Chapter 12
Bioenergy
12.1Summary
Key messages
•
Bioenergyisaformofrenewableenergyderivedfrombiomass(organicmaterials)togenerate
electricityandheatandtoproduceliquidfuelsfortransport.
•
ThepotentialbioenergyresourcesinAustraliaarelargeanddiverse.Unusedbiomassresidues
andwastesareasignificantunder-exploitedresource.
•
Bioenergyoffersthepotentialforconsiderableenvironmentalbenefits.Atthesametime,good
managementoftheresourceisneededtoensurethatproblemsassociatedwithuseoflandand
waterresourcesareavoided.
•
Commercialisationofsecondgenerationtechnologieswillresultinagreateravailabilityofnonediblebiomass,reducingtheriskofadverseenvironmentalandsocialimpacts.
•
Australia’sbioenergyuseisprojectedtoincreaseby60percentfrom2007–08to2029–30.
12.1.1 World bioenergy resources
and market
• Currentglobalbioenergyresourcesusedfor
generating electricity and heat are dominated by
forestryandagricultureresiduesandorganicwaste
streams.Asmallproportionofsugar,grainand
vegetableoilcropsareusedforbiofuelproduction.
• Bioenergyrepresentsaround10percentofthe
world’sprimaryenergyconsumption.Around81
percentofworldbioenergyconsumptionoccurs
innon-OECDcountries,whereitismostlyused
fordirectburning.
• In2007,theglobalshareofbioenergyintotal
electricitygenerationwasonly1.3percent.
However,worldelectricitygenerationfrom
bioenergyresourcesisprojectedbytheIEAinits
referencecasetoincreaseby5percentperyear
to2030anditsshareofbioenergygenerationis
projectedtoreach2.4percentin2030.
• Biofuelscurrentlyrepresent1.3percentofglobal
useoftransportfuels.By2030,theshareof
biofuelsintotaltransportfuelsisprojectedbythe
IEAtoincreaseto4.0percent.
12.1.2Australia’sbioenergyresources
• CurrentlyAustralia’sbioenergyuseforgenerating
heatandelectricityissourcedmainlyfrom
bagasse(sugarcaneresidue),woodwaste,and
captureofgasfromlandfillandsewagefacilities
(figure12.1).
• Biofuelsfortransportrepresentasmall
proportionofAustralia’sbioenergy.Ethanolis
producedfromsugarby-products,wastestarch
andgrain.Biodieselisproducedfromused
cookingoils,tallowfromabattoirsandoilseeds.
• ThereispotentialtoexpandAustralia’sbioenergy
sectorwithincreasedutilisationofwoodresidues
fromplantationsandforests,wastestreamsand
non-edible biomass.
12.1.3KeyfactorsinutilisingAustralia’s
bioenergy resources
• Theproportionofbiomasspotentiallyavailable
forbioenergyisdependentonawiderange
offactorssuchasfeedstockprices,seasonal
availabilityandtherelativevalueofbiomassfor
theproductionofothercommodities.
• Akeyconsiderationintheexpansionofthe
bioenergy industry is to ensure sustainable use
ofresourcestoavoidanypotentialnegative
environmental and social impacts.
• Thecommercialisationofsecondgeneration
technologieswillopenuparangeofnew
feedstocksfromnon-ediblebiomass(e.g.woody
partsofplants)forbiofuelsandelectricity
generation.Thesesecondgenerationfeedstocks
canbeproducedonlessfertileagricultural
lands and can potentially provide environmental
benefits.Somesecondgenerationfeedstocks,
suchasalgae,canbegrownwithsalineorwaste
waterratherthanutilisingfreshwaterresources.
AU S T RA LIA N E N E RGY RE S O U RC E A S SES SMENT
309
310
Figure 12.1 LanduseandbioenergyfacilitiesinAustralia
Note: Areasdepictedasunderirrigationareexaggeratedforpresentation
source: GeoscienceAustraliaandBureauofRuralSciences
12.1.4Australia’sbioenergymarket
• Bioenergyaccountedforonly4percentof
Australia’sprimaryenergyconsumptionin
2007–08,butitrepresented78percentof
Australia’srenewableenergyuse.
• ThemajorityofAustralia’sbioenergyuseis
sourcedfrombagasseandwoodwaste,which
represents92percentofbioenergyusefordirect
heatandelectricitygeneration.Biogasrepresents
6percentofbioenergyuseandtheremaining2
percentisbiofuelsfortransportfuel.
• ABARE’slatestAustralianenergyprojectsinclude
theRenewableEnergyTarget(RET),a5percent
emissions reduction target and other government
policies.BioenergyuseinAustraliaisprojected
toincreaseby2.2percentperyearto340
petajoules(PJ)in2029–30(figure12.2).
• Electricitygenerationfrombioenergyisprojected
toincreasefrom2terawatthours(TWh)in2007–
08to3TWhby2029–30growingatanaverage
rateof2.3percentperyear(figure12.3).
AUSTRA L I AN E N E R GY R E S O U R C E A S S E S S M E NT
12.2Backgroundinformation
andworldmarket
12.2.1Definitions
Bioenergydenotestheuseoforganicmaterial
(biomass)asasourceofenergyforpowergeneration
and direct source heat applications in all energy
sectorsincludingdomestic,commercialandindustrial
purposesaswellastheproductionofliquidfuels
fortransport.
Bioenergyisaformofrenewableenergy.Biomass
releasescarbondioxide(CO2)andsmallamountsof
othergreenhousegaseswhenitisconvertedinto
anotherformofenergy.HoweverCO2 is absorbed
duringtheregrowthoftherestoredvegetation
through photosynthesis process.
Biomass is vegetable and animal derived organic
materials,whicharegrown,collectedorharvested
forenergy.Examplesincludewoodwaste,bagasse
andanimalfats.
A conventional combustion process converts solid
biomass through direct burning to release energy
intheformofheatwhichcanbeusedtogenerate
C H A P T E R 1 2: B IOENER GY
350
5.0
300
4.4
3
1.0
3.8
2
1.9
100
TWh
PJ
2.5
150
%
3.1
200
0.5
%
250
1
1.3
50
0.6
0
0
0
0
1999- 2000- 2001- 2002- 2003- 2004- 2005- 2006- 2007- 202900
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
30
1999- 2000- 2001- 2002- 2003- 2004- 2005- 2006- 2007- 202900
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
30
Year
Year
Bioenergy
consumption (PJ)
Share of
total (%)
AERA 12.2
Bioenergy electricity
generation (TWh)
Share of
total (%)
AERA 12.3
Figure 12.2 Projectedprimaryconsumptionofbioenergy
in Australia
Figure 12.3 Projectedelectricitygenerationfrom
bioenergy in Australia
source: ABARE2009a;ABARE2010
source: ABARE2009a;ABARE2010
electricityandheat.Chemicalconversionprocesses
breaksdownthebiomassintofuels,intheformof
biogasorliquidbiofuels,whicharethenusedfor
electricity generation and transport.
generate electricity and heat include agricultural and
forestresidues,andmunicipalwastesandresidues.
Biofuelsareproducedfromwasteproducts,grain
(sorghum) and oil-bearing crops. Australian bioenergy
production is mainly consumed domestically.
Biogasiscomposedprincipallyofmethaneand
CO2producedbyanaerobicdigestionofbiomass.
Itiscurrentlycapturedfromlandfillsites,sewage
treatmentplants,livestockfeedlotsandagricultural
wastes.
Biofuelsareliquidfuels,producedbychemical
conversion processes that result in the production
ofethanolandbiodiesel.Biofuelscanbebroadly
grouped according to the conversion processes:
• First generation biofuels are based on
fermentationanddistillationofethanolfrom
sugar and starch crops or chemical conversion
ofvegetableoilsandanimalfatstoproduce
biodiesel. First generation technologies are proven
and are currently used at a commercial scale.
• second generation biofuels use biochemical
or thermochemical processes to convert
lignocellulosicmaterial(non-ediblefibrousor
woodyportionsofplants)andalgaetobiofuels.
Secondgenerationtechnologiesandbiomass
feedstocksareintheresearch,developmentand
demonstration(RD&D)stage.
• Third generation biofuels are in research
anddevelopment(R&D)andcomprise
integratedbiorefineriesforproducingbiofuels,
electricity generation and bioproducts (such as
petrochemical replacements).
12.2.2Bioenergysupplychain
Figure12.4providesaconceptualrepresentationof
Australia’scurrentbioenergyindustry.Currently,there
isawiderangeofbioenergyresourcespotentially
availableforbioenergyutilisation.Biomassusedto
Thereisarangeoftechnologiescurrentlyavailable
forconvertingbiomassintoenergyforelectricity
andheatgenerationand/ortransportbiofuels.
Thetechnologiesarebasedoneitherthermalor
chemical conversion processes or a combination.
Thefueltype(inparticulartheheatingvalueand
moisture) and the conversion technology have an
effectonenergyconversionefficiency.Theenergy
conversionefficiencyforwoodwasteinadirect
combustionfacilityisabout35percent,comparedto
between70and85percentefficiencyinacombined
heatandpowerfacility.
electricity and heat generation
InAustralia,biomasselectricitygenerationis
predominantlyfrombagasse(sugarcaneresidues)
bysteamturbine,withsomecogeneration
installation.Severalwoodwastebioenergyfacilities
use steam turbines and fluidised bed combustion
technologies.Thereisminorelectricitygenerationfrom
co-firingwithcoal,andfacilitiesusingurbanwaste.
Biogasfromlandfillandsewagefacilitiesarelocated
in urban centres and generate electricity
bymeansofreciprocatingengineorgasturbine.
Somefacilitieshavecogenerationinstallations.
Transport biofuels
Asmallamountofbiofuelsisusedinthetransport
sector.InAustralia,firstgenerationbiofuelsconsist
ofethanolproducedfromC-molassesandwheat
starchby-productsandgrain(mainlysorghum),and
biodieselpredominantlyproducedfromtallow(animal
fats)andusedcookingoil.
AU S T RA LIA N E N E RGY RE S O U RC E A S SES SMENT
311
Development and
Production
Resources
Processing, Transport,
Storage
End Use Market
Development
decision
Biogas
projects
Industry
Electricity
and Heat
Generation
Commercial
Direct
Burning
Resource
potential
Biomass
projects
Residential
Processing
Biofuels
projects
Processing
(biofuels)
Export
Storage
Transport
AERA 12.4
Figure 12.4 Australia’sbioenergysupplychain
source: ABAREandGeoscienceAustralia
Table 12.1 Keybioenergystatistics
312
Primary energy consumption
unit
australia
2007–08
OeCD
2008
World
2007
PJ
226
9317
48980
Shareoftotal
%
3.9
4.1
9.7
Averageannualgrowth,since2000
%
0.3
3.0
1.9
255
electricity generation
Electricity output
TWh
2.2
214
Shareoftotal
%
0.9
2.0
1.3
Averageannualgrowth,since2000
%
8.7
4.8
6.0
Electricity capacity
GW
0.87
1.6
na
Transport
PJ
4.9
987
1207
Shareoftotal
%
0.4
1.9
1.3
Averageannualgrowth,since2000
%
-
29.9
22.9
source: IEA2009a;ABARE2009a
12.2.3Worldbioenergymarket
Resources
Around10percentoftheworld’sprimaryenergy
consumptioncomesfrombioenergy(table12.1).
Theshareofbioenergyinprimaryenergy
consumptionishigherinnon-OECDcountriesthan
inOECDcountries.InAustralia,thebioenergy
shareiscomparabletotheOECDaverage,at
around4percent.Themajorityoftheworld’s
bioenergyisuseddirectlyforheatproduction
throughtheburningofsolidbiomass;only4per
centisusedforelectricitygenerationandanother
2.5percentisintheformofbiofuelsusedinthe
transport sector.
