading
PSY4: PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
Sub-topic
Issue(s)
Clinical
Characteristics +
Issues Surrounding
Classification and
Diagnosis
Ethical issues are concerned with The classification systems
the sensitivity of researching
could be argued to be
disorders, such as the giving of determinism in action
informed consent. There are also
the methodological issues, such
as the artificiality of criteria and
the cut-off between normal and
disordered; and there are crosscultural differences in what is
considered abnormal behaviour
Perhaps the main issue here is to Nature and nurture is an
what extent the therapy works obvious debate, linking to the
and produces long-term benefit; cross-cultural issues; genetic
also the question of validity, i.e. explanations also link to
are the symptoms or the actual biological determinism
underlying cause being treated?
Nature and nurture is an
A main issue here is to what
obvious debate, linking to the
extent the therapy works and
produces long-term benefit; also, cross-cultural issues. Genetic
is there any cultural or social
explanations also link to
bias in the explanation?
biological determinism,
whereas social and cultural
factors are nurture, and could
indicate some free will
Biological
Explanations and
Therapies
Psychological
Explanations and
Therapies
Debate(s)
Over to you
Further reading
Write a 10-minute discussion
on the three issues identified
here, including examples and
explanations
Jarvis’ (2000) section on the
importance of language and
culture in Theoretical
Approaches in Psychology
(Routledge) is short, but makes
key points
Write a 10-minute answer
Cave’s (1999) Therapeutic
discussing evidence about the Approaches in Psychology
validity of these therapies
(Routledge) is worth dipping into
for extra information
Mind map, or use another
strategy, to plan a detailed
discussion about cultural and
social effects in explanations
of abnormality
For use with A2 Level Psychology by Michael W. Eysenck
Published by Psychology Press. Copyright © 2009 Psychology Press Cave’s (1999) Therapeutic
Approaches in Psychology
(Routledge) is worth dipping into
for extra information
PSY4: MEDIA PSYCHOLOGY
Sub-topic
Issue(s)
Debate(s)
Approach(es)
Over to you!
Further resources
Media
Influences on
Social
Behaviour
One ethical issue is giving participants
media experiences, which might
increase their anti-social tendencies
The suggestion of
media influences is
clearly nurture, but
temperament (which
is nature) is a
possible factor too
Behaviourism or
Learning Theory
(including social
learning) applies here,
but social factors and
biological ones also
play a part
Mind map, or use
another technique, to
plan a detailed
discussion of media
influences on prosocial behaviour,
including evidence
and evaluation
The section on media
influences is worth
reading in Clarke’s
(2003) Pro-Social
and Anti-Social
Behaviour
(Routledge)
Persuasion,
Attitude, and
Change
An important ethical issue is how
psychological knowledge could be
used; deliberately influencing attitudes
is a good example of this. There are
also methodological issues, such as
self-reporting and correlational
findings
Nature and nurture
are involved, as
cognitive ability and
personality are
nature, but
judgements about
the communicator
are likely to be more
socially- or
culturally-based, and
therefore nurture
Much of this is very
cognitive in its
approach, but other
factors such as emotions
and personality are also
involved
Write a 10-minute
discussion including
evidence on the noncognitive factors
involved in
persuasion and
attitude change
The BBC website
search for
“persuasion” links to
an interesting article
and video clip on how
to persuade
www.bbc.co.uk
The Psychology Research has to be careful to make the
distinction between celebrity worship
of “Celebrity”
which is not pathological, and that
which is. There is also the issue of
when fandom becomes intense, as this
distinction is an artificial construct and
could be a matter of opinion, thus
questioning reliability and validity
Nature could be
more important than
nurture, as research
identifies innate
characteristics (e.g.
personality and
intelligence) as
relevant factors
Several approaches
could contribute
explanations; biological
for personality;
cognitive for obsessive
thinking; but emotional
and attachment factors
also seem pertinent
Write a 15-minute
discussion of the
Absorption–
Addiction model,
including evidence
and evaluation
Search the BBC site
for “celebrity
worship”
www.bbc.co.uk
For use with A2 Level Psychology by Michael W. Eysenck
Published by Psychology Press. Copyright © 2009 Psychology Press PSY4: THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADDICTIVE BEHAVIOUR
Sub-topic
Models of
Addictive
Behaviour
Issue(s)
Debate(s)
There is no clear, accepted definition
of addiction. Also, addiction and
addicts are examples of a socially
sensitive research area, and so extra
ethical concerns apply
Approach(es)
The biological
explanations suggest
nature, whilst the
learning or
behavioural
explanations involve
nurture
Behavioural, cognitive,
and biological
approaches all have
contributions, as do
social factors
Over to you!
