Quick Orientation To APA Style (5th Edition)
The models presented in this section are illustrative of the APA Style for citations and references.
For further information pertaining to the Norms of the APA, we recommend consulting the
following publication:
American Psychological Association (APA). (2001). Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
This quick guide for references and citations are in compliance with the Norms of the APA
according
to
information
obtained
from
the
following
websites:
http://www.lib.usm.edu/research/guides/apa.html and
http://www.dianahacker.com/resdoc/social_sciences/intext.html
Citations
An in-text citation names the author of the source (often in a signal phrase), gives the date of
publication, and at times includes a page number in parentheses. At the end of the paper, a list of
references provides publication information about the source; the list is alphabetized by authors'
last names (or by titles for works without authors). There is a direct connection between the intext citation and the alphabetical listing. In the following example, that connection can be seen in
the last author’s name and the date, which are the same in the in-text citation and in the list of
references.
IN-TEXT CITATION
Rumbaugh (1995) reported that "Kanzi's comprehension of over 600 novel sentences of
request was very comparable to Alia's; both complied with requests without assistance on
approximately 70% of the sentences" (p. 722).
ENTRY IN THE LIST OF REFERENCES
Rumbaugh, D. (1995). Primate language and cognition: Common ground. Social Research,
62, 711-730.
APA in-text citations
The APA's in-text citations provide at least the author's last name and the date of publication. For
direct quotations and some paraphrases, a page number is given as well. The following models
illustrate the APA style of in-text citation.
NOTE: In the models in this section, notice that APA style requires the use of the past tense or the
present perfect tense in signal phrases introducing cited material: Smith reported, Smith has
argued.
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Basic format for a quotation
Ordinarily, introduce the quotation with a signal phrase that includes the author's last name
followed by the date of publication in parentheses. Put the page number (preceded by "p.") in
parentheses after the quotation.
Hart (1996) wrote that some primatologists "wondered if apes had learned Language, with a
capital L" (p. 109).
If the signal phrase does not name the author, place the author's last name, the year, and the page
number in parentheses after the quotation. Use commas between items in the parentheses: (Hart,
1996, p. 109).
Basic format for a summary or a paraphrase
Include the author's last name and the date either in a signal phrase introducing the material or in
parentheses following it. A page number is not required for a summary or a paraphrase, but
include one if it would help readers find the passage in a long work.
According to Hart (1996), researchers took Terrace's conclusions seriously, and funding
for language experiments soon declined
Researchers took Terrace's conclusions seriously, and funding for language experiments
soon declined (Hart, 1996).
A work with two authors
Name both authors in the signal phrase or parentheses each time you cite the work. In the
parentheses, use "&" between the authors' names; in the signal phrase, use "and."
Greenfield and Savage-Rumbaugh (1990) have acknowledged that Kanzi's linguistic
development was slower than that of a human child (p. 567).
Kanzi's linguistic development was slower than that of a human child (Greenfield & SavageRumbaugh, 1990, p. 567).
A work with three to five authors
Identify all authors in the signal phrase or parentheses the first time you cite the source.
The chimpanzee Nim was raised by researchers who trained him in American Sign Language
by molding and guiding his hands (Terrace, Petitto, Sanders, & Bever, 1979).
In subsequent citations, use the first author's name followed by "et al." in either the signal phrase
or the parentheses.
Nim was able to string together as many as 16 signs, but their order appeared quite random
(Terrace et al., 1979).
A work with six or more authors
Use only the first author's name followed by "et al." in the signal phrase or the parentheses.
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The ape language studies have shed light on the language development of children with
linguistic handicaps (Savage-Rumbaugh et al., 1993).
Unknown author
If the author is unknown, mention the work's title in the signal phrase or give the first word or two
of the title in the parenthetical citation. Titles of articles and chapters are put in quotation marks;
titles of books and reports are italicized.