Globalbioenergyresourcesaredifficulttoquantify
duetotheresourcesbeingcommittedtofood,animal
feedandmaterialforconstruction.Theavailabilityof
biomassforenergyisalsoinfluencedbypopulation
growth,diet,agriculturalintensity,environmental
impacts,climatechange,waterandlandavailability
(IEABioenergy2008).
AUSTRA L I AN E N E R GY R E S O U R C E A S S E S S M E NT
Currentbioenergyresourcesconsistofresidues
fromforestryandagriculture,variousorganicwaste
streamsanddedicatedbiomassproductionfrom
pastureland,woodplantationsandsugarcane.
C H A P T E R 1 2: B IOENER GY
Unusedresiduesandwasteareasignificantunderexploitedresource.
Atpresent,themainbiomassfeedstocksfor
electricityandheatgenerationareforestryand
agriculturalresiduesandmunicipalwastein
cogenerationandco-firingpowerplants.In2007,
fuelwooddominates(67percent)theshareof
biomasssourcesinthebioenergymix(figure12.5).
Fuelwoodisusedinresidentialapplicationsin
inefficientstovesfordomesticheatingandcooking,
whichisalsoconsideredamajorhealthissuein
developingcountries(IEABioenergy2009a).This
traditionaluseisexpectedtogrowwithincreasing
population,howeverthereisscopetoimprove
efficiencyandenvironmentalperformance.
Themaingrowthmarketsforpowergenerationfrom
bioenergyaretheEuropeanUnion,NorthAmerica,
CentralandEasternEuropeandSoutheastAsia
(IEABioenergy2007).Chinacontinuestoincrease
powergenerationfromindustry-scalebiogas(mainly
livestockfarms)andstrawfromagriculturalresidues.
Thesugarindustryinmanydevelopingcountries
continuestobuildbagasse-fuelledpowerplants
(REN212009).
Asmallshareofsugar,grainandvegetableoilcropsis
usedfortheproductionofbiofuels.Thereisincreasing
interestintransportbiofuelsinEurope,Brazil,North
America,Japan,ChinaandIndia(IEABioenergy2007).
Thereispotentialtoexpandtheuseofconventional
cropsforenergy;howevercarefulconsiderationofland
availabilityandfooddemandisrequired.
Thereisamaturecommercialmarketforfirst
generationbiofuels.Biofuelsfromcommercially
available technology are more prospective in
regionswhereenergycropproductionisfeasible:
forexample,sugarcaneinsubtropicalareasof
SouthAmericaandsub-SaharanAfrica,andsugar
beetinmoretemperateregionssuchastheUnited
States,ArgentinaandEurope.Inthelongerterm,
lignocellulosic crops could provide bioenergy
resourcesforsecondgenerationbiofuelswhich
areconsideredmoresustainable,providelanduse
opportunitiesandwillreducethecompetitionwith
foodcrops.
Primary energy consumption
Worldprimaryconsumptionofbioenergywas
48980PJin2007(table12.1).From2000to2007
worldbioenergyuseincreasedatanaveragerate
of1.9percentperyear.OECDcountriesaccounted
for19percent(9317PJ)ofworldbioenergy
consumption;howevertheaveragerateofgrowthin
consumptionwas3percentperyearfrom2000to
2008,fasterthantheworldaverage.
In2007,Chinawasthelargestuserofbioenergy,
consuming8145PJ,followedbyIndia(6771PJ)
andNigeria(3582PJ)(figure12.6).Themajorityof
Forest residues
1%
Charcoal
7%
Black liquor 1%
Wood industry
residues 5%
Recovered
wood 6%
Animal
by-products
3%
Fuel wood
67%
Agriculture
10%
Agricultural
by-products
4%
Energy
crops
3%
Municipal solid
waste and
landfill gas
3%
AERA 12.5
Figure 12.5 Shareofbiomasssourcesintheworld
primarybioenergymixin2007
source: IEABioenergy2009a
a) Bioenergy use
China
India
313
Nigeria
United States
Brazil
Indonesia
Pakistan
Vietnam
Germany
Ethiopia
Australia
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
9000
PJ
b) Share in total primary energy consumption
China
India
Nigeria
United States
Brazil
Indonesia
Pakistan
Vietnam
Germany
Ethiopia
Australia
AERA 12.6
0
20
40
60
80
100
%
Figure 12.6 Primaryconsumptionofbioenergy,
bycountry,2007
source: IEA2009a
AU S T RA LIA N E N E RGY RE S O U RC E A S SES SMENT
a) Electricity generation from bioenergy
a) Biofuels use
United States
United States
Germany
Germany
Japan
Brazil
Brazil
France
United Kingdom
China
Sweden
Canada
Finland
Spain
Canada
Netherlands
Italy
United Kingdom
France
Sweden
Australia
Australia
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0
80
100
200
300
TWh
500
600
700
b) Share in total transport fuels use
b) Share in total electricity generation
United States
United States
Germany
Germany
Japan
Brazil
Brazil
France
United Kingdom
China
Sweden
Canada
Finland
Spain
Canada
Netherlands
Italy
United Kingdom
France
Sweden
Australia
AERA 12.7
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Australia
14
AERA 12.8
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
%
%
314
400
PJ
Figure 12.7 Electricitygenerationfrombioenergy,
bycountry,2007
Figure 12.8 Biofuelsusefortransport,bycountry,2007
source: IEA2009a
source: IEA2009a
bioenergyuseinChina,IndiaandNigeriaissolid
biomassusedintheresidentialsector.Bioenergy
representedarelativelysmallproportionof
China’stotalprimaryenergyconsumption,with
ashareof10percent,whileNigeria’sbioenergy
userepresented80percentofitstotalprimary
energyconsumptionandEthiopia’sbioenergyuse
represented90percentofitsenergyconsumption
(figure12.6).
Whilebioenergyuseishigherinnon-OECDcountries,
itisofconsiderablymoresignificanceforelectricity
generationinOECDcountries.Bioenergyforelectricity
generationrepresents17percentoftotalbioenergy
consumptioninOECDcountries,comparedtoonly
1percentinnon-OECDcountries(IEA2009a).
electricity generation
Asmallproportionoftheworld’selectricity
generationissourcedfrombioenergy.In2007,
theglobalshareofbioenergyintotalelectricity
generationwasonly1.3percent(table12.1).
Despiteitssmallshare,electricitygeneratedfrom
bioenergyincreasedatanaveragerateof6percent
peryearfrom2000to2007,toreach255TWh.
Insomecountries,theshareofbioenergyintotal
electricitygenerationissignificantlyhigherthanthe
worldaverage.Finlandhadabioenergyshareof
electricitygenerationofmorethan12percentin
2007(figure12.7).TheUnitedStatesisthelargest
contributortototalworldelectricitygenerationfrom
bioenergy,followedbyGermanyandJapan.
AUSTRA L I AN E N E R GY R E S O U R C E A S S E S S M E NT
Worldwideprimarysolidbiomassisthemajor
bioenergyfuelusedforelectricitygeneration.In2007,
electricitygeneratedfromsolidbiomassrepresented
62percentofbioenergyelectricity,whilebiogas
represented11percentandwasterepresentedthe
remaining27percentofelectricityfrombioenergy.
Transport biofuels
TheUnitedStatesistheworld’slargestconsumer
ofbiofuels,using619PJin2007(figure12.8).
However,biofuelsrepresentonly2.3percentoftotal
transportfuelsuseintheUnitedStates.Germany
andBrazilfollowtheUnitedStatesaslargebiofuels
users.Biofuelsrepresentalargershareoftotal
transportfuelsuseinGermanyandBrazil,7.2per
centand6.0percent,respectively.
Trade
Theincreaseindemandforbiomassfeedstock(e.g.
woodchips,vegetableoilsandagriculturalresidues)
C H A P T E R 1 2: B IOENER GY
andbioenergycommodities(e.g.ethanol,biodiesel
andwoodpellets)hasseentherapidgrowthin
internationaltrade(IEABioenergy2009b).Themain
biomassfeedstocksandbioenergycommodities
traded and the trade routes include:
oilseedcrops,aswellasutilisingthelargevolumes
ofunusedresiduesandwastes.Lignocellulosiccrops
areexpectedtocontributeinthemedium-tolongterm.Algaecouldmakeasignificantcontributionin
thelongerterm(IEABioenergy2009b).
• ethanolfromBraziltoJapan,UnitedStatesand
westernEurope;
Electricity and heat generation
• woodpelletsfromCanada,UnitedStatesand
easternEuropetowesternEurope;and
• palmoilandagriculturalresiduesfromBraziland
SoutheastAsiatowesternEurope.
Inaddition,thereisasubstantialamountoftrade
withinEurope.
World market outlook for bioenergy to 2030
BioenergyuseisprojectedbytheIEAtoincrease
moderatelyto2030,withtransportbiofuelsgrowing
ataslightlyfasterratethanelectricitygeneration
frombioenergy.Amongnon-transportuses,an
increasingproportionofbioenergyisprojectedtobe
devoted to electricity generation rather than direct
burningofbiomass,inlinewithgrowingelectricity
demand,particularlyinnon-OECDcountries.
Globaldemandforbioenergyresourcesisexpected
toincreasewiththeprojectedgrowthinbioenergy
use.Intheshort-term,demandforbioenergy
resourcesarelikelytobemetbysugar,starchand
TheIEAprojectsworldelectricitygenerationfrom
bioenergytoincreaseto839TWhby2030,growing
atanaveragerateof5.3percentperyear(table
12.2).Theshareofbioenergyinelectricitygeneration
isnotprojectedtoincreasesignificantly,reaching
only2.4percentin2030,from1.3percent
currently.Electricitygenerationfrombioenergyis
projectedtoincreaseatafasterrateinnon-OECD
countriesthaninOECDcountries,althoughfroma
smaller base.
Thebiggestincreasesinelectricitygenerationfrom
bioenergyareprojectedtooccurintheUnitedStates,
EuropeandChina.Thecostsofpowergeneration
fromrenewables,includingbioenergy,areexpected
tofallovertimeasaresultofincreaseddeployment.
Transport biofuels
Worldwideuseofbiofuelsisprojectedtoincreaseat
anaveragerateof6.9percentperyearto5568PJ
by2030(table12.3).Innon-OECDcountries,biofuels
useisprojectedtoincreaseatanaveragerateof11.2
percentperyear,whereasitisprojectedtoincrease
315
Table 12.2 IEAreferencecaseprojectionsforworldbioenergyelectricitygeneration
OeCD
Shareoftotal
Averageannualgrowth,2007–2030
Non-OeCD
Shareoftotal
Averageannualgrowth,2007–2030
unit
2007
2030
TWh
217
492
%
2.0
3.7
%
-
3.6
TWh
41
347
%
0.5
1.6
%
-
9.7
TWh
259
839
Shareoftotal
%
1.3
2.4
Averageannualgrowth,2007–2030
%
-
5.2
World
source: IEA2009b
Table 12.3 IEAreferencecaseprojectionsfortransportbiofuelsconsumption
unit
2007
2030
OeCD
PJ
963
3056
Shareoftotal
%
1.9
5.8
Averageannualgrowth,2007–2030
%
-
5.1
Non-OeCD
PJ
461
2512
Shareoftotal
%
1.0
2.9
Averageannualgrowth,2007–2030
%
-
7.6
World
PJ
1424
5568
Shareoftotal
%
1.5
4.0
Averageannualgrowth,2007–2030
%
-
6.1
source: IEA2009b
AU S T RA LIA N E N E RGY RE S O U RC E A S SES SMENT
12.3Australia’sbioenergy
resources and market
atarateof5percentperyearinOECDcountries.
However,theshareofbiofuelsintotaltransportfuel
useisprojectedtoremainatlessthan3percent
innon-OECDcountries,whileinOECDcountriesitis
projectedtoincreasetoalmost6percent.
