A Guidebook on Ethical Strategies for Social Media Writers-Fredrick Mugira
CIME Fellowship 2012
Fastidious:
A Guidebook on Ethical Strategies for Social Media Writers
by
Fredrick Mugira
Uganda
Fellowship For Ethics Leadership 2012
Center for International Media Ethics (CIME)
Edited by Heather DeVaney
March 2014
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A Guidebook on Ethical Strategies for Social Media Writers-Fredrick Mugira
CIME Fellowship 2012
Table of contents
Acknowledgement ........................................................................................................................................ 2
Dedication ..................................................................................................................................................... 2
From the Author ........................................................................................................................................... 2
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 3
Which Ethics? ................................................................................................................................................ 4
Social Media Writers’ Platforms ................................................................................................................... 5
Social Media Defamation .............................................................................................................................. 6
Defamation ................................................................................................................................................... 7
Cyberbullying ................................................................................................................................................ 8
Responsible Social Media Writing................................................................................................................. 9
Dos and Don’ts in Social Media Writing........................................................................................................ 9
Impartiality ................................................................................................................................................ 9
Accuracy .................................................................................................................................................. 10
Integrity ................................................................................................................................................... 11
Responsibility .......................................................................................................................................... 12
Privacy ..................................................................................................................................................... 13
Verification .............................................................................................................................................. 14
Ethics: Online Writers Speak Out ................................................................................................................ 14
Essence of Social Media Writing ................................................................................................................. 16
Social Responsibility: Online Writers Speak Out......................................................................................... 17
Online Writers Troubled by Their Posts ...................................................................................................... 19
Arab Spring.................................................................................................................................................. 21
References .................................................................................................................................................. 24
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A Guidebook on Ethical Strategies for Social Media Writers-Fredrick Mugira
CIME Fellowship 2012
Acknowledgement
Thank you so much Ann Babe and Kate Davidson for editing this guidebook.
Melisande Middleton, Csilla Szabó and Anita Thomas, I apreciate your efforts that enabled me
complete my fellowship.
Special thanks go to Stephen J. A. Ward, a Burgess Professor of Journalism Ethics and Director
of the Center for Journalism Ethics at the School of Journalism and Mass Communication,
University of Wisconsin-Madison. Your willingness to take part in this study and guidance in
media ethics are inestimable.
Thank you all my Facebook, Twitter and LinkedIn colleagues who took part in this study and
those who responded to my Monkey Survey questions; I am indebted.
Dedication
For you my grandmother Janet, your late daughter Jovial, and your granddaughter Jane.
From the Author
While traditional media values the authenticity and credibility of the news, online media values
speed and immediacy. Prizing speed and immediacy poses various dangers to social media
writers such as publishing defamatory and false information. The repercussion of these errors is
losing readers, paying huge sums of money in damages, facing hatred and persecution, and
others.
This guidebook is therefore offered to help social media writers, journalists, and the publics
they serve. It intends to forewarn social media writers about the dangers of writing unethically,
guide them on how to write professionally, and restore public trust in them.
It is neither a proposal to regulate the work of social media writers nor intended as rules for
social media writers.
It tackles areas ranging from social media platforms, defamation, cyber bullying, and
responsible social media writing to case studies of social media writers who have come under
fire for what they published online.