Chimpanzees in separate areas of Africa differ in a range of behaviors: in their methods of
cracking nuts, for example, or in their grooming rituals. An international team of researchers
has concluded that many of the differing behaviors are cultural, not just responses to varying
environmental factors ("Chimps," 1999).
NOTE: In the rare case when "Anonymous" is specified as the author, treat it as if it were a real
name: (Anonymous, 2001). In the list of references, also use the name Anonymous as author.
Organization as author
If the author is a government agency or other corporate organization, name the organization in the
signal phrase or in the parenthetical citation the first time you cite the source.
According to the Language Research Center (2000), linguistic research with apes has led to
new methods of treating humans with learning disabilities such as autism and dyslexia.
If the organization has a familiar abbreviation, you may include it in brackets the first time you
cite the source and use the abbreviation alone in later citations.
FIRST CITATION
(National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 2001)
LATER CITATIONS
(NIMH, 2001)
Two or more works in the same parentheses
When your parenthetical citation names two or more works, put them in the same order that they
appear in the reference list, separated by semicolons.
Researchers argued that the apes in the early language experiments were merely responding to
cues (Sebeok & Umiker-Sebeok, 1979; Terrace, 1979).
Authors with the same last name
To avoid confusion, use initials with the last names if your reference list includes two or more
authors with the same last name.
Research by E. Smith (1989) revealed that . . .
Personal communication
Interviews, letters, e-mail, and other person-to-person communications should be cited as follows:
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One of Patterson's former aides, who worked with the gorilla Michael, believes that he was
capable of joking and lying in sign language (E. Robbins, personal communication, January 4,
2000).
Do not include personal communications in your reference list.
An electronic document
When possible, cite an electronic document as you would any other document (using the authordate style).
R. Fouts and D. Fouts (1999) have explained one benefit of ape language research: It has
shown us how to teach children with linguistic disabilities.
Electronic sources may lack authors' names or dates. In addition, they may lack page numbers
(required in some citations). Here are APA's guidelines for handling sources without authors'
names, dates, or page numbers.
UNKNOWN AUTHOR
If no author is named, mention the title of the document in a signal phrase or give the first word or
two of the title in parentheses.
According to a BBC article, chimpanzees at sites in West Africa, Tanzania, and Uganda
exhibit culture-specific patterns of behavior when grooming one another ("Chimps," 1999).
UNKNOWN DATE
When the date is unknown, APA recommends using the abbreviation "n.d." (for "no date").
Attempts to return sign-language-using apes to the wild have had mixed results (Smith, n.d.).
NO PAGE NUMBERS
APA ordinarily requires page numbers for direct quotations, and it recommends them for
summaries or paraphrases from long sources. When an electronic source lacks stable numbered
pages, your citation should include—if possible—information that will help readers locate the
particular passage being cited.
When an electronic document has numbered paragraphs, use the paragraph number preceded by
the symbol ¶ or by the abbreviation "para.": (Hall, 2001, ¶5) or (Hall, 2001, para. 5). If neither a
page nor a paragraph number is given and the document contains headings, cite the appropriate
heading and indicate which paragraph under that heading you are referring to:
According to Kirby (1999), some critics have accused activists in the Great Ape Project of
"exaggerating the supposed similarities of the apes [to humans] to stop their use in
experiments" (Shared Path section, para. 6).
NOTE: Electronic files using portable document format (PDF) often have stable page numbers.
For such sources, give the page number in the parenthetical citation.
Indirect source
If you use a source that was cited in another source (a secondary source), name the original source
in your signal phrase. List the secondary source in your reference list and include it in your
parenthetical citation, preceded by the words "as cited in." In the following example, Booth is the
secondary source.
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Linguist Noam Chomsky has dismissed the studies on Kanzi with a flippant analogy: "To
maintain that Kanzi has language ability is like saying a man can fly because he can jump in
the air" (as cited in Booth, 1990, p. A3).
Two or more works by the same author in the same year
When your list of references includes more than one work by the same author in the same year,
use lowercaser letters ("a," "b," and so on) with the year to order the entries in the reference list.