12.3.1Bioenergyresources
Bioenergyresourcescurrentlyused,potentialfuture
resources and the bioenergy outputs are summarised
intable12.4.Thereisarangeofbioenergyresources
(feedstocks)availableformultipleconversion
technologies to generate electricity and heat and
producebiofuels.Bioenergyresourcesaredifficult
to estimate due to their multiple and competing
uses.Thereareproductionstatisticsforcurrent
commoditiessuchasgrain,sugar,pulpwoodand
sawlogs;howeverthesecommoditiesarecurrently
largelycommittedtofood,animalfeedandmaterials
markets.Theycouldbeswitchedtothebioenergy
marketincertainconditions,butthismaynotbethe
highestorderuseforthem.
Biofuelsuseisnotexpectedtoincreasesignificantly
intheshortterm.Thefallinoilpricesattheendof
2008affectedtheprofitabilityofbiofuelsproduction
andledtothecancellingofmanyplannedbiofuels
projectsaroundtheworld.Manycountrieshave
scaledbacktheirbiofuelspoliciesasaresultof
concernsovertheimpactofbiofuelsonfoodprices,
landandwaterresourcesandbiodiversity,further
affectingtheprofitabilityofbiofuelsproduction.
Biofuelsproductionanduseisprojectedtorecoverin
thelongerterm,however,aidedbysecondgeneration
productiontechnologies.Secondgenerationbiofuels
areprojectedtorepresentalmost25percentofthe
increaseintotalbiofuelsproductionovertheperiod
to2030(IEA2009b).
Australia’spotentialbioenergyresourcesarelarge.
Thereareunder-utilisedresourcesincropresidues,
Table 12.4 Currentandfuturebioenergyresources
Biomass groups
Current resources
Agricultural related
wastesandbyproducts
Livestockwastes:
•manure
•abattoirwastessolids
By-products:
•wheatstarch
•usedcookingoil
P
Sugarcane
Bagasse,fibrousresiduesof
sugar cane milling process
SugarandC-molasses
P
Energy crops
Highyield,shortrotationcrops
grownspecifically:
•sugarandstarchcrops
•oilbearingcrops–sunflower,
canola,junceaandsoyabeans
Forest residues
Woodfromplantationforests
P
Wood related
waste
Sawmillresidues:
•woodchipsandsawdust
Pulp mill residues:
•blackliquorandwetwastes
P
316
Urbansolidwaste
Bioenergy
P
Landfillgas
Methaneemittedfromlandfills
mainlymunicipalsolidwastes
andindustrialwastes
P
Sewagegas
Methaneemittedfromthesolid
organiccomponentsofsewage
P
Note: P=electricityandheatgeneration;T=transportbiofuelproduction
source:BattenandO’Connell2007;CleanEnergyCouncil2008
AUSTRA L I AN E N E R GY R E S O U R C E A S S E S S M E NT
Future resources
Bioenergy
T
Cropandfoodresiduesfrom
harvesting and processing:
•largescale:ricehusks,cotton
ginning,andcerealstraw
•smallscale:maizecobs,
coconut husks and nut shells
P
T
Trash,leavesandtopsfrom
harvesting
P
T
Woody crops (oil mallee)
GMcrops
Treecrops
Woodyweeds
(e.g.CamphorLaurel)
Newoilseed(Pongamia)and
sugar (agave) crops
Algae (micro and macro)
P
T
Woodfromplantationforestsand
nativeforestryoperations
P
T
Foodrelatedwastes,garden
organics,paperandcardboard
material and urban timber
P
C H A P T E R 1 2: B IOENER GY
plantationandforestresiduesandwastestreams.
Thereisasignificantexpansionintoanewrangeof
non-ediblebiomassfeedstockswiththedevelopment
ofsecondgenerationtechnologies.Potential
feedstocksofthefutureincludemodifyingexisting
crops,growingofnewtreecropsandalgae.
Therearemanyfactorstobetakenintoaccountfor
eachbioenergyresource,suchasmoisturecontent,
resourcelocationanddistribution,andtypeof
conversionprocess.Differentsourcesofbiomass
haveverydifferentproductionsystemsandtherefore
caninvolveavarietyofsustainabilityissues.These
rangefromverypositivebenefits(e.g.useofwaste
material,orgrowingwoodybiomassondegraded
agricultural land) through to large scale diversion
ofhighinputagriculturalfoodcropsforbiofuels
(O’Connelletal.2009a).Thereisalsoarangeof
potentialimpactsontheresourcesincludingdrought,
flood,fire,climatechangeandenergyprices.Future
biomassfeedstocksfromagriculturalproductionare
dependentonwhetherproductionareasexpandor
reduce or yields increase.
Theproportionofbiomasspotentiallyavailable
willdependonthevalueofbiomassrelativeto
competinguses,impactoftheirremoval(retention
ofbiomassinsitureturnsnutrientstosoil,improves
soilstructureandmoistureretention),andglobal
oilprices.Therighteconomicconditionsmayresult
insomeofthebiomasspotentiallybeingused
forbioenergyproduction.Dependingontheprice
point,biomassmaybedivertedtobiofuelsor
electricitygeneration–sawmillresiduesotherwise
soldforgardenproducts,forexample,orpulpwood
chippedandexportedorusedforpaperproduction
maybedivertedtobioenergyifitisahighervalue
product.
electricity and heat generation
Currentbioenergyresourcesusedforgenerating
electricityandheatarepredominantlyfromagricultural
wastesandby-products,woodwaste,landfilland
sewagefacilities(figure12.9).TheCleanEnergy
Council(2008)identifiedsignificantpotentialfor
growthinbioenergyproductionfromwastestreams,
suchaslandfillandsewagegasandurbanwaste.
317
Figure 12.9 Distributionofbioenergyelectricityandheatgenerationfacilities
Note: Areasdepictedasunderirrigationareexaggeratedforpresentation
source: GeoscienceAustraliaandBureauofRuralSciences
AU S T RA LIA N E N E RGY RE S O U RC E A S SES SMENT
A
feedstocktoincludesugarcanetrash,topsand
leaves.
Otheragriculturalwastestreams,includingmanure
fromlivestockraisedoryardedinconcentrated
areas,aresuitableforgeneratingbioenergy.Waste
material can be used to produce stationary energy
andassistinreducingenvironmentalproblemsfrom
wastedisposal,methaneemissionsandpollutionof
watersupplies.
Wood waste and forest residues are only used in
afewbioenergyplantsinAustraliaforgenerating
electricity.Forthepurposesofresourceassessment,
itisassumedthatnativeforestwoodwastewill
remainconstant;thepotentialfromplantations
mayincreaseinlinewithplantationexpansion.
Woodrelatedwasteforenergygeneration,while
havingeconomicbenefits,alsohastobemanaged
intermsofenvironmentalconsiderations.In
Australia,governmentsatalllevels,haveestablished
regulatorymechanisms,includingRegionalForest
Agreements,aswellasotherspecificprovisions
undertheRenewableEnergyTargetconcerningthe
eligibilityforforestwoodwasteforbioenergyuse
318
Figure 12.10 Distributionofbiofuelplants
Note: Areasdepictedasunderirrigationareexaggeratedforpresentation
source: GeoscienceAustraliaandBureauofRuralSciences
AUSTRA L I AN E N E R GY R E S O U R C E A S S E S S M E NT
C H A P T E R 1 2: B IOENER GY
inordertomanagethesustainableuseofthese
products.Theseregulatoryframeworksplacesome
limitationsontheuseofwoodwasteinAustraliafor
electricity generation.
Theuseoflandfill gas (mainly methane) to generate
electricityisarelativelymaturetechnology,which
involvesinstallinganetworkofperforatedpipesinto
anexistinglandfillandcapturingthegasgenerated
fromwastedecomposition.Thecapturedgasis
used to generate electricity using reciprocating gas
engines.Mostfacilitiesarecentrednearthemajor
urban centres and used locally.
Bioreactorlandfilltechnologyacceleratestherate
ofwastedecompositionmaximisinggasproduction
byrecirculatingwaterthroughaspeciallydesigned
landfill.Thistechnologyisbeingusedatthe
WoodlawnBioreactor,adisusedopencutminein
NewSouthWales.Thesiteaccepts300000tonnes
ofsortedresidualwasteperyearandwillultimately
supportupto25Megawatts(MW)ofgeneration
capacity.
sewage gas can be collected at treatment plants to
generateelectricityandheat.Organicwasteisfed
into an anaerobic digester to produce a methane-rich
biogas then combusted in customised gas engines or
gasturbines.Thermalenergyproducedbytheengine
during combustion is recovered and used to heat the
anaerobic digestion process.
Transport biofuels
Asatlate2009,therearethreemajorethanolplants
andthreemajorbiodieselplantsinoperation,with
atotalproductioncapacityofabout330million
litres(ML)and175ML,respectively(figure12.10).
EthanolproductionisfromC-molassesfromsugar
processing,grain(mainlysorghum)andstarchfrom
flourmilling.Biodieselproductionisfromtallowand
usedcookingoil.Biodieselproductionisconstrained
byalimitedavailabilityoflowcostfeedstocks,which
areby-productsorwastestreams.
12.3.2Bioenergymarket
Primary energy consumption
Bioenergyaccountedfor78percentofAustralia’s
renewableenergyusebutonly4percentof
Australia’sprimaryenergyconsumptionin2007–08.
Overthedecadefrom1999–2000to2007–08,
bioenergyuseincreasedatanaveragerateofonly
0.3percentperyear.InAustralia,productionand
consumptionofbioenergyareaboutequal,because
thereiscurrentlyonlyverysmalltradeofbioenergy.
Inmid2009Australia’slargestexporterofwood
pelletssecuredtwothree-yearcontracts,totalling
$130milliontosupplyEurope.Thewoodpelletswill
beusedinco-firingplantsandhomeheatingmarkets.
ThemajorityofAustralia’sbioenergyisfromwood
andwoodwasteandbagasse.Australia’suseof
woodandwoodwaste,predominatelyfordirectheat
240
220
200
180
160
PJ
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1960-61
1966-67
1972-73
1978-79
1984-85
1990-91
1996-97
2002-03
2007-08
Year
Biofuels
Bagasse
Landfill gas
Wood, woodwaste
AERA 12.11
Figure 12.11 Australia’sprimaryconsumptionofbioenergy
source: ABARE2009a
AU S T RA LIA N E N E RGY RE S O U RC E A S SES SMENT
319
Food,
beverages,
textiles
57.6%
Other industry
1.1%
Non-ferrous
metals
1.2%
Wood, paper
and printing
9.3%
320
2.0
0.8
1.5
0.6
1.0
0.4
0.5
0.2
%
Residential
29.1%
1.0
TWh
Commercial
and services
0.4%
Road
transport
1.4%
2.5
0
0
1989-90
1992-93
1995-96 1998-99 2001-02 2004-05 2007-08
Year
Electricity
generation (TWh)
AERA 12.12
Share of total electricity
generation (%)
AERA 12.13
Figure 12.12 Australianbioenergyuse,byindustry,
2007–08
Figure 12.13 Australianelectricitygenerationfrom
bioenergy
source: ABARE2009a
source: ABARE
application,hasdeclinedovertime.Inthe1960s
wooduserepresentedbetween70and85percent
oftotalbioenergyuse,butasbagasseuseexpanded,
thissharedeclinedto55–65percentinthe1970s
andremainedrelativelyconstantinthe1980sand
1990s.
predominantlyforheating.Therearealsosmall
amountsofbioenergyusedinthetransportand
commercial and services sectors.
In2007–08,bagasseandwoodrepresented50per
centand42percentofbioenergyuse,respectively.
Landfillandsewagegasrepresented6percentof
totalbioenergyuseandliquidbiofuelscomprisedthe
remaining2percent(figure12.11).
Bioenergy use, by industry
Around58percentofAustralia’sbioenergyisused
inthefoodandbeveragessector,specificallywithin
thesugarindustry,whichusesbagassefromits
sugar production to generate electricity and heat.