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Introduction
While information generation and distribution has in the past been monopolized by players in
the journalism profession, today many people that have never seen the inside of a journalism
classroom are developing and publishing content through various social media platforms.
In a world where even the work of trained journalists is sometimes considered wanting,
persons who have no journalism expertise, skills, practice, or ethics training are bound to make
grave mistakes as they develop and publish content. This turns them into prospective defamers
or bullies.
Although there is no agreed upon notion of who is or is not a professional journalist (Allan,
2006; Singer, 2003) – a difficulty compounded by the fact that journalism has no entrance
requirements or discrete body of knowledge that serves as a guardian of professionalism
(Singer, 2003) – journalism does have ethics and standards. Professionalism in journalism would
therefore involve following a set of ethics and standards while practicing journalism.
The everyone-is-a-publisher phenomenon1 being witnessed in social media is increasingly
threatening the authenticity and credibility of news. Who checks the news authenticity on such
sites? Who verifies the information? (Lemann, 2006; Lenhart and Fox, 2006; Reese et al, 2007).
In traditional journalism, it is the norm to check facts and be fair and accurate. However, as
Mitchelstein (2009:572) has asserted, “The demise of the gate-keeping role could lead
audiences to change the authority of journalism.”
Undoubtedly, as Posetti (2011:8) elucidated, “The biggest issue with social media is
verification.” The audience has the right to receive tested and verified information of relevance.
Therefore, the act of developing and publishing content that is insensitive to seeking the truth
and reporting it – fact-checking, fulfilling public service responsibilities, accuracy, objectivity,
impartiality and fairness – is likely to impair and frustrate the very recognition and presentation
it celebrates.
Quality and professionalism in developing and publishing content can only be measured by
looking at the extent to which writers adhere to ethics and standards and how committed they
are to public service. Therefore, respect for principles of truth, accuracy, objectivity,
impartiality, fairness and public accountability is paramount (Singer, 2003).
Social media writers generate a significant amount of information that would otherwise go
unnoticed by mainstream journalists.2 In countries where state-run or party-funded media
dominates, social media is a source of independent information. As Castells (2001:164) argues,
1
2
A situation where citizens are taking on active and traditional roles of journalists.
Journalists in traditional journalism.
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this offers “extraordinary potential for the expression of citizen rights and for communication of
human values.”3
However, the more information generated on social media platforms, the harder it becomes for
the readers to determine what is true or not. This again lowers the believability of the
information read. But why can’t readers readily believe what they find on social media
platforms? Is it because they know some social media writers do not care about following
ethical behaviors?
In order to increase trust, believability, and social understanding of the content published, it is
paramount for social media writers to not only disseminate information but also follow ethical
behaviors as they analyze, detect patterns, and spot trends in the content. This would make
their content more credible in the eyes of the readers and network members.
As Professor Stephen J.A. Ward notes, “Credibility means the readers tend to believe you, trust
you. Without credibility, you may be another 'voice' in the media ecology, but you are not to be
believed or trusted to any great degree.”4 Why write something that your readers will not
believe or trust?
Based on both older and newer theories of journalism, including uses and gratifications theory
and activation theory of information exposure, if the audience’s needs are not fulfilled, its
members will certainly shift to alternatives. Therefore, lack of audience trust will eventually
lead to no audience at all.
Which Ethics?
Some scholars have advocated for new ethical standards that cater to citizen journalists, while
others want a modification of the traditional media ethics (Blood, 2002; Kuhn, 2007; Ward,
2011).
In this guide, I advocate for modification. My case is based on Ward’s (Ward, 2011) argument
that both traditional journalists and social media writers share a common journalism sphere.
It is therefore possible to have mixed media ethics, as Ward (2011) terms it, that cater to
traditional journalists and social media writers. After all, as Steensen (2009:704) has noted,
“The role of journalists in a digital era does not develop in isolation from historical trends.”
3
A good example here is in Tunisia and Egypt where social media were used to start civilian revolutions that led to
collapse of governments there.
4
This is according to an email interview I had with Stephen J.A Ward. Ward is the James E. Burgess Professor and
Director of the Center for Journalism Ethics at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. He is the author of The
Invention of Journalism Ethics: The Path to Objectivity and Beyond (2006) and Global Journalism Ethics (2010), and
the co-editor of Media Ethics Beyond Borders: A Global Perspective (2010).
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Likewise, as Overholser (2010:34) has argued, “Accuracy, proportionality and fairness, as timehonored journalistic values, are well worth adoption by those conversing through social