Write a 10-minute
discussion including
evidence of either
the biological or the
behavioural
explanation of
addiction
Further resources
Search the New
Scientist website for
an interesting
comment on internet
addiction
www.newscientist.co
m
Factors
Affecting
Addictive
Behaviour
There are cultural issues as to which
behaviours (and their extent) count as
addictions
Nature and nurture
interact, as some
factors are innate
(such as personality)
and others are
environmental (such
as advertising and
social norms)
Cognitive explanations
are important (e.g. in
attributional style), but
there are many factors
involved as the
biopsychosocial
explanation suggests
Mind map, or use
another technique, to
produce a detailed
plan of discussion
including evidence
of the factors in
either the
biopsychosocial
approach or Davies’
stage model
Another New Scientist
article looks at a case
study of gambling,
titled Hooked: Why
your brain is primed
for addiction
www.newscientist.co
m
Reducing
Addictive
Behaviour
The social sensitivity of this
psychopathology means that many
addicts cannot accept that they are
addicted, and/or feel powerless as well
as ashamed. There is also the issue of
research comparing therapies if this
shows that any have little usefulness
Do addicts have free
will over their
addiction? Is
addictive behaviour
determined either
biologically or
socially?
Clearly the cognitive
approach has impact on
reducing addictive
behaviour, but many
other factors are
involved, such as
emotions, and social
and environmental
barriers
Choose one
biological and one
psychological
therapy and write a
15-minute discussion
including evidence
and evaluation of the
two therapies
The BBC website has
some alternative ideas
on addiction therapy,
but is there research
evidence?
For use with A2 Level Psychology by Michael W. Eysenck
Published by Psychology Press. Copyright © 2009 Psychology Press PSY4: ANOMALISTIC PSYCHOLOGY
Sub-topic
Issue(s)
Debate(s)
Approach(es)
Theoretical and Pseudoscience, reliability, and validity
Methodological of evidence, fraud—all important
issues
Issues in the
Study of
Anomalous
Experience
Factors
Underlying
Anomalous
Experience
Sensitivity is needed towards social or
cultural norms in paranormal beliefs,
such as superstitions and near-death
experiences, or paranormal
explanations of physiological states,
such as sleep paralysis
Nature is involved if
the biological
explanations are
valid, but nurture is
also a factor for
norms and
experiences
The cognitive and
biological approaches
are important here, with
possible cultural factors
and psychodynamic
explanations, such as
the effects of early
childhood experiences
Over to you!
Further resources
Write a detailed
plan, such as a mind
map, linking
Ganzfeld studies to
the three basic
principles of science
The BBC website has
a video clip
demonstrating how
easy it is to produce
fake results. Search
for “ESP” in
www.bbc.co.uk
Construct a simple
table of the evidence
for differences
between
superstitious and
non-superstitious
people
Searching the New
Scientist website for
“near death
experience” gives
some interesting
articles on, for
example, producing
similar experiences in
the laboratory
www.newscientist.co
m
Belief in
Exceptional
Experience
Considerable sensitivity should be
shown when researching, and
therefore questioning, participants’
beliefs. Methodologically there is an
issue in that much exceptional
experience has to be studied
retrospectively, and that sample sizes
are small and biased
Nurture is clearly
involved where a
belief is cultural, and
where any belief is
involved, as these
are the result of the
individual’s
environment
Cognitive explanations
are relevant, modified
by personal experience
and possible innate
factors
Write a 15-minute
discussion and
evaluation of the
evidence supporting
the validity of
exceptional
experiences
For use with A2 Level Psychology by Michael W. Eysenck
Published by Psychology Press. Copyright © 2009 Psychology Press New Scientist has a
good article on the
“Power of Belief”
www.newscientist.co
m