Theresidentialsectoristhesecondlargestbioenergy
user,accountingfor29percentofbioenergyuse
(figure12.12).Thisisintheformofwoodused
Electricity generation
In2007–08,woodandwoodwasteandlandfill
andsewagebiogasfuelinputstopublicelectricity
generation(excludingcogeneration)were19.7PJ,
whichgenerated2.2TWhofelectricity.Inaddition,
112PJofbagassewereusedasfuelwithinthefood,
beveragesandtextilessector,themajorityofwhichis
usedinsugarrefineriesincogenerationplants.
Thecontributionofwood,woodwasteandbiogasto
Australia’selectricitygenerationhasincreasedover
thepasttwodecades.From1989–90to2007–08
bioenergyelectricitygenerationgrewatanaverage
rateof6percentperyear.Theshareofbioenergyin
totalelectricitygenerationincreasedmodestlyfrom
0.5percentto0.8percentoverthatperiod(figure
12.13).
Table 12.5 Capacityofelectricitygenerationfrombioenergy(MW),2009
Biogas
Bagasse
Wood
waste
Other
bioenergyb
Total
bioenergy
NewSouthWalesa
73
81
Victoria
80
0
42
3
199
0
34
114
Queensland
19
377
15
4
415
SouthAustralia
Western Australia
22
0
10
0
32
27
6
6
63
102
Tasmania
4
0
0
0
4
NorthernTerritory
1
0
0
0
1
australia
226
464
73
104
867
Shareoftotalrenewableelectricitycapacity(%)
2.2
4.4
0.7
1.0
8.3
a IncludestheACT.bUnspecifiedbiomassandbiodiesel
source:GeoscienceAustralia2009
AUSTRA L I AN E N E R GY R E S O U R C E A S S E S S M E NT
C H A P T E R 1 2: B IOENER GY
5.0
Incontrast,biogas-fuelledplantsatlandfilland
sewagefacilitiesarecentrednearmajorurban
centresacrossallstatesandterritories.Thesesites
compriseatotalinstalledcapacityof226MW.Wood
wastefacilitiesrepresent0.7percentofrenewable
energycapacityandhaveatotalcapacityof73MW
(table12.5).
4.5
4.0
3.5
PJ
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
Transport biofuels
1.0
0.5
0
2002-03
2003-04
2004-05
2005-06
2006-07
Year
2007-08
AERA 12.14
Figure 12.14 Australianbiofuelsproduction
source: ABARE2009a
Table 12.6 BiofuelsproductioninAustralia
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
mL
mL
mL
mL
Biodiesel
21
54
50
85
Ethanol
42
84
149
209
Total
63
138
199
294
S
Thetotalcapacityofelectricitygenerationfrom
bioenergyrepresented1.6percentofallelectricity
generationcapacityin2008.Bagasse-fuelled
electricitygenerationfacilitiesrepresent54percentof
totalbioenergycapacity,at464MW.Thesefacilities
arelocatedpredominantlyinQueenslandwheresugar
productionplantsarelocated(table12.5).
Biofuelscomprisedabout0.5percentofAustralia’s
transportfuelsupplyin2007–08.Australianbiofuels
productiondecreasedbyabout40percentfrom
2002–03to2004–05to1.3PJ.However,from
2004–05to2007–08biofuelsproductionincreased
almostfourfoldto4.9PJ(figure12.14).
In2007–08,Australia’sethanolproductionis
estimatedat149MLandbiodieselproductionat
50ML.Ethanolproductionhasincreasedasaresult
ofthenewDalbyplantinQueenslandandasmall
expansionattheManildraplantinNewSouthWales.
In2008–09ethanolproductionincreasedto209
ML.Biodieselproductionfellslightlyfrom2006–07
to2007–08,duetothreeplantstemporarilyhalting
productionin2007and2008(table12.6).In
2008–09,biodieselisestimatedtohaveincreased
toabout85ML.
Therearecurrentlythreemajorethanolplantsin
operation.ThelargestoperatorisManildraGroupin
NewSouthWaleswithtotalproductioncapacityof
180ML.Threemajorbiodieselplantsareinproduction
withatotalproductioncapacityof175ML.Thetotal
operatingbiofuelsproductioncapacityinAustraliais
around600MLayear(table12.7).
Table 12.7 LiquidbiofuelsproductionfacilitiesinAustralia,2009
Location
Capacity
mL/yr
Feedstocks
Fuel ethanol
ManildraGroup,Nowra,NSW
180
CSRDistilleries,Sarina,Qld
60
Wastewheatstarch,somelowgradegrain
C-molasses
DalbyBiorefinery,Dalby,Qld
90
Sorghum
Total
330
Biodiesel
BiodieselIndustriesAustralia,Maitland,NSW
15
Usedcookingoil,vegetableoil
BiodieselProducersLimited,Wodonga,Vic
60
Tallow,usedcookingoil
SmorgonFuels,Melbourne,Vic
100
Drylandjuncea(oilseedcrop),tallow,usedcookingoil,
vegetable oil
Various small producers
Total
5
Usedcookingoil,tallow,industrialwaste,oilseeds
180
Biodiesel plants with limited production
AustralianRenewableFuels,Adelaide,SA
45
Tallow
AustralianRenewableFuels,Picton,WA
45
Tallow
Total
90
Biodiesel plants not in production
Eco-TechBiodiesel,Narangba,Qld
30
Tallow,usedcookingoil
S
AU S T RA LIA N E N E RGY RE S O U RC E A S SES SMENT
321
Table 12.8 Bioenergyprojectsrecentlydeveloped,asatSeptember2009
Project
Company
state
Type
start up
Capacity
(mW)
electricity and heat generation
Tumut
Visy Paper
NSW
Woodwaste
2001
17.0
RockyPoint
NationalPowerandBabcockand
BrownJointVenture
QLD
Bagasse
2001
30.0
Stapylton
GreenPacificEnergy
QLD
Woodwaste
2003
5.0
SouthCardup
LandfillManagementServicesLtd
WA
Landfillmethane
2005
6.0
Werribee (AGL)
AGL
VIC
Sewagemethane
2005
7.8
Pioneer 2
CSRSugarMills
QLD
Bagasse
2005
63.0
Woodlawn
WoodlawnBioreactorEnergyPtyLtd
NSW
Landfillmethane
2006
25.6
CarrumDowns1&2
MelbourneWater
VIC
Sewagemethane
2007
17.0
EasternCreek2
LMSGenerationPtyLtd
NSW
Landfillmethane
2008
8.8
Condong
SunshineElectricity
NSW
Bagasse
2008
30.0
Broadwater
SunshineElectricity
NSW
Bagasse
2008
30.0
DalbyBiorefineryLtd
QLD
Ethanol
2008
90.0
Transport biofuels
Dalby
S
Recent bioenergy projects
322
Eleven bioenergy electricity projects have been
commissionedinAustraliasince2001,witha
combinedcapacityof240.2MW(table12.8).
Bagasse-fuelledbioenergyplantsaccountedfor
mostofthecommissionedcapacity.Australia’s
largestrecentlycommissionedbioenergyplantisCSR
SugarMillsinQueenslandwithacapacityof63MW.
Australia’sfirstgraintoethanolplantatDalby,
QueenslandcommencedoperationinDecember
2008.Theplantprocesses220000tonnesofdry
grain(sorghum)asitsfeedstockwithacapacityof
90MLofethanolperyear.
12.4Outlookto2030for
Australia’sresourcesandmarket
Thereissignificantpotentialtoexpandtheuseof
biomassforelectricity,heatandtransportbiofuels
production.Thereisadiversityofbioenergy
resources and conversion technologies that can
provide greenhouse gas emissions savings and
reducewastedisposalissues.Theremaybe
opportunitiesforthebioenergysectortosupport
agricultural industries and rural communities through
growingcomplementaryenergycropsand
indevelopingregionalenergyfacilities.
12.4.1Keyfactorsinfluencingtheoutlook
ThefuturegrowthofAustralia’sbioenergyindustry
willdependonitscompetitivenessagainstother
energysources,thecommercialisationofefficient
conversiontechnologiesandavailabilityofbioenergy
resources.
Thecostcompetitivenessofbioenergywith
alternativeelectricitygenerationandtransportfuels
AUSTRA L I AN E N E R GY R E S O U R C E A S S E S S M E NT
willdependonthecostofresources(bothbioenergy
andalternatives),conversiontechnologiesand
relevantgovernmentpolicies,particularlythose
thataffectboththeavailabilityofresourcesand
their price.
Costfactorsaside,thegrowthofthebioenergy
industrywillbeinfluencedbythecommercialisation
ofsecondgenerationtechnologies,whichwillalso
increasetherangeofbioenergyresourceoptionsand
reducecompetitionforresourcesbetweenbioenergy
feedstocksandagricultural/forestrycommodities.
Developmentofeffectiveharvestingandprocessing
methodsandimprovedtransportationandstoragewill
alsobeimportantfactorsinachievingefficienciesin
bioenergy production.
Availabilityofbiomasswillbecentraltotheexpansion
ofthebioenergysector.Theavailabilityofbiomassis
influenced by:
• diversionofcurrentbiomassproductionand
wasteandresiduesstreams.Biomassresidues
fromforestry,agriculturalharvestandprocessing,
andwastestreams,suchaslandfillandsewage
gas,offeralargeunder-utilisedenergyresource,
whichcanalsoassistinwastedisposalissues;
• changeinharvestingregimesforcropsorforests
(e.g.stubblefromagriculturallandsandthinnings
fromforests);and
• newproductionsystemswhichmayincludeland
usechange,inturninfluencedbyavailableland,
croporforesttypesandproductivity.Theamount
oflandavailableforbiomassdependsonthe
amountoflandusedforagriculturalandforestry
products and that devoted to nature reserves.
Thedemandforfood,whichisafunctionof
populationanddiet,hasadirectimpactonland
C H A P T E R 1 2: B IOENER GY
useandavailabilitytogrowprimarybiomass
resourcesforbioenergy.Theamountofbiomass
producedisafunctionofthequalityoftheland,
theclimate,wateravailabilityandmanagement
practices.
Therearepotentialrisksintheexpansionof
biomass production into areas that provide valuable
ecosystems that support high biodiversity and may
result in nutrient pollution.
Cost competitiveness
Bioenergyproductioncostsareafunctionofbiomass
feedstock,labour,transportation,capitaland
operating costs.
Thecostoffeedstocksdependsonwhetheritisa
primary biomass (energy crop) or residue biomass
fromanagricultural,forestryorurbanactivity.Cost
variationsareduetoinputandharvestcostsfrom
productionsystems.Solidbiomasscanbebulky,
difficulttohandleandtransport,andmaydecayover
time.Onsitepre-processingofmaterials,suchas
chipsorwoodpellets,mayincreasethelabourand
processingcosts,butreducetransportandstorage
costs.
Bioenergybecomesacompetitivealternativein
situationswherecheapor‘negative-cost’residues
orwastesareavailableandusedonsite(IEA
Bioenergy2007).Themosteconomicalbioenergy
productionmodelistheproductionofenergyatthe
biomasslocationsuchasatlandfillandsewage
sites,papermills,sawmillsorsugarmills.
InAustralia,alargeproportionofbioenergy
production occurs in small to medium cogeneration
plantsbuiltatsugarmillsandotherfoodprocessing
plantsthathaveaccesstosignificantlowcost
biomasswastestreams.
Largescalebioenergyproductionrequiresfurther
development in conversion technologies and biomass
productiontobecompetitivewithfossilfuels(IEA
Bioenergy2007).
Electricity and heat generation
Electricity and heat generation through biomass
combustionisamature,efficientandreliable
technology.Incaseswherelowcostfeedstocksare
availableforco-firingschemes,electricityandheat
productionfrombioenergyiscostcompetitivewith
fossilfuels(IEABioenergy2007).