Use those same letters with the year in the citation.
Research by Kennedy (2000b) has yielded new findings about the role of gender in the
functioning of small groups.
Do not include personal communications in your reference list.
References
Books
Typical book entry -- single author
Arnheim, R. (1971). Art and visual perception. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Publishing information - Spell out the publishing names of associations and university presses,
but omit superfluous terms such as "Publishers," "Co.," or "Inc." If two or more locations are
given, give the location listed first or the publisher's home office. When the publisher is a
university and the name of the state (or province) is included in the university name, do not repeat
the name of the state/province in the publisher location. When the author and publisher are
identical, use the word "Author" as the name of the publisher.
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental
disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Multiple authors
When a work has up to (and including) six authors, cite all authors. When a work has more than
six authors cite the first six followed by "et al."
Festinger, L., Riecken, H., & Schachter, S. (1956). When prophecy fails. Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota Press.
Roeder, K., Howdeshell, J., Fulton, L., Lochhead, M., Craig, K., Peterson, R., et.al. (1967).
Nerve cells and insect behavior. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
When a work has up to (and including) six authors, cite all authors. When a work has more than
six authors cite the first six followed by "et al."
Festinger, L., Riecken, H., & Schachter, S. (1956). When prophecy fails. Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota Press.
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Roeder, K., Howdeshell, J., Fulton, L., Lochhead, M., Craig, K., Peterson, R., et.al. (1967).
Nerve cells and insect behavior. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Corporate authorship
Institute of Financial Education. (1982). Managing personal funds. Chicago: Midwestern.
No author identified
Experimental psychology. (1938). New York: Holt.
Citing items in an anthology/chapter in edited book
Rubenstein, J.P. (1967). The effect of television violence on small children. In B.F. Kane
(Ed.), Television and juvenile psychological development (pp. 112-134). New York:
American Psychological Society.
Reprinted or republished chapter
Freud, S. (1961). The ego and the id. In J. Strachey (Ed. and Trans.), The standard edition of
the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 19, pp. 3-66). London: Hogarth
Press. (Original work published 1923)
Following the entry, enclose "Original work published" in parentheses, noting the original date.
Chapter in a volume in a series
Maccoby, E.E., & Martin, J. (1983). Socialization in the context of the family: Parent-child
interaction. In P.H. Mussen (Series Ed.) & E.M. Hetherington (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child
psychology: Vol. 4. Socialization, personality, and social development (4th ed., pp. 1-101).
New York: Wiley.
Citing multivolume works
Wilson, J. G., & Fraser, F. C. (Eds.). (1977-1978). Handbook of teratology (Vols. 1-4). New
York: Plenum Press.
In listing a multivolume work, the publication dates should be inclusive for all volumes. The
volumes should be identified, in parentheses, immediately following the book title. Do not use a
period between the title and the parenthetical information; close the entire title, including the
volume information, with a period.
Edited collections
Higgins, J. (Ed.). (1988). Psychology. New York: Norton.
or
Grice, H. P., & Gregory, R. L. (Eds.). (1968). Early language development. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Citing specific editions of a book (when the edition used is not the first edition)
Brockett, O. (1987). History of the theatre (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Immediately after the book's title, note the edition information in parentheses (for example, "5th
ed." or "rev. ed."). Do not use a period between the title and the parenthetical information.
Translated works
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Freud, S. (1970) An outline of psychoanalysis (J. Strachey, Trans.). New York: Norton.
(Original work published 1940)
The original publication date is the last portion of the entry and should be in parentheses with the
note "Original work published" followed by the date.
Proceedings
Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (1991). A motivational approach to self: Integration in personality.
In R. Dienstbier (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation: Vol. 38. Perspectives on
motivation (pp. 237-288). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
or
Cynx, J., Williams, H., & Nottebohm, F. (1992). Hemispheric diffences in avian song
discrimation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 89, 1372-1375.