networks.”
Social Media Writers’ Platforms
There were more than 350 social networking sites5 on the Internet by September 2012. These
are platforms through which social media writers share the latest stories, ideas, opinions, and
news.
The most popular social networking sites include:
Facebook, which is a social networking site. It allows registered users to create profiles, upload
photos and videos, send messages, and keep in touch. It has more than 70 million active
members.6 By September 2012, Facebook was boasting an estimated 750 million unique
monthly visitors.
Twitter, which lets a person send brief text messages up to 140 characters in length to a list of
followers. These small bursts of information are called Tweets. Twitter connects accountholders
to the latest stories, ideas, opinions, and news. By September 2012, Twitter boasted an
estimated 250 million unique monthly visitors.
LinkedIn, which is a business social networking website for people in professional occupations.
It also allows registered users to create profiles, upload curriculum vitae, send messages, and
keep in touch. It had an estimated 110 million unique monthly visitors by September 2012.
MySpace, which is also a social networking website. Like other social networking sites,
MySpace allows registered users to create profiles, upload photos, send messages, and keep in
touch. It had an estimated 70.5 million unique monthly visitors by September 2012.
Google+, which is a social networking service owned and operated by Google, Inc. Google
describes Google+ as a multilingual social networking and identity service consisting of a "social
layer" that covers many of its online properties. It had an estimated 65 million unique monthly
visitors by September 2012.
YouTube, which is a video-sharing website. Accountholders upload, share, and view videos. It
lets anyone upload short videos for private or public viewing.
5
For a list of these sites see: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_social_networking_websites,
http://howmanyarethere.net/how-many-social-networking-websites-are-there,
http://mashable.com/2007/10/23/social-networking-god.
6
This is according to September 2012 records.
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Wiki, which is a website that allows its visitors to add, remove, and edit the site’s contents. It is
simply user-editable data storage. It was developed in 1995 by Ward Cunningham to manage
an increasing number of pages in discussion groups and user groups. Technically, Wiki also
refers to software that facilitates the function of the Wiki website using a browser interface.
Blogs, which are personal online journals. Stories on blogs are displayed with the most recent
entry on top and are social by nature. Technically, blog means a web page to which its owner
regularly adds new entries, which tend to be short. Most weblogs are primarily textual.
However, there are others that focus on photographs. Such blogs are termed photoblogs. Other
blogs use video as the primary content. They are termed vlogs or videoblogs.
Social Media Defamation
Some social media writers believe they can write anything they want to on the Internet. This is
a misconception. Defamation laws also extend to social media. Walter Pacheco7 explains this
concept clearly when he writes, “The next time you log into Facebook, Twitter or any other
social media network, keep in mind that anything you post could be used as evidence in a
lawsuit.”
Several social media writers have been taken to court over the statements they publish on their
Facebook pages, blogs, or Twitter accounts. Some have ended up paying millions of dollars in
damages.
Although the threat of defamation is a restraint to media freedom, courts believe that the right
to information is superior to the freedom of expression.
In some countries, defamation laws apply to social media the same way they do to the
traditional media. However, several countries are in the process of producing specific online
defamation laws, and others are using the Communication Decency Act of 1996 (CDA) that was
created to regulate the publication of pornography and other adult content on the Internet.
Section 230 of the CDA argues that an Internet Service Provider (ISP)8 is not responsible for
content published by its users. For example, Facebook would not be responsible for defamatory
content published by a Facebook accountholder.
However, the same Act further calls on an ISP to remove any defamatory information if
informed of an infringement, or face legal action.
7
Walter Pacheco’s article, titled “Social Media and Networks Give Rise to Internet Law Specialty” can be found at
http://www.hispanicbusiness.com/news/newsbyid.asp?idx=298991.
8
An ISP is a company which provides other companies or individuals with access to, or presence on, the Internet.
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Unlike traditional media where materials have a limited shelf time, slanderous and libelous
comments in social media have infinite shelf life because the internet is boundless and endless.
Defamation
Defamation is a statement published or broadcast that is likely to injure or lower the reputation
of a person. It diminishes the respect or confidence members of society hold for a person. It is a
crime of publishing or broadcasting material that lowers the reputation of a person in the eyes
of others.
If a statement is in a permanent form, such as on the Internet or in newspapers, it is referred to
as libel defamation. If it is of a transient nature, such as an oral or radio broadcast, it is referred
to as slander.
In some countries defamation is criminal, while others take it to be a civil offense.
For a statement to be rendered defamatory, it must have been communicated to a third party
and:

Be false and referring to the person or the body suing.

Attack a reputation causing society to shun or ridicule the person or body suing.

Be an intentional attack on an office, profession, business or management of business,
affairs or operations.

Carry an implied insulting meaning aimed at a particular target. In this case, such a
statement would be called an innuendo. An innuendo statement renders someone’s
reputation questionable without necessarily saying anything defamatory.
If a statement is published on a Facebook page, for example, it is assumed that it is read by a
third party consisting of network members and others who might have access to the site.
Conversely, a statement may not be rendered defamatory if:

Facts in it are true and the publisher is able to prove it. In this case, the publisher needs to
keep track of witnesses and other supporting documents that can be used in court to prove
that the statement is true. The fact that a statement is common knowledge or a rumor is
insufficient.

The statement was an unintentional or honest error such as adding the “not” in this
sentence: Fredrick is “not” the one who wrote this guidebook.
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
The statement is privileged. In this case, the statement made would be protected by law.
This mostly includes statements made in court, parliament, statutory commission hearings,
and local government councils, among others. Such statements are made under a legal,
moral or social duty.

The statement was a fair comment or in the public interest. However, public interest must
always be weighed against other interests such as an individual’s privacy (Brock, 2012).
Such a statement should be fair and without malice or dishonesty. A matter of public
interest should be a subject affecting society as a whole, entitling the public to the
information. This has been made explicit by Brock (2012:523) when he remarks that public
interest should “engage the interests of a collective entity, a community small or large,
beyond a single individual.” It is also important to note that not all matters in which the
public has an interest are public interest matters.
Cyberbullying
Bullying is where individuals use their advantage to intimidate or harass others. For some
bullies, social media platforms are simply a convenient way to bully others. This practice is
termed cyberbullying.
Some cyberbullies post threatening, harsh, mean or cruel information, videos, or sound on their
victims’ accounts. Others create fake accounts on social media platforms, which they use to
harass their victims. Bullies aim at hurting or embarrassing their victims.
Cyberbullying mostly occurs between children and youths, similar to the bullying that occurs in
schools. Many children and youths may not actually believe that what they are doing is illegal.
However, cyberbullying is a criminal offence. It can lead to charges and prosecution for hate
crimes, impersonation, harassment, and defamation.
Cyberbullying is a new concept in developing countries where internet access is still low.
However, it is steadily growing.
Victims of cyberbullying experience the same effects as those bullied in person such as low selfesteem and depression. Other victims have gone to the extent of committing suicide. Perhaps
one of the most famous examples of extreme cases of cyberbullying, according to various
internet sites,9 is the Megan Taylor Meier case. Meier, an American teenager, committed
suicide on October 17, 2006, by hanging. A year later, her parents launched an investigation
9
One such site is http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicide_of_Megan_Meier; several other real life examples of
cyberbullying can be found at https://sites.google.com/a/cypanthers.org/cease-cyber-bullying/real-life-examplesof-cyber-bullying.
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into what made her take her own life. Investigations blamed her death on cyberbullying
through the social networking website MySpace.
Responsible Social Media Writing
Similar to traditional journalism, good social media writing calls for personal and ethical
behavior if the writer is to do the job right. Social media writers have a duty to publish content
on their pages responsibly. If they do not, it could result in a loss of readers, defamation, or the
witch-hunting of the writer.
Before you start writing a story for social media, it is important to ask the following questions
and seek their answers:
 Is the story true? Do not rely on rumors to write a story. If a story you are writing about is
a common rumor, it does not mean it is correct. It is important to verify such a rumor. Use
the rumor as your tip to investigate what lies beyond it.
 Do I have evidence to prove that the story is correct? Find out whether there are credible
documents, reports, letters, minutes and so forth to prove that the story you are writing
about is correct. Again these should be authentic documents that could stand up in court.
 Do I have credible witnesses? Witnesses would help you in court if you are sued.
However, it is important to know the credibility of these witnesses. Think about whether
your witnesses are reliable. Some witnesses may run away from you after the story has
backfired.
 Will I be able to report both sides of the story? Is my story balanced? A balanced story
gives a fair hearing to both sides. If the story makes allegations against someone, you
balance it by talking to that person.
Dos and Don’ts in Social Media Writing
Impartiality
Being impartial means remaining fair and unbiased in situations where there is more than one
side. Professor Ward links impartiality to verification. He notes that “One shows one's
impartiality by being willing to check one's facts and to treat other people's perspectives fairly.
Without some degree of impartiality, journalists are simply narrow-minded activists whose
work cannot (should not) be trusted.”
Impartiality emphasizes the importance of reflecting all significant opposition views and telling
all sides of the whole story.
Dos
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Distance yourself from the story you are writing about. Don’t get involved.
Rise above your own perspective and guard against allowing your personal views to
intrude into your reporting.
Separate your opinions from facts. Webster's Dictionary defines a fact as "anything that
is done or happens; anything actually existent; any statement strictly true; truth;
reality," while opinion is defined as "indicating a belief, view, sentiment." Sometimes
people’s opinions become so deep-seated in their beliefs that they end up thinking such
opinions are facts. Therefore, write in such a way that you are able to distinguish for
your readers between your opinions and the factual news.
State facts and let your writers draw their own conclusions. For example, if a manager is
seen with his secretary having dinner, do not conclude that they are having an affair.
Choose your words carefully. The words we use can show which side we lean towards in
a story with various conflicting sides.
Put all sides of the argument in your article. Try not to dedicate many more words or
space to one side or the other.
Don’ts


Do not be biased. Avoid being persuasive.
Do not be prejudiced against a particular side or individual.
Accuracy
Your audience has a right to receive accurate and comprehensive information. You therefore
must make sure the information you give them is true, correct, exact, and free from errors and
mistakes. This is what accuracy means. It also means mirroring the situation on the ground.
Accuracy should take priority over speed; accuracy is about getting the job done right. It’s
better to be late than wrong. You are responsible for the accuracy of the information
presented.
Dos



Tell the truth. You should not publish content without establishing its correctness. This
means you must crosscheck your facts before you publish them. Use named sources
whenever possible. Some of your sources may intentionally or unintentionally give you
wrong information. This is why you need to crosscheck it yourself to know that what you
have been given is correct. Also try using two or more sources whenever crosschecking.
Use plain language and words whose meanings you are sure of. This will help you to
guard against innuendos. Make sure the words used are not sensational. Leave
sensationalism to advertisers.
Research the topic you are writing about to make sure you have enough correct
information. Remember to take notes and record.
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Build enough sources in all fields. You will always contact these sources to crosscheck
your information.
Don’ts
 Don’t lie. Suspicions should not be reported as fact. Allegations of fact should be well
founded and provable. Give as much context and detail as you can.
 Never think that because something is widely known by several people or has been
widely published by your network friends, it is correct. Even such information may be
misleading and republishing such information may equal fresh defamation. Assess the
information you have, and investigate further. Know your sources; consider the people
you question and whether what they say has credibility.

Don’t start writing until you have enough information on the idea you want to write
about.

Don’t communicate false or misleading information intentionally. Allegations of fact that
touch on the character of a person should be provable.
Do not take captioning of photographs lightly. A caption can defame.