Anassessmentoftheelectricitygenerationcosts
frombiomasswasundertakenbyIEABioenergy
(2007),whichprovidesacomparisonforthree
biomasstypes.Itshouldbenotedthattheactual
costsmaynotbedirectlyapplicabletoAustralia.In
theshortterm(about5years)thecostsofgenerating
electricityrangefrom�0.03–0.15(US$0.04–0.21)/
kilowatthour(kWh)(in2007dollars),depending
onthebiomassfeedstock,technologyandscale
ofgenerationplant(table12.9).Inthelongerterm
(morethan20years)biomasselectricitycostsare
expectedtodeclineto�0.02–0.08(US$0.03–0.11)/
kWh(in2007dollars)withadvancesintechnologies.
Themainvariabilityincostswillarisefromthecostof
biomass supply.
Arelativelylowcapitalcostoptionforimproving
systemefficiencyandreducingcarbonemissionsis
retrofittingofco-firingboilerswithbiomassdelivery
systems.Totalcostsvarydependingonthetype
andconditionoftheboilerbeingmodifiedandthe
biomassdeliverysystem,withseparatefeedsystems
costinguptofourtimesasmuchasablended
deliverysystem(Grabowski2004).IntheUnited
States,theannualfuelcostsareoftenlowerincofiringplantsthaninplantsburningpurecoal.These
annual savings can result in payback periods on
initialinvestmentoflessthan10yearsandreduce
productioncostsbetween$US0.02–0.22/kWh.In
addition,theuseofbiomassasasupplementary
fuelincoal-firedplantsreducessulphurdioxideand
nitrogenoxidesemissions(EESI2009a).
Table 12.9 Electricitygenerationcostsforthreebioenergyresources
Biomass
electricity generation
short term
Longer term
Organicwaste
•municipalsolidwaste
Less than �0.03–0.05(US$0.04–0.07)/kWh Similarrange
Forstate-of-the-artincinerationand
Improvementsinefficiencyand
co-combustion technology
environmentalperformance
Residues
•forests
•agriculture
�0.04–0.12(US$0.05–0.16)/kWh
Lowercostincombinedheatandpower
operations
Majorvariableisbiomasssupplycosts
�0.02–0.08(US$0.03–0.11)/kWh
Majorvariableisbiomasssupplycosts
Energy crops
•oilseeds
•sugar/starch
•shortrotationcroppingtrees
�0.05–0.15(US$0.07–0.21)/kWh
Highcostsforsmallscaleplants,
lowercostsforlargescale(over100MW)
state-of-the-artcombustion
�0.03–0.08(US$0.04–0.11)/kWh
Lowcostsduetoadvancedco-firing
schemesandintegrationgasificationusing
combinedcycletechnologyover100MW
Note: Costsin2007dollars
source: IEABioenergy2007
AU S T RA LIA N E N E RGY RE S O U RC E A S SES SMENT
323
Transport biofuels
Themaincomponentofbiofuelsproductioncosts
isthecostoffeedstock,whichvariesconsiderably
accordingtothetypeoffeedstockused.Lowcost
biofuelscanbeproducedfromcropsgrowninthe
mostsuitableclimatezonesandusingcommercially
availabletechnologies,suchasethanolfromsugar
canegrownintropicalregions.Biofuelproduction
costsarelowinBrazil,forexample,largelybecause
oftheavailabilityoflowcostsugarcane.Sugar
caneethanolinBrazilhasalowercostthanpetrol
(WorldwatchInstitute2006).Ethanolproduction
costsvarysignificantlysubjecttothelocationand
thefeedstockused.Sugarcaneethanolproducedin
BrazilcostsaboutUS$0.20perlitre,whereasinthe
UnitedKingdomcostswereaboutUS$0.81perlitre
(IEA2006b).
Theproductioncostoffirstgenerationbiofuelsin
Australia is highly variable due to variations in the
costoffeedstock.Ethanolfromstarchwasteand
C-molassesandbiodieselfromusedcookingoilcan
beproducedatacostlessthanA$0.45perlitre,in
2007dollars(comparativecostofoilatUS$40per
barrel).Ethanolfromsugarandgrainandbiodiesel
fromtallowandoilseedcrops(canola)canbe
producedfromlessthanA$0.80perlitre,in2007
dollars(comparativecostofoilatUS$80perbarrel)
(O’Connelletal.2007).
324
InAustralia,expansionandconstructionoffirst
generationbiofuelfacilitieswereplannedin2007as
aresultofgovernmentsubsidiesandhighoilprices.
However,manyoftheseplanswerepostponeddue
tohighfeedstockpricesandfallingcrudeoilprices
attheendof2008.Uncertaintyaboutfuturechanges
inoilandfeedstockpricescontinuestorestrict
investmentinnewcapacity.
Thedevelopmentofsecondgenerationbiofuels
fromlignocellulosicbiomasswillnotonlyincrease
therangeoflowcostfeedstocksbutwillincrease
conversionefficienciesandlowerproductioncosts
(IEABioenergy2007).
Thecostofsecondgenerationlignocellulosicbiofuel
productionisestimatedtobelessthanUS$1.00
perlitre.Costisexpectedtodecreasetobetween
US$0.55andUS$0.70perlitreinthelong-term
depending on the technologies and improvements
Table 12.10 Productioncostsforsecondgeneration
biofuels
second generation
technologies
Production cost
Us$/litre gasoline equivalent
2010
2030
Biochemicalethanol
0.80–0.90
0.55–0.65
BiomasstoLiquids
(BTL)diesel
1.00–1.20
0.60–0.70
S
AUSTRA L I AN E N E R GY R E S O U R C E A S S E S S M E NT
intechniques,up-scalingofproductionfacilities
andlowerfeedstockcostusingbiomassresidues
(table12.10).
Technology developments – more efficient,
using a greater range of non-edible biomass
resources
Thereisarangeoftechnologiescurrentlyavailable
andindevelopmentforconvertingbiomassinto
energy(box12.1).Energyisreleasedeitherinthe
formofheatorisconvertedintoanotherenergyform
suchasliquidbiofuelsorbiogas.
Electricity and heat generation
Electricityandheataregeneratedbycombustion,
cogenerationandgasificationofbiomassandfrom
methanegascapturedfromlandfillandsewage
facilities.Theburningofsolidbiomassisthe
dominantmethodofenergyconversionforelectricity
andheatproduction.Increasedefficiencycanbe
gainedthroughfluidisedbedcombustionandco-firing
ofbiomass(e.g.woodresidue)withcoal.Thereis
potential to increase bioenergy production through
utilisationofunder-exploitedbiomassresiduesand
wastesfromforestryandwoodprocessingfacilities.
Theseresidueandwasteresources,ifusedmore
effectively,canassistinthereductionofgreenhouse
gas emissions.
Transport biofuels
Firstgenerationbiofuelsaremainlyproducedfrom
sugarandstarchby-products,grainoilcrops,used
cookingoiloranimalfat(box12.2).Giventhe
limitedsupplyofthesefeedstocksinAustralia,
firstgenerationbiofuelswillnotbeabletosupplya
largeproportionoftransportfuelneedsuntilsecond
generation technologies become commercially viable.
Secondgenerationbiofuelsarethesubjectof
activeRD&D(box12.2).Theyareproducedfrom
lignocellulosicfeedstockssuchascropandforest
residuesandwoodprocessingwastes,whichdo
notcompetedirectlywithfoodcrops.InAustralia,
secondgenerationbiofuelsshowpromiseformaking
agreatercontributiontotransportfuelsupply,butthis
isdependentonsustainableproductionofbiomass
atacompetitivecost(Wild2009).
Thefarmingofalgaetoproducebiofuelsisanarea
ofactiveresearchworldwide.Algaecultivationisnot
newtechnology–ithasbeenusedtoproducefood
supplementssuchasbeta-carotene,andspirulina.
Bothmicroalgaeandmacroalgae(e.g.seaweed)are
beinginvestigatedasfeedstocksforbiofuels.Algae
canbegrownonnon-arableland,insalineandwaste
waterandhasahighoilyield.MicroalgaecanfixCO2
fromtheatmosphere,powerplantsandindustrial
processesandsolublecarbonate,howeveronlya
smallnumberofmicroalgaearetoleranttohighlevels
ofsulphuroxidesandnitricoxidespresentinflue
gases.Therearechallengeslimitingthecommercial
C H A P T E R 1 2: B IOENER GY
BOx 12.1 BIOENERGyTECHNOLOGIESFORELECTRICITyANDHEATGENERATION
Thermalconversionusesheatasthedominant
mechanism to convert biomass to energy.
Combustionisthesimplestmethodbywhich
biomasscanbeusedforenergyandhasbeen
usedformillenniatoprovideheat.Conventional
combustion technologies involve biomass being burnt
inthepresenceofairinaboilertogenerateheatto
producehotair,hotwaterorsteam,whichisusedin
a steam turbine to generation electricity.
Combustion technologies
Thethreemainbiomasscombustionconversion
technologiesaregrateboilers,fluidisedbed
combustion(gasification)andco-firinginutilityboilers.
Grate boiler technology is the oldest combustion
principleandwasthemostcommondesignofsmallsizeboilers.Itremainspopularforrelativelysmall
boilers(lessthan5MW)incountriesusingfuelssuch
aswoodpellets,strawandmunicipalsolidwaste
(IEA2008).
Fluidisedbedcombustionusesupwardblowingjets
ofairtosuspendsolidfuelsduringthecombustion
processforincreasedefficiency.Theprocesscontrols
thesupplyofoxygenand/orsteam.Thebiomassis
devolatilised and combusted to produce a biogas
thatcanbeburntforheatorusedinagasturbinefor
electricity generation.
Therearetwomaintechnologies,bubbling
fluidisedbed(BFB)andcirculatingfluidisedbed
(CFB)technologies.BFBcombustionoffersbetter
temperaturecontrolandismoresuitablefor
non-homogeneousbiomass.CFBcombustion
usespulverisedfuelthatdoesnotrequireahigh
temperatureflameandallowsbettercontrolofthe
furnacetemperature.
Co-firingreferstothesimultaneouscombustionof
abiomassfeedstockandabasefuel(e.g.coal)to
produceenergy.Themostcommonbiomassinclude
lowvaluewood,cropresiduesandmunicipalwaste.
Mostbiomassfeedstockmustundergoprocessing
beforeitcanbeutilisedforco-firing(EESI2009a).
Processedsolidbiomassisaddedtotheco-fired
boilersalongwiththefossilfuel.Ithelpsreduce
relianceonafiniteresourceandcanmakea
significantcontributiontoCO2 emission reductions
(MassachusettsTechnologyCollaborative2009;IEA
2006a).
Biomassco-firinginmodern,largescalecoal
powerplantsisefficientandcanbecosteffective.
Thetechniquehasbeensuccessfullydemonstrated
inmorethan150installationsworldwide.Abouta
hundredoftheseareoperatinginEurope,around
40intheUnitedStatesandafewinAustralia.
Anumberoffuelssuchascropresidues,energy
cropsandwoodybiomasshavebeenco-fired.
Theproportionofbiomassinthefuelmixhas
rangedbetween0.5and10percentinenergy
terms(IEA2008).
Forco-firingofupto10percentofbiomassmixed
withcoalorfedthroughthecoalfeedingsystem,only
minor changes in the handling equipment are needed.
Forbiomassexceeding10percentorifbiomassand
coalareburnedseparately,changesinmills,burners
and dryers are needed.
Thedevelopmentofbiomassfuelpreparation
anddryingtechnologiessuchastorrefaction
(thermochemicaltreatmentthatlowersthemoisture
content and increases the energy content) and
pelletisingofbiomass,increasetheefficiencyof
plants.Inaddition,thebiomassisverycompact,
stableandeasiertotransport,storeandhandle.