Journals
Citing articles in journals with continuous pagination
Passons, W. (1967). Predictive validities of the ACT, SAT, and high school grades for first
semester GPA and freshman courses. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 27, 11431144.
Citing articles in journals with non-continuous pagination
Sawyer, J. (1966). Measurement and prediction, clinical and statistical. Psychological
Bulletin, 66 (3), 178-200.
Because pagination begins anew with each issue of this journal, it is necessary to include the issue
number in parentheses after the volume number. Note that there is a comma between the issue
number and the page numbers, but no comma between the italized volume number and the issue
number. If the periodical does not use volume numbers, include "pp." before the page numbers so
the reader will understand that the numbers refer to pagination. Use "p." if the source is a page or
less long.
Citing articles in monthly periodicals
Chandler-Crisp, S. (1988, May) "Aerobic writing": a writing practice model. Writing Lab
Newsletter, pp. 9-11.
Citing articles in weekly periodicals
Kauffmann, S. (1993, October 18). On films: class consciousness. The New Republic, p.30.
Newspaper articles
Monson, M. (1993, September 16). Urbana firm obstacle to office project. The ChampaignUrbana News-Gazette, pp. A1,A8.
No author identified
Clinton puts 'human face' on health-care plan. (1993, September 16). The New York Times, p.
B1.
Reprinted or republished articles
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Clark, G., & Zimmerman, E. (1988). Professional roles and activities as models for art
education. In S. Dobbs (Ed.), Research readings for discipline-based art education. Reston,
VA: NAEA. (Reprinted from Studies in Art Education, 19 (1986), 34-39.)
Following the entry, enclose "Reprinted from" in parentheses, noting the original publication
information. Close with a period.
ERIC Documents (Report available from the Educational Resources Information Center)
Mead, J.V. (1992). Looking at old photographs: Investigating the teacher tales that novice
teachers bring with them (Report No. NCRTL-RR-92-4). East Lansing, MI: National Center
for Research on Teacher Learning. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED346082)
Dissertations
Dissertation obtained from Dissertation Abstracts International (DAI)
Bower, D.L. (1993). Employee assistant programs supervisory referrals: Characteristics of
referring and nonreferring supervisors. Dissertation Abstracts International, 54 (01), 534B.
(UMI No. 9315947)
Dissertation obtained from the university
Ross, D. F. (1990). Unconscious transference and mistaken identity: When a witness
misidentifies a familiar but innocent person from a lineup (Doctoral dissertation, Cornell
University, 1990). Dissertation Abstracts International, 51, 417.
Give the university and year of the dissertation as well as the volume and page numbers from the
Dissertation Abstract International.
Unpublished Dissertation
Wilfley, D. E. (1989). Interpersonal analyses of bulimia: Normal-weight and obese.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Missouri, Columbia.
Unpublished Master´s Degree Dissertation obtained from a no American university
Almeida, D. M. (1990). Father´s participation in family work: Consequences for father´s
stress and father child relations. Unpublished Master's degree dissertation, University of
Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada.
Other Media
Citing interviews
Archer, N. (1993). [Interview with Helen Burns, author of Sense and Perception]. Journal of
Sensory Studies, 21, 211-216.
In this example, the interview lacks a title, so a description of the interview is given in brackets. If
the interview has a title, include the title (without quotation marks) after the year, and then give a
further description in brackets if necessary.
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Unpublished interviews do not need a reference page entry because they are what the Publication
Manual of the APA calls "personal communications" and so "do not provide recoverable data."
Here, the entry consists of the first initial and last name of the interviewee, the type of
communication, and the date of the interview.
(N. Archer, personal interview, October 11, 1993)
Citing films or videotapes
Weir, P.B. (Producer), & Harrison, B.F. (Director). (1992). Levels of consciousness [Motion
picture]. Boston, MA: Filmways.
Here, the main people responsible for the videotape are given, with their roles identified in
parentheses after their names. After the title, the medium is identified (here, a motion picture).
The distributor's name and location comprises the last part of the entry.