Integrity
Some of the closest meanings of integrity are honesty and fairness. Honesty and fairness are
crucial to integrity. Without respecting these values it is not possible to maintain your good
name and character.
Dos




Be honest and accurate – your credibility and reputation depend on it.
Adhere to acceptable standards in your conduct and in what you publish because your
credibility depends on it.
Be quick to apologize if you realize that you have made a mistake because anyone can
make a mistake.
Aim at winning trust of your readers because lack of trust means lack of audience in the
long run.
Don’ts

Do not rush to break, Tweet, or share a wrong story. Take time to research and find out
facts. Facts will help you to win trust from your readers. Errors, mistakes, and wrong
information made in the process of trying to rush and break a story may chase away
your readers in the long run.
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Never expose your sources to danger in order to improve your story.
Never accept money or gifts in order to cover a story, to not cover a story, or to
influence the way a story is covered.
Do not reproduce someone’s story unless you are willing to acknowledge him or her.
Responsibility
Social media writers have an obligation to report responsibly in support of the welfare and
interests of the society in which they operate. Consider the balance between the “greater
public good” and the harm caused to an individual or group. Responsible writing is making sure
the information is presented in a fair, balanced, and truthful manner because this information
is a social good. It entails exercising humility by not focusing only on personal interests but also
the interests of others.
According to Professor Ward, this involves “the general belief that we are responsible when we
care about the impact of our actions, are willing to do due process, and are ready to correct our
mistakes.” He cites examples of what to refrain from, which include: “attacking people for
personal gain, recklessly ruining reputations on unverified rumors, demonizing other religions
and cultures, acting without editorial independence such as taking a bribe to do a story.”
Undoubtedly, being responsible also means accepting the consequences of the story you are
about to publish. You therefore must not only know how to write good stories but also try to
predict the possible consequences of the stories you are going to write. In so doing, the writer
minimizes harm to individuals and society.
Dos





Give the accused a right to respond to allegations. This will help you to balance your
story and give all sides of an argument.
Correct mistakes, errors of facts, and omissions immediately. This helps to prevent
confusion and put everything right. It also helps to correct misleading information.
Remember a correction only serves to reduce costs and damages in defamation matters
but does not waive liability.
Assume that everything you publish in social media is on record. Do not think that the
accused you are writing about will not know or read your story even if he does not have
frequent access to the Internet. He will at one time land on it or learn of it from some
other sites.
Your stories must have a social significance. You have a duty to make sure your stories
benefit the society and are not harmful to the society and the individuals that live in it.
Double-check before using information that has been posted on social media platforms.
Some social media writers may repost someone else’s information or photograph after
manipulating it to make it appear as if it is new. Also, some social media writers tend to
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recycle stories over and over again. One person get a story from a blog, shares it on
Twitter, posts it on Facebook, and 10 other blogs pick up the story and write their own
version based on secondhand information. Therefore, make sure that you verify the
accuracy of all information, and locate its source and its contextual updates before you
repost it.
Don’ts



Do not avoid correction comments from your readers.
Don’t be insensitive.
Do not assume that all you read in social media is true especially if you plan to base your
story on it.
Privacy
The dictionary definition of privacy is “the state of being free from intrusion or disturbance in
one's private life or affairs: the right to privacy.” Though the audience has a right to be
informed, individuals also deserve privacy for their personal development. However,
sometimes the right to privacy can be invaded for public interest. Working in the public interest
means putting the needs of your audience above others’ concerns. A social media writer must
be able to tell the difference between the audience’s right to know and their desire to know.
Dos
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
Know what information should be made public and what should remain private.
Seek permission to use a photograph and any other works unless the source is a creative
commons. Some social media writers think they can use any picture they find on the
internet for their own purposes without seeking permission from the owner. This is
wrong because it is tantamount to plagiarism, which Merriam-Webster dictionary
defines as “to steal and pass off the ideas or words of another as one's own: use
another's production without crediting the source.” Most photographs on the Internet
are copyrighted. In cases where it is hard to get permission, it is important to
acknowledge the owner of the work to guard against plagiarism. Also, you might
consider leaving out the photography if you can’t get permission to use it.
Be cautious in regards to brands, copyrights, trademarks, trade secrets, confidentiality
and financial disclosure laws.
Protect the rights, status, and reputation of those you write about.
Know the audience’s right to know, needs to know, and wants to know.
Don’ts

Do not use your article to invade other people’s lives and expose things that they want
to keep private.
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Do not publicly unveil private, humiliating, and irrelevant facts.
Do not turn private or internal conversations into public ones.
Verification
Not all information found on the Internet is correct. It is therefore vital to vet such information.
According to Professor Ward, “verification helps accuracy and the provision of actual facts to
the public. The public gets better, checked-out information and commentary.”
Dos
 Seek trustworthy, accessible sources and witnesses. This could be vital during court.
 Be careful with anonymous sources. Why don’t they want to be named?
 Fact-check and use diverse sources.
Don’ts


Do not guess, speculate, sensationalize or exaggerate facts.
Do not rely solely on an anonymous source for information.
Ethics: Online Writers Speak Out
Truth, honesty, balance, and respect are some of the common threads running through this
collection of accounts and stories gathered from social media writers around the world who
were interviewed on ethical behaviors for social media writers.
Alex Akankwasa (Uganda): They ought to be objective whenever writing about controversial
issues. They need to have well researched facts other than relying on hearsay. They should
desist from posting graphic pictures, but if they have to, they should forewarn the reader or
followers. They should not use abusive or derogatory words. They should guard against inciting
violence; since many people nowadays have access to [the] Internet on mobile phones, laptops
and PCs, it is easy for an irresponsible writer to play on the emotions of a desperate people to
cause chaos, destruction [of] property and even loss of lives. Alex Akankwasa is a commercial
producer at Radio West in Mbarara, Uganda
Alka Pande (India): Be sensitive while reporting, respect people's privacy, report the facts
without being party to anyone and try to be humane, not always looking for sleaze and scoops!
Alka Pande is a senior freelance journalist based in the biggest Indian state of Uttar Pradesh.
Andrew Rosh Tyron Aijuka (Uganda): Well, as a writer, blogger and journalist, I stand firmly to
the right of free speech through writing, but again writing on aspects that could spark off
violent acts like the video named " Innocence of Muslims " would violate the aspect of being
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writers that aim at positively impacting our world … rather than writing for destruction. Andrew
Rosh Tyron Aijuka is a social media writer and cameraman at TV West in Mbarara, Uganda.
Andre Powe Liu (U.S.A): Reflect on one's own position of power – for example if you or your
family own majority stock in a company you praise in an article, there's no ethics or credibility.
We all see the world through different lenses/cultural biases – state your own obvious biases
and the point of view from which you gaze/investigate. Then each can interpret truth of what
you say to themselves across divides/cultures. Objectivity can be hard when there is passion
but opposing viewpoint[s] can enrich [the] argument. Triangulate and integrate points of view –
when you locate your differing viewpoints argue for why your point of view in that specific
circumstance is most relevant and the others may be just [an] anomaly. Press being guardians
of democracy – wondering who polices the police? Who watches the journalist watching the
observed? Andre Powe Liu is a librarian based in Brooklyn, New York, U.S.A.
Doreen Nayebare (Uganda): They should and must always tell the truth; use appropriate
language and avoid abusive words. Social media writers should also carry out research before
making conclusions for the subjects they are writing about. Doreen Nayebare is a videographer
and editor at NTV Uganda.
Haileyesus Worku (Ethiopia): Some social media outlets expose their sources. This is unethical.
They are supposed to protect them. I am sure you remember what Wikileaks10 did and the trial
of the U.S. soldier. To give you an example, an Ethiopian journalist who was working for Nation
Media Group in Addis Ababa was forced to flee from his country on September 11 th, 2011,
because his name was posted in the Wikileaks as an informer. Some of those who manage
social media platforms lack professionalism and do not respect media ethics. Even if the widely
known social media outlets like Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn [and] YouTube may have their
codes of conduct, some of their accountholders use false identifications and so, they do not
care about following established codes of conduct.
There is need for self-regulation in social media. Due to lack of self-regulation, provocative
messages are common in social media platforms. Haileyesus Worku is an Ethiopian television
journalist.
Huong Pinky Vu (Vietnam): Identify yourself very clearly. No room for anonymity. If you write
about something related to your work, disclose which organization you are with. Be honest, be
balanced. Seek the truth. Respect other people and their opinions. Respond to your readers
politely and in a timely manner. No plagiarism, no copyright infringement. Huong Lan Vu is a
communication staff with The World Bank in Vietnam.
10
Wikileaks publishes and comments on leaked documents alleging government and
corporate misconduct. See: http://wikileaks.org.
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CIME Fellowship 2012
Kawire Wabwire (Kenya): Have basic knowledge in writing objectively. Although an issue may
affect you directly, subjective writing removes credibility from a piece and may cause you to
lose audiences, or be labeled 'pundits' or 'sensationalists'. Kawire Wabwire is journalist and
social media writer based in Nairobi, Kenya.
Mutabazi Jeb Mutanga (Uganda): We have entered a phase where spinning of stories has
become a skillful art. Truthful, factual, fair and balanced reports must be re-emphasized.
Distortion of information either deliberately or by omission must be prohibited. Truth and facts,
ethical reports, impartial and bias-free reporting, integrity, social responsibility, avoid
discriminating, sensation-free reports, protection of sources, respect and dignity, defending
freedom; the list is endless! Mutabazi Jeb Mutanga is a media and cCommunication cConsultant
in Uganda with Ideal Solutions, Inc.
Paul Ndiho (U.S.A): As reporters, citizen journalists, bloggers, pundits and Africa analysts, we
owe it to the people! – Our duty is to write positively about the political, economic, social and
cultural changes taking place on the continent. If we’re going to ask the international media to
portray Africa in a positive light – it has to start with us. In other words, we’re going to be the
drivers of that change. Paul Ndiho is an independent journalist working with Voice of America in
the U.S.A.
Ronald Ahirirwe, Jr. (Uganda): The ethics of confidentiality are slowly being torn apart by
service providers! You may want to re-emphasize that. Ronald Ahirirwe, Jr. is a Ugandan social
media writer.
Sadi Niyungeko (Burundi): I do not think that all the news published in social media is true.
There should be reliable sources. Writers have to check and double-check the information. Sadi
Niyungeko is a Burundian journalist and social media writer.
Zen Rainman (India): Always stick to truth and objectivity. It is always good to represent all
sides of a story, never one side. Sometimes taking a stand for honesty helps. Try and follow up;
we always tend to do [a] one-off and forget. Respect the sources and guarantee their
anonymity and safety at all times. Try and dig [into] more of the science and technology behind
solutions. Scientists/engineers are lousy communicators. Be honest and truthful and trust
common sense. Zen Rainman is an Indian engineer, social media writer and journalist.
Essence of Social Media Writing
Social media readers scan through sites and pages for various reasons, including information,
entertainment, and networking. But based on uses and gratifications theory and activation
theory of information exposure, if social media readers are unable to get what they want, they
are likely not to come back to your site.
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A Guidebook on Ethical Strategies for Social Media Writers-Fredrick Mugira
CIME Fellowship 2012
In the aftermath of the Arab Spring, social media writing has become more than simply
connecting with friends. It is actually revolutionizing journalism’s role as a watchdog and
turning it into a guidedog.
As witnessed in the Arab Spring, responsible social media writing helps to challenge citizens to
get involved and engaged, and motivates them to think as they comment on an original story.
By responding, a thread of stories and comments is created. Comment threads increase
readers’ knowledge of a particular subject. They also motivate them to think and act, not just
watch.
Social media writing is not meant for passing time as most social media writers think. It is a duty
performed by writers that gives a voice to those who are sidelined from the public debate and
lack a say in decision making. It is a duty of informing the audience about issues that affect
them. Doing this also entices readers to come back to the site, because they see the writer and
stories written as being close to them.
A responsible social media writer has a duty to give the audience, or rather the network
members, a chance to tell their stories as they comment. It is therefore paramount to resist
from blowing up stories for the sake of selling the writer’s position or product.
Social media writing should also be able to: provide information on key developments in society
in a way that gives them meaning; support the commonly agreed upon codes of conduct and
processes for giving a fair hearing to those who are aggrieved; provide a civic forum for public
debate and dialogue on different issues; and educate the audience on how to exercise their
democratic rights.
Social Responsibility: Online Writers Speak Out
Information, entertainment, and education are some of the common threads running through
this collection of accounts and stories gathered from social media writers around the world
who were interviewed on what they perceive to be the role of social media writers.
Abenaitwe Cliff (Uganda): Media writers owning accounts on platforms like Facebook and
Twitter have the responsibility of checking the authenticity of whatever they are putting or
posting on their accounts. Since the writers have a big audience following them on such
platforms, it is important that whatever they post is true, objective and balanced, to avoid
miscommunication and abuse of such platforms. Abenaitwe Cliff is a Ugandan journalist and
social media writer.
Adellah Orishaba (Uganda): It is their responsibility to inform others on what is happening in
the rest of the world. Adellah Orishaba is a Ugandan journalist and social media writer.
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CIME Fellowship 2012
Alex Akankwasa (Uganda): They should act as whistle blowers whenever and wherever the
voiceless are treated unfairly or wherever the writers see any form of injustice. Alex Akankwasa
is a commercial producer at Radio West in Mbarara, Uganda.
Alka Pande (India): Citizen journalists should follow seriously the law of tort, which asks them to
behave like responsible citizens. Once they do so, their second duty becomes to ensure that
their fellow citizens are also following the law of tort, and if they are not, the citizens should
report it. Alka Pande is a senior freelance journalist based in the biggest Indian state of Uttar
Pradesh.
[In the] same way, citizen journalists should play a positive role in pointing out the glitches in
the governance. This could help governments improve their functioning. But in any case – first a
responsible citizen journalist has to carry his responsibilities to behave like a responsible citizen
before he reports against others who are not. [In the] same way, first he behaves responsibly
and then [he] should point out the shortcomings of the government.
Andrew Rosh Tyron Aijuka (Uganda): To me, free speech should free people, masses, nations,
kingdoms [and] religions and not to put them at war. We as citizen journalists should recognize
and respect culture and beliefs of different societies. Andrew Rosh Tyron Aijuka is a social
media writer and cameraman at TV West in Mbarara, Uganda.
De Gabriel Twongyeirwe (Uganda): They should use these platforms to educate masses on
issues that affect them socially, economically, culturally and politically, among others, for
example, about diseases and food security and democracy. De Gabriel Twongyeirwe is a sales
executive with Vision Group in Uganda.
Lena Mäckelburg (Germany): Social media writers are carrying a lot of responsibilities: mostly in
a positive way they are sharing information, educating followers on different topics and raising
people’s awareness, creating a knowledgeable and critical mass. But some social media writers
are also negatively impacting others by circulating certain propaganda material or incorrect
information. Readers should therefore be carefully reviewing what they are reading about, as
well as what kind of information they are sharing with others. Lena Mäckelburg is an
environmental engineering master’s degree student and research assistant at the Institute for
Sanitary Engineering, Water Quality and Solid Waste Management at the University of
Stuttgart, Germany.
Mary Mwendwa (Kenya): Inform, entertain and educate on critical issues. Mary Mwendwa is a
Kenyan journalist with Trans World Radio.
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A Guidebook on Ethical Strategies for Social Media Writers-Fredrick Mugira
CIME Fellowship 2012
Mutabazi Jeb Mutanga (Uganda): Informing, educating, guiding and defining the media agenda.
Mutabazi Jeb Mutanga is a media and communication consultant in Uganda with Ideal
Solutions, Inc.
Online Writers Troubled by Their Posts
Case One
In September 2012, as I worked on this guidebook, Vietnam imprisoned three bloggers after a
brief trial for what the country called the spread of antigovernment propaganda. This is
according to BBC World Service radio.
Nguyen Van Hai, who blogged using the name Dieu Cay, was sentenced to 12 years
imprisonment, while Ta Phong Tan, a former policewoman, was handed a 10-year jail term. The
other, Phan Thanh Hai, was jailed for 4 years.
The trio was accused of publishing content on a banned website called Free Journalists Club.
The prosecution also said that they had published content on their blogs that was critical of the
government.
Case Two
In July 2011, a court in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, ordered blogger Amizudin Ahmat to pay U.S.
$133,000 to his country’s Minister of Information, Communications and Culture, Rais Yatin, in
damages and costs for defaming him on Ahmat’s blog. This is according to several news sites.11
This suit was in reponse to a story Ahmat Amizudin published on his blog. The story, under the
catchphrase “Mister Minister Where Are You Trying to Flee to?” accused the minister of raping
his housemaid from Indonesia.
Amizudin, who was blogging under the name of Din Binjai, had published the story on his blog
on December 28, 2010. The maid had worked for the minister from 1999 to 2007.
It is important to note that Amizudin was not the original author of the story. He told the court
that the story was a publication he had copied from another site on the Internet and pasted on
his blog. He publicly apologized for not checking his facts and removed the story from his blog.
Amizudin appealed the court’s decision, however his appeal was rejected. On January 19, 2012,
Amizudin was again ordered to pay U.S. $100,000 to the minister in damages and U.S. $33,000
in costs for defamation.
11
One of these sites is: http://en.rsf.org/malaysia-opposition-blogger-ordered-to-pay-20-07-2011,40659.html.
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A Guidebook on Ethical Strategies for Social Media Writers-Fredrick Mugira
CIME Fellowship 2012
Case Three
In December 2011, a court in Oregon, U.S., ordered blogger Crystal L. Cox to pay U.S. $2.5
million in damages and costs to Kevin Padrick and Obsidian Finance Group, LLC. This is
according to different news sites.12
Cox had published a story on her blog alleging that Kevin Padrick, a lawyer, was a thug and thief
during the handling of bankruptcy proceedings by him and Obsidian Finance Group, LLC.
The judge ruled that although Cox was reporting from court, her statements were not
privileged or protected by law since she was not a traditional journalist
As already seen in this guide, for professional journalists a statement may not be rendered
defamatory if it is privileged. Such a statement is made in court, parliament statutory
commission hearings, and local government councils, among others.
Case Four
In January 2011, a restaurant in Kuwait sued a Lebanese blogger, Mark Makhoul, for claiming
on his blog that the restaurant had served him undercooked food. This is according to various
Internet sites.13
Makhoul had reportedly written that the food that he and his wife ate at Benihana restaurant
operated by Las Palmas Company was raw and “tasted terrible.”
Makhoul wrote on his blog that “The chicken was very chewy (I could swear it was undercooked
if not raw) and tasted terrible.”
Subsequently, Las Palmas Company argued that Makhoul’s story had cost them their
customers. It also argued that the story had made people question the quality of the food they
serve.
The company asked the court to award it U.S. $17, 878 in damages.
Case Five
In February 2011, a Zimbabwean social media writer, Vikas Mavhudzi, was detained by
authorities in Bulawayo, a city in Southwestern Zimbabwe. This is according to several news
sites.14
12
Some of these news sites are:
http://blogs.seattleweekly.com/dailyweekly/2011/12/crystal_cox_oregon_blogger_isn.php,
http://phillylawblog.wordpress.com/2012/04/03/the-evolution-of-crystal-cox-anatomy-of-a-scammer/ and
http://www.obsidianvcox.com/2012/03/marc-randazza-has-his-panties-in-wad.html.
13
The sites include: http://thenextweb.com/socialmedia/2011/01/31/restaurant-in-kuwait/ and
http://globalvoicesonline.org/2011/02/02/kuwait