Wood pellets are rapidly becoming an important
sourceoffuelforco-firedplants.Woodpelletsor
DensifiedBiomassFuel(DBF)aremanufactured
fromlowvaluetreesandfromsawdustandother
pulpwaste.Woodpelletsareincreasinglyusedas
arenewablefuelforpowergenerationincountries
suchasJapan,Canada,SouthAfricaandparticularly
inEurope.Muchofthenewgenerationcapacityin
Europeisbasedondedicatedpellet-fuelledcombined
heatandpowerplants.Europeanproductionhas
beenbasedonbothscarcesawmillwasteand,
increasingly,imports.InAustralia,woodpelletuse
remains limited but supply to the domestic market
andexportmarketisexpectedtoincrease.
Cogeneration technology
Inthemostefficientelectricitygenerationplant
around30percentoftheenergyinthebiomassis
convertedintoelectricity;therestislostintotheair
andwater.Cogenerationorcombinedheatandpower
(CHP)plantshavegreaterconversionefficienciesas
they produce both electricity and process heat.
Thereisanumberofdifferenttypesofcogeneration
technology.Formanyyears,allcogeneration
installationswerebasedontheuseofconventional
boilers,withsteamturbinesforelectricitygeneration.
Gas turbine technology has largely superseded
steamturbinetechnologyformediumsizeinstallation
(Saddleretal.2004).Bagasse,sludgegasfrom
sewagetreatmentplantsandmethanefromlandfill
sitesareusedasfuelincogenerationplants.Where
acogenerationplantispoweredbywastegases,
fugitivegasesarecapturedandutilisedtodrive
gasturbineswhichinturngenerateelectricity.In
Australia,sugarmillsruncogenerationplantswhich
arefuelledbybagasseleftoveraftercrushingthe
sugar cane.
Trigeneration technology
Trigenerationtechnologyprovidescoolinginaddition
toheatandelectricitygeneration.Theprocess
wasteheatcanbeusefullyappliedforheatingin
winterand,viaanabsorptionchiller/refrigation,
AU S T RA LIA N E N E RGY RE S O U RC E A S SES SMENT
325
forcoolinginsummer.Refrigerationandairconditioning normally require a compressor driven by
electricity.Theabsorptionchillerusesaheatsource
toprovideenergytodrivethecoolingsystem.The
combinationoftechnologiestoconvertwasteheat
into cooling can reduce peak summer electricity
consumptionandgreenhousegasemissionsfrom
air-conditioningbyabout25percent.
A small scale trigeneration option is an Organic
RankineCycle(ORC)enginewhichusesanorganic
fluidwithalowboilingpoint,ratherthansteam
andhencelowercostinvolvedingatheringheat.
Abiomass-firedORCtrigenerationsystemisable
to generate electricity and provide heating and
cooling demands.
Gasification and pyrolysis technologies
(thermochemical processes)
Theuseofgasificationismoreefficientforenergy
recoveryintermsofelectricitygenerationthan
traditionalcombustion.Ingasification,solidbiomass
isheatedtohightemperatures(800–1000°C)
inagasifierandconvertedtoasyngasprimarily
composedofhydrogen,carbonmonoxide,carbon
dioxide,watervapourandmethane.Therearelower
amountsofsodiumoxides,nitrousoxidesanddioxins
emissions than in a traditional combustion process.
326
Thesyngascanbeusedincombustionengines
(10kWto10MW)withefficiencyof30to50per
centingasturbinesorcombinedcycles(IEA2007a).
Biomassintegratedgasification/gasturbines(BIG/
GT)arebeingdeveloped.Tareliminationisoneofthe
areasofresearch,whichisexpectedtobeovercome
developmentofalgaebiofuelssuchasalgaespecies
thatbalancesrequirementsofbiofuelproduction,
equipmentandstructuresneededtogrowlarge
quantitiesofalgaeandthenegativeenergybalance
afteraccountingforwaterpumping,harvestingand
extraction.
Researchisbeingundertakenintoproduction
systems such as open ponds and closed loop
systems,algalstrainsandfertilisationwithnutrients
andCO2.Openpondsystems(e.g.sewageponds)
requireanalgaestrainthatisresilienttowideswings
intemperatureandpH,andcompetitionfrominvasive
algaeandbacteria.Inaclosedsystem(notexposed
toopenair)alsoreferredtoasaphotobioreactor,
nutrient-ladenwaterispumpedthroughplastictubes
thatareexposedtosunlight.Photobioreactorshave
several advantages over open systems by reducing
contaminationbyorganismsblowninbytheair,
controlledconditions(pH,light,temperatureandCO2)
andpreventingwaterevaporation.
InAustralia,thereisanumberofR&Dprojects
investigatingbiofueltechnologiesfrommicroalgae.
AUSTRA L I AN E N E R GY R E S O U R C E A S S E S S M E NT
inthemediumterm.Thefirstintegratedgasification
combinedcycle(IGCC)plantrunningon100percent
biomass(straw)hasbeensuccessfullyoperatedin
Sweden.
Pyrolysisisthermaldegradationofbiomassto
producebio-oil,syngasandcharcoalatmedium
temperatures(350–800°C)intheabsenceofair.
Pyrolysisencounterstechnicaldifficultieswhichhave
prevented its implementation on a commercial-scale.
Theseincludeeffectiveheattransferbetweenthe
heat carrier and biomass particles or the quenching
ofvapourstostopfurtherreactionsthatresultin
bio-oil quality variations.
Anaerobic digestion technology
Anaerobicdigestionisatechniqueusedfor
producingbiogaswhichisusedcommercially
worldwide,especiallyforwasteeffluentssuchas
wastewater,sewagesludgeandmunicipalsolid
waste.Anaerobicbacteriadigestorganicmaterial
intheabsenceofoxygenandproducebiogas.
Anaerobic processes can be managed in a digester
orairtighttankorcoveredlagoon.Thereisincreasing
useofthistechnologyinsmallscale,offgrid
applicationsatthedomesticandfarm-scale.
Inmodernlandfillsites,methaneproductionranges
between50and100kgpertonofmunicipalsolid
waste(MSW).Ingeneral,some50percentofbiogas
canberecoveredandusedforpowerandheat
generation.Afterpurificationandupgrading,biogas
canbeusedinheatplantsandstationaryengines,
fedintothenaturalgasgridorusedasatransport
fuel(compressednaturalgas)(IEA2007b).
InVictoria,theUniversityofMelbourneisresearching
efficientseparation,processingandutilisationof
algalbiomass.AlgalFuelsConsortiumisdeveloping
apilot-scalebiorefineryinSouthAustraliafor
sustainablemicroalgalbiofuels.Ajointprojectbetween
MurdochUniversity,WesternAustralia,andUniversity
ofAdelaide,SouthAustraliaisworkingonallsteps
intheprocessofmicroalgalbiofuelsproduction,
frommicroalgaeculture,harvestingofthealgaeand
extractionofoilforbiofuelsproduction.Construction
commencedinJanuary2010onapilotplanttotest
thewholeprocessonalargerscaleinKarratha,
north-westWesternAustralia,andisexpectedtobe
operationalbyJuly2010.
ThirdgenerationtechnologiesareintheR&D
stage.Thetechnologyinvolvesthedevelopment
oflignocellulosicbiorefineriesthatproducelarge
volumesoflowcostbiofuelandtheoverallprocess
issupportedthroughtheproductionofbioenergy
andhighvaluebioproducts.Internationallythereis
commercialandR&Dinterestindevelopingbiobasedproductsfrombiorefineries.DuPontand
theUniversityofTennesseeplantoconstructa
C H A P T E R 1 2: B IOENER GY
BOx 12.2 BIOFUELTECHNOLOGIESFORTRANSPORT
Conversiontechnologiesusearangeofbiochemical
and thermochemical processes to convert biomass
intobiofuels.
S
First generation technologies use conventional
processes,fermentationofsugarandstarchcrops
forethanolproductionandtrans-esterificationof
oilseedcrops,usedcookingoiloranimalfat(e.g.
beeftallow)forbiodiesel.Thechemicalreaction
(trans-esterification)involvesreactionofanoily
feedstockwithanalcohol(methanolorethanol)anda
catalysttoformesters(biodiesel)andglycerol.
Advancesinfirstgenerationbiofuelsarefocused
onfeedstocks,suchasGMcrops,newnon-edible
oilseedsandnewsugar(agave)crops.Theuse
ofnon-edibleoilseedplants,suchasJatropha,
hasbeenexploredaspotentialfeedstockinthe
PhilippinesandIndia.Jatrophaproductionmaybe
expandedwithoutdirectlycompetingwithnatural
forestsorhigh-valueagriculturelandsusedforfood
productionasitcangrownonlessfertileland(FAO
2008).InAustralia,Jatrophaisbannedasitisan
invasiveplant.However,thereispotentialforusing
other non-edible oilseed plants (e.g. Pongamia and
Karanja).
pilot-scalebiorefineryinTennessee,UnitedStates
(TheUniversityofTennessee2009).TheNational
RenewableEnergyLaboratoryintheUnitedStates
isinvolvedwithsixmajorbiorefinerydevelopment
projectsthatarefocusedonintegratingthe
productionofbiomass-derivedfuelsandother
productsinasinglefacility(NationalRenewable
EnergyLaboratory2009).
CurrentlyinAustralia,onlyafewcompaniesare
pursuingthelignocellulosicbiorefinerymodel.
TheOilMalleeprojectsuccessfullyusesMallee
eucalyptsforproducingeucalyptusoil,activated
carbonandbioenergyfrom1kWintegratedwood
processingdemonstrationplantinNarrogin,Western
Australia(OilMalleeAssociation2009).TheMallee
eucalypts are planted as a complementary crop on
landusedforgrowinggrain.There-sproutingabilityof
theMalleeeucalyptsallowforcoppicing(harvesting
ofbranches)everysecondyearindefinitelywithout
replanting.Italsoprovidesanenvironmentalbenefit
asthedeepmalleerootssoakupgroundwater
andassistinmitigatingdrylandsalinity(OilMallee
Association2009).
Biomass resources – reliable and
environmentally sustainable supply
Biomassproductionisasignificantpotentialsource
ofrenewableenergythatcanprovidegreenhousegas
reductionbenefitswhenreplacingfossilfuels.However,
akeyfactorinthegrowthofthebioenergysectoris
thesustainablemanagementofbiomassexploitation
andtheavoidanceofpotentialnegativeenvironmental
impactsofbioenergyfeedstocksproduction.
Theexpansionofthebioenergyindustrycanprovide
greenhouse gas savings and other environmental
benefits,suchasimprovedbiodiversityaswellas
opportunitiesforsocialandeconomicdevelopment
inruralcommunities.Thegreenhousegassavings
dependonthebiomassfeedstockcultivationmethod,
changesinlanduse,thequantityoffossilfuel
inputs and the technology used. Waste and residue
biomassdoesnotrequiresignificantenergyinput
andgenerallyhaslowergreenhouseemissionswhen
compared to energy crops.
However,theexpansionofbioenergyproduction
createssomechallenges,suchaspotential
competitionforlanduse,andbiomassuseforfood
andstockfeedandpotentialimpactsonbiodiversity.
Asalreadynoted,theavailabilityofbiomassis
alsoinfluencedbypopulationgrowth,diet,water
availability,agriculturaldensityandtheenvironment
(Hoogwijk2006).
Energy crops are dependent on land being available
thatisnotbeingusedforforestryandagricultural
products,environmentalprotectionorurbanareas.
Theamountofbiomassproduced(cropproductivity)
isafunctionofthequalityoftheland,theclimate,
waterresourcesandmanagementpractices.
Increaseduseoffertilisersandpestcontrolto
AU S T RA LIA N E N E RGY RE S O U RC E A S SES SMENT
327
improve crop yields may lead to increased pollution
fromnutrientandbiocides/pesticides.
Residuesfromforestsandwoodprocessingand
organicwastestreamsarelargeuntappedresources,
andeffectiveandsustainableuseoftheseresources
canmakeacontributiontoenergysupplywhile
reducingwastedisposalproblemsandavoiding
thepotentialenvironmentalimpactsofdedicated
bioenergy crops.