Citing recordings
Writer, A. (Date of copyright). Title of song [Recorded by artist if different from writer]. On
Title of album [Medium of recording: CD, record, cassette, etc.]. Location: Label. (Recording
date if different than copyright)
Goodenough, J. B. (1982). Tails and trotters [Recorded by G. Bok, A. Mayo, & E. Trickett].
On And so will we yet [CD]. Sharon, CT: Folk-Legacy Records. (1990)
Shocked, M. (1992). Over the waterfall. On Arkansas traveler [CD]. New York: Polygram
Music.
McFerrin, Bobby (Vocalist). (1990). Medicine music [Cassette Recording]. Hollywood, CA:
EMI-USA.
Electronic Information
The type of medium can be, but is not limited to the following: aggregated databases, online
journals, Web sites or Web pages, newsgroups, Web- or e-mail based discussion groups or Web
or e-mail based newsletters. Pagination in electronic references is unavailable in many cases, thus
left out of the citation. The APA Manual has a short section demonstrating the format for
electronic
references
on
pp.
268-281.
For
other
examples,
visit
http://www.apastyle.org/elecref.html
Citing computer software
Arend, Dominic N. (1993). Choices (Version 4.0) [Computer software]. Champaign, IL: U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers Research Laboratory. (CERL Report No.CH7-22510)
If an individual(s) has proprietary rights to the software, their name(s) are listed at the head of the
entry, last names first, followed by a period. Otherwise, treat such references as unauthored. Do
not italize the title. Specify in brackets that the source is computer software, program or language.
List the location and the organization's name that produced the program. Add any other necessary
information for identifying the program (in this example, the report number) in parentheses at the
entry's conclusion. To reference a manual, follow the same as above but add "manual" as the
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source in the bracketed information. Do not add a period at the end of a citation if it ends in a web
address.
Full-Text Database (i.e., book, magazine, newspaper article or report)
The second date which follows is the date the user retrieved the material. No period follows an
Internet Web address.
Schneiderman, R. A. (1997). Librarians can make sense of the Net. San Antonio Business
Journal, 11, 58+. Retrieved January 27, 1999, from EBSCO Masterfile database.
Article in an Internet-only journal
Kawasaki, J. L., & Raven, M.R. (1995). Computer-administered surveys in extension.
Journal of Extension, 33, 252-255. Retrieved June 2, 1999, from http://joe.org/joe/index.html
Article in an Internet-only newsletter
Waufton, K.K. (1999, April). Dealing with anthrax. Telehealth News, 3(2). Retreived
December 16, 2000, from http://www.telehearlth.net/subscribe/newslettr_5b.html#1
Internet technical or research reports
University of California, San Francisco, Institute for Health and Aging. (1996, November).
Chronic care in America: A 21st century challenge. Retrieved September 9, 2000, from the
Robert Wood Foundation Web site: http://www.rwjf.org/library/chrcare
Document created by private organization, no page numbers, no date
Greater Hattiesburg Civic Awareness Group, Task Force on Sheltered Programs. (n.d.). Fundraising efforts. Retreived November 10, 2001, from http://www.hattiesburgcag.org
Sometimes authors are not identified, and there is no date showing for the document. Date website
was accessed should be used and efforts should be made to identify the sponsoring
author/organization of the website. If none is found, do not list an author.
Document from university program or department
McNeese, M.N. (2001). Using technology in educational settings. Retrieved October 13,
2001, from University of Southern Mississippi, Educational Leadership and Research Web
site: http://www-dept.usm.edu/~eda/
E-Mail, newsgroups, online forums, discussion groups and electronic mailing lists
Personal communications, which are not archived, should not included in reference lists and cited
within the text only: Smith, Fred ("personal communication," January 21, 1999)
If archived
Hammond, Tl (2000, November 20). YAHC: Handle Parameters, DOI Genres, etc. Message
posted to Ref-Links electronic mailing list, archived at http://www.doi.org/mail-archive/reflink/msg00088.html
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