Electricity and heat generation
InAustralia,bioenergyforelectricityandheat
generationisproducedpredominantlyfrombyproductsofsugarproductionandwastestreams.
Futureenergycropsmayincludetreecrops,woody
weedsandalgaeaswellasexpansionintocropand
foodresidues.Themainfactorsaretechnologycosts,
reliablesupplyandconsistentqualityofbiomass.
Inurbanregions,capturingwastegasfromlandfill
andsewagefacilitiesprovidesdualbenefitsof
generating bioenergy and eliminating methane
emissions.Thewastestreamsuppliestothese
facilitiesarerelativelyconstantandifwastegases
arenotcollectedandusedforbioenergyproduction,
thegaswouldbeflaredorventedinto
theatmosphere.Generationofelectricityandheat
frombiogaswillreduceemissionsandcanreplace
theuseoffossilfuelsasclean,costeffective,
renewableenergy.
328
Similarly,conversionofanimalwastestobiogas
can also provide energy and reduce environmental
problemsassociatedwithanimalwastes.The
anaerobic digestion process can control manure
odourandreduceharmfulwaterrun-off.
TheBerrybankpiggerynearBallarat,Victoriahasa
0.225MWplantthathasbeengenerating3.5MWh
ofelectricityperdayfromanimalmanuresince
1991.TheCleanEnergyCouncil(2008)estimates
thatabouthalfoftheexistingpigherdinAustralia
isatpiggeriesofsufficientscaletoalloweconomic
implementationofenergygenerationfromthewaste
stream,withalong-termpotentialfromthisindustry
ofabout200Gigawatt-hours(GWh)peryear.
Forestryandagriculturalresidueandwoodwaste
bioenergy plants rely on a constant supply and consistent
gradeofbiomass.Woodwasteforelectricitygeneration
ispredominantlybyco-firedcoalplants.Forestresidues,
woodprocesswastesandmunicipalsolidwasteshave
thepotentialtobeusedaslignocellulosicfeedstockin
second generation technologies.
Transport biofuels
Firstgenerationbiofuelsfromenergycropsare
constrainedbytheamountoflandavailableandthe
limitedsupplyofsugarandstarchby-products,animal
fatsandusedcookingoilfeedstocks.Forbiofuelsto
contributesignificantlytotransportfuelconsumption,
AUSTRA L I AN E N E R GY R E S O U R C E A S S E S S M E NT
alargeproportionofarablelandwouldhavetobe
devotedtoenergycropsproduction.In2005,the
EuropeanUnion(EU)used3percentofitstotalarable
landforbiofuelfeedstocksproducing4.9billionlitres
ofbiofuels,whichrepresentedaround1percentof
liquidfuelsconsumptionintheEUtransportsector
(EuropeanCommission2007;IEA2007b).
Firstgenerationbiofuelsfromenergycropsrequire
sustainable agricultural practices to minimise
environmentimpacts,theadoptionofcroprotation
withanenergycropdiversifiesthecropsgrown,which
canimprovethelandfortraditionalcroppingand
provideahighvaluecrop(FAO2008).InAustralia,
biofuelproductioniscurrentlytoolowtoaffectthe
productionofagriculturalcommodities.
Secondgenerationbiofuelswillbeproducedfrom
specialisedenergycrops,suchastreecropsand
algae,aswellasfromresidueandthewaste
streams.Theutilisationofresidueandwaste
materialforbiofuelsrequiresnoadditionalland.
Secondgenerationbiofuelfeedstocksmayalso
begrownonlessproductivelandsanddegraded
agricultural land that do not compete directly
withgrowingfood,stockfeedandfibrecrops
(IEABioenergy2008).Somesecondgeneration
feedstocks,suchasalgaeandoilmallee,donot
competeforfreshwaterresources.
Worldwide,investmentinsecondgeneration
technologies is being undertaken to ensure these
characteristics–environmentalandeconomicviability
andavoidanceofcompetitionforproductiveland
withfoodandfibreproduction–areachievableand
thereforethatthefutureproductionofbioenergycan
proceedinasustainableway.
12.4.2Outlookforbioenergyresources
Thebioenergysupplychainiscomplexbecause
ofitsinteractionwithothersupplychainssuchas
agriculturalandforestry.Thereisscopetooptimise
currentproductionsystemsforthebioenergymarket
withoutdivertingbiomassfromcurrentuses(e.g.
plantationthinnings).Theproductionofsecond
generationfeedstocksonlessproductiveorunderutilisedlandscouldpotentiallyprovideeconomic,
environmentalandsocialbenefits(O’Connellet
al.2009a).Theuseofsuchlandmayprovide
opportunitiesfor:farmerstodiversifyexisting
systems;thedevelopmentofindustriesinrural
regions;andimprovementsinbiodiversity.Currently,
secondgenerationbiofuelsarenotcommercially
competitiveinanycountry.Thetransitionfrom
firsttosecondgenerationtechnologieswillrequire
significantR&Dinvestmentwhich,inturn,will
onlybeattractedbyanindustrywithasignificant
andsustainablefuture.Theindustryneedsto
demonstratethatthepotentialitoffersmeets
these criteria.
C H A P T E R 1 2: B IOENER GY
Table 12.11 PotentialforstationarybioenergygenerationinAustralia
Biomass
Quantity
2005–06
Conversion technologies
electricity generation gWh/yr
2010
2020
2050
AD/RGE
-
90
848
P
-
207
207
agricultural related wastes
Poultry
94384000population
Cattle(feedlots)
870025population
AD/RGE;DC/ST
-
112
442
Pigs
1801800population
AD/RGE
1
22
205
Dairycows
1394000population
AD/RGE
-
22
89
Abattoirs
1285000t
AD/RGE
337
1773
Nutshells
-
DC/T
Stubbleresiduesfrom
grain and cotton crops
1
1
24000000t
DC/ST;G/GT;P
Bagasse(sugarcane
residue)
5000000t
DC/ST
1200
3000
4600
Sugarcanetrash,topsand
4000000t
leaves
DC/ST
-
165
3200
-
-
47000
energy crops
Algae
-
AD/RGE;P
Oil mallee
-
DC/ST;G/GT;P
112
484
-
DC/ST;G/GT;P
83
20
Woody weeds
Camphorlaurel
Forest residues
Nativeforest
(public and private)
2200000t
Plantation
(public and private)
3800000t
Sawmillandwoodchip
residues
2800000t
329
AD/RGE;DC/ST;
briquettingandpelletising;
G/GT;charcoalproduction;
Co-firing
79
2442
4554
Pulp and paper mills wastes
Blackliquor
-
DC/ST
285
365
365
Woodwaste
-
DC/ST
60
85
85
Recycledpaperwetwastes
-
AD/RGE
2
8
8
Paperrecyclingwastes
-
DC/ST
12
48
48
AD/RGE
13
126
565
DC/ST
16
141
189
-
37
186
29
84
275
DC/ST
-
-
1548
P
-
38
191
Urban waste
Food and other organics
2890000t
Garden organics
2250000t
Paper and cardboard
2310000t
Wood/timber
1630000t
DC/ST
45
295
1366
Landfillgas
9460000t
Sparkignitionengine;
co-firing;flaring
772
1880
3420
Sewagegas
735454t
AD/RGE;DC/ST
57
901
929
P
AD/RGE
AD =anaerobicdigestion;RGE=reciprocatinggasengine;P=pyrolysis;DC=directcombustion;ST=steamturbine;G=gasification;
GT=gasturbine
source: CleanEnergyCouncil2008
AU S T RA LIA N E N E RGY RE S O U RC E A S SES SMENT
E
Currentlyelectricityisgeneratedpredominantlyfrom
bagasseandlandfillandsewagesitesandtoalesser
degreewoodwaste,pulpandpapermillwaste.The
CleanEnergyCouncil(2008)identifiedsignificant
potentialforgrowthinbioenergyproductionfrom
wastestreams,suchaslandfillandsewagegasand
urbanwaste.
Anappraisalofbioenergyresources,primarilywaste
streams,forstationaryenergywasundertakenby
theCleanEnergyCouncilin2008toestimatethe
potentialby2020andinthelong-term(2050).
Theassessmentisbasedonbiomassquantities
potentiallyavailablein2005–06.Thebiomass
feedstocksaregroupedintoagriculturalrelated
wastes,energycrops,woodyweeds,forestresidues,
pulpandpapermillwastes,andurbanwastes(table
12.11).
agricultural related wastes in total are a very large
resourcebutcurrentlyarenotusedasfeedstocks.
Theresourcesarewidelydispersedandcanhavea
rangeofalternativeusesincludingcompostingand
feedforanimals.
330
Thesugarcaneindustry,alreadyoneofthefew
industriesselfsufficientinenergythroughitsuse
ofbagasse-firedcogeneration,hasthepotential
toincreaseelectricitygenerationefficiencywith
integratedgasificationcombinedcycletechnology
aswellasbiomassexpansiontoincludesugarcane
trash,topsandleaves.
Cropresiduesfromgrainandcottoncropsarea
potentialresource.However,cropscanbesubjectto
largeannualvariationsofquantitiesproduceddue
toenvironmentalandclimaticfactors.Anoptionto
reducethevariabilityofresourcesistoprocessa
widerangeofbiomassmaterialsuchasresidues
fromgrain,rice,cottoncropsandleft-overplant
matterfromvegetablesandfruits.
Thepotentialestimatedstubbleresiduesthatcan
becollected,takingintoaccountthataproportionof
thecropisleftonthelandformaintenanceofsoil
health,isestimatedtobe24Mtperyear.However,
thehighcostoftransportofahighlydispersed
resourcemeansthattherewillbelittleorno
contributionfromthissectorto2020.Forthissector
to contribute to energy production there needs to be
furtherinvestigationofenergyconversionprocesses
(e.g.gasificationandpyrolysis)andwaystoreduce
transportcosts.Along-termestimateofpotential
energyis47000GWhperyear(CleanEnergyCouncil
2008).
Largescalelivestockfeedlots,piggeries,dairy
andpoultryfarmswiththeirmixedwastestreams
ofanimalbeddingandmanurearesuitablefor
generating bioenergy. Waste material can be used
to produce stationary energy and assist in reducing
AUSTRA L I AN E N E R GY R E S O U R C E A S S E S S M E NT
environmentalproblemsfromwastedisposal,
methaneemissionsandpollutionofwatersupplies.
TheCleanEnergyCouncilestimatedthatthelongtermpotentialforfeedlotcattleandpiggeriesare
about440GWhperyearand200GWhperyear,
respectively.However,thereareuncertaintieswith
moisturecontentandsuitabilityforcombustionor
anaerobicdigestion.Poultryfarmwasteisestimated
tohavealong-termpotentialintherangeof840GWh
peryear.Thisestimatedoesnottakeintoaccount
that some operations may be too small to be viable
orthatpoultrymanureisusedforfertiliser.
Inaddition,thereisalsothepotentialofsolid
wastesfromabattoirs.TheCleanEnergyCouncil
indicatedthatthereareapproximately0.77Mt
to1.8Mtperyearofsolidwasteproducedfrom
about150abattoirs.Ifby2020,30abattoirs
implementanaerobicdigestioncogenerationplants,
these projects have the potential to produce about
340GWhperyear,withalong-termestimateof
about1770GWhperyear.
Nativeforestwood waste is assumed to remain
relativelyconstant:howeverthepotentialfrom
plantationwoodwasteshouldincreaseinlinewith
plantationexpansion.Australiangovernments,at
alllevels,haveestablishedregulatorymechanisms
concerningtheeligibilityforforestwoodwaste
forelectricitygenerationinordertomanagethe
sustainableuseoftheseproducts.
Urban waste,includingfood,garden,urbantimber,
paperandcardboardwastes,issteadilygrowingand
hassignificantpotentialforenergygeneration.The
decompositionofthesewastesinlandfillresults
inmethanegeneration,whichisnotappropriately
capturedandutilised,particularlyinolderand
smallerlandfillsites.In2002–03approximately
9.5Mtperyearoforganicurbanwastewassentto
landfill.Thepotentialelectricitygenerationfor9Mtof
urbanwasteis103GWh,withalong-termestimate
ofabout4300GWh(CleanEnergyCouncil2008).
Thereispotentialforgrowthofbiogaspower
generationfromlandfillsitesandsewagetreatment
plantsinurbanandruralcentresforlocaluse.
Convertingbiogastoenergywouldprovidedual
benefitsofenergysupplyandreducedgreenhouse
gasemissions.Ifthesewastesarenotcollected
andusedforbioenergyproduction,thegaswould
be flared or vented into the atmosphere.
Thereisanumberofpotentialenergy crops that
mayprovidefuelforfuturebioenergyaswellas
providingenvironmentalbenefits.Theintegrationof
complementaryenergycropsandwoodyperennials
intoexistingagriculturalsystemsmaybeableto
reduce dryland salinity and land erosion.
TheOilMalleeprojectinWesternAustralia
C H A P T E R 1 2: B IOENER GY
Table 12.12 Estimatedenergyandfuelyieldsfordifferentfeedstocks
Feedstock
ethanol L/t
Biodiesel L/t
synfuel* L/t
electricity mWh/t
First generation
Cereals
360
400
Oilseeds
Sugarcane
Molasses
280
Sugar
560
second generation
Cereals
335
246
1.02
Woodwaste
240
246
1.35
Algae
495
0.27
Sugarcane
Whole plant
Bagasse
465
246
0.80
300
246
0.80
Forestry
Sawmillresidues
233
246
1.35
Harvest residues
233
246
1.35
Pulpwood
240
246
1.35
Bioenergyplantations
260
246
1.35
Grasses
323
246
1.02
*Production usinggasification,gasconditionandcleaningfollowedbyFischerTropschsynthesisandrefiningtoproducesyngasolineand
syndiesel
source: O’Connelletal.2009b
successfullydemonstratedtheuseofMallee
eucalyptstoproduceeucalyptusoil,activated
carbonandgenerateelectricity.Woodyweeds,such
asCamphorLaurel,areabundantbuteitherneed
researchintotheirsuitabilityasfeedstock,oraretoo
dispersed in nature to be economical to harvest.
R&Dintoalgaeisdrawingattentionbecauseofits
potentialhighhydrocarboncontent,highoilyieldsand
abilitytobegrowninsalineandwastewater.Algae
grownandharvestedfrompurpose-builtpondsand
photobioreactorshasthepotentialtobeafeedstock
forbiofuelsandpowergeneration.
Transport biofuels
Firstgenerationbiofuelsarenotexpectedtomake
alargecontributiontoAustralia’sfuturebiofuels
supplyasthereislimitedavailabilityoflowcost
firstgenerationfeedstocks.Secondgeneration
technologiesmayprovideagreaterrangeofbiomass
feedstocksandpotentialgreenhousegasemissions
savings.Secondgenerationtechnologieswilluse
lignocellulosicmaterial,specialisedcropssuchasoil
mallee,non-foodcomponentsofcropsandalgae.
O’Connelletal.(2009b)estimatedyieldsofbiofuels
andelectricitygenerationfromdifferentfeedstock
forthefirstandsecondgenerationtechnologies
(table12.12).Theanalysiswasrestrictedto
Queenslandanddidnotprovidespatiallyexplicit
analysisofbiofuelfeedstockproduction.However,
itdoesprovideuseful‘firstcut’estimatesofthe
possibilities.Currenttechnologiescanproduce280
to560litresofethanolpertonneofbiomassand
400litresofbiodieselpertonneofoilseeds.The
secondgenerationtechnologieswilluseawider
rangeofbiomassfeedstockstoproduceethanol,
biodiesel,synfuelandgenerateelectricity.That
reportestimatedthatapproximately55Mtofstubble
residue biomass per year can be produced based
on20percentofthecurrent45millionhectares
ofgrazingandcroppingland,andthatthereis
potentiallyabout6tonnesofbiomassperhectare
peryear.Thisbiomassresourcecouldproduce
approximately82TWhperyearofelectricityor17GL
peryearofsyngasolineandsyndiesel.
12.4.3Outlookforbioenergymarket
Bioenergyhasthepotentialtomakeagrowing
contributiontoAustralia’senergyuse,andto
electricitygenerationinparticular.Australia’scurrent
bioenergyproductionisprincipallysourcedfrombyproductsofproductionprocessesorwasteproducts.
Therearestillunder-utilisedwasteproductsthatmay
beusedforbioenergyinthefuture.
InABARE’slatestenergyprojections,whichinclude
theRenewableEnergyTarget,a5percentemissions
reductiontarget,andothergovernmentpolicies,
bioenergy use in Australia is projected to increase by
60percentto340PJin2029–30,representing
anaverageannualgrowthrateof2.2percent
(figure12.15).
AU S T RA LIA N E N E RGY RE S O U RC E A S SES SMENT
331
350
5.0
300
4.4
1.0
3.8
2
1.9
100
TWh
PJ
2.5
150
%
3.1
200
0.5
%
250
1
1.3
50
0.6
0
0
0
0
1999- 2000- 2001- 2002- 2003- 2004- 2005- 2006- 2007- 202900
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
30
1999- 2000- 2001- 2002- 2003- 2004- 2005- 2006- 2007- 202900
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
30
Year
Year
Bioenergy
consumption (PJ)
332
3
Share of
total (%)
AERA 12.2
Bioenergy electricity
generation (TWh)
Share of
total (%)
Figure 12.15 Projectedprimaryconsumptionof
bioenergy
Figure 12.16 Projectedelectricitygenerationfrom
bioenergy
source: ABARE2009a;ABARE2010
source: ABARE;ABARE2010
Australia’slargepotentialbioenergyresources,
theRenewableEnergyTargetandthepotential
commercialisationofsecondgenerationtechnologies
areallexpectedtodriveanincreaseinelectricity
generationfrombioenergy.However,growthislikely
tobeconstrainedtosomeextentbycompetition
forlandandwaterresourcesandlogisticalissues
associatedwithhandling,transportandstorage.Some
secondgenerationfeedstockssuchasalgaeandsolid
biomasswastesmaysubstantiallyreducetheproblems
associatedwithlanduseandwaterresources.
Electricity and heat generation
Electricitygenerationfrombioenergy(excluding
cogeneration) is projected to increase at an average
rateof2.3percentperyearfrom2TWhin2007–08
to3TWhby2029–30(figure12.16).Morethan
60percentoftheprojectedgrowthintheuseof
bioenergyforelectricitygenerationisprojectedto
occur in Queensland.
Bioenergy project developments
AERA 12.3
Thereareseveralproposedbioenergypowerplants
usingarangeofbiomassfeedstocks,suchas
animal,municipalandsawmillandpulpmillwood
wastesandforestryandplantationsresidues.There
are research projects on methane capture systems
fromuncoveredeffluenttreatmentlagoonsand
energygenerationfromintensiveanimalindustries
suchasdairyfarms,beefcattlefeedlotsand
piggeries.
InVictoria,thereisaproposaltousefire-affected
treeresiduesfrombushfire-affectedareas.
TreePowerAustraliahasundertakenafeasibility
studyfora1MWbiomassfiredOrganicRankine
CyclecogenerationpowerplantnearMarysville,
Victoria.Thecompanyisconsideringatrigeneration
option,inwhichsome(orall)oftheheatoutput
woulddriveanabsorptionchillerprocessfor
cooling outputs.
AsatOctober2009,therewerethreeprojectsunder
developmentinAustralia(table12.14).InTasmania,
Gunns Ltd plans to develop a large cogeneration
powerplantof200MWcapacityatitsBellBay
pulpmill.WABiomassPtyLtdplanstoconstruct
andoperatea40MWpowerplantfuelledbyup
to380000tonnesperyearofplantationwaste
inWesternAustralia.NationalBiodieselLtdplans
to construct a soybean processing and biodiesel
productionfacilityatPortKembla,NewSouthWales.
Thefacilitywillprocessoveramilliontonnesof
soybeanperyearintohighqualitysoybiodiesel®,
soybeanmeal(animalfeed)andpharmaceutical
grade vegetable glycerine.
Transport biofuels
Inaddition,thereisanumberofR&Dprojects
investigating bioenergy technologies and biomass
potential across Australia.
RuralIndustriesResearchandDevelopment
Corporation(RIRDC)hasaBioenergy,Bioproducts
and Energy program to conduct research into
AUSTRA L I AN E N E R GY R E S O U R C E A S S E S S M E NT
InAugust2009,theAustralianGovernment
announcedA$15millionfundingforprojects
undertheSecondGenerationBiofuelsResearch
andDevelopmentProgramtodemonstratethe
sustainabledevelopmentofthebiofuelsindustry.
Theprojectsincluderesearchingbiofuelfrom
microalgae,developingapilot-scalebiorefineryfor
sustainablemicroalgalbiofuelsandvalueadded
products,investigatingtheproductionofbiofuels
frommalleebiomassbypyrolysis,developingasugar
canebiomassinputsystemforbiofuelproduction
andcommercialdemonstrationoflignocellulosics
to stable bio-oil.
C H A P T E R 1 2: B IOENER GY
Table 12.14 Bioenergydevelopmentprojects,asatOctober2009
Project
Company
Location
status
start up
Capacity
Capital
expenditure
a$million
BellBayPower
Plant
Gunns Ltd
Northof
Launceston,
Tas
On hold due
to uncertainty
ofpulpmill
construction
NA
200MW
NA
WABiomass
PowerPlant
WABiomass
Pty Ltd
Manjimup,
southwestWA
Feasibility
study under
way
NA
40MW
110
Soybean
Processing
andBiodiesel
Production
Facility
National
BiodieselLtd
PortKembla,
NSW
Development
approval
NA
Soybiodiesel®
288MLper
year
240
Note: Onlyincludespowergenerationprojectsforwhichgenerationcapacityisproposedtoexceed30MW
source: ABARE2009b
anddevelopsustainableandprofitablebioenergy
andbioproductsindustries.Researchhasbeen
completedonidentifyinganddevelopingAustralian
nativespeciesasbiofuelcropsandresearchis
inprogressinevaluatingbiodieselpotentialof
Australiannativeplants,Indianmustardseedand
biofuelproductionofgiantreedgrass.RIRDCis
compilingadetailedlistingofprojectscurrently
underwayinAustralia.
TheNationalCollaborativeResearchInfrastructure
Strategy(NCRIS),anAustralianandStategovernment
partnershipisenhancingAustralia’scapacityto
producebiofuelsderivedfromnon-foodbiomass.
NCRISinvolvesthedevelopmentoffiveintegrated
sitestoprovideresearcherswithaccesstoquality
facilities,technologicallyadvancedequipment,and
technicalexpertise.MacquarieUniversity,University
ofSydneyandUniversityofNewSouthWalesare
providingaccesstofacilitiesfortheconversionof
lignocellulosicandmicroalgaebiomasstobiofuels
(ethanolandbiodiesel).Twopilot-scalemanufacturing
facilitiesarealsobeingestablished:
• abiomassbiorefineryatQueenslandUniversity
ofTechnology,fortheconversionoflignocellulosic
biomasstoethanol,ligninandothercommodities
and;
• aphotobioreactorfacilityatSouthAustralian
ResearchandDevelopmentInstituteforthe
demonstrationofmicroalgaebiomassculture
forbiodieselproduction.
TheBiofuelsCooperativeResearchCentre,an
initiativeoftheBioEnergyResearchInstituteat
SouthernCrossUniversityisresearchingnon-food
cropsthatwillgrowwithareducedrelianceonwater,
suchasAustraliannativespecies,whichhavethe
advantageofadaptableformarginalgrowingareas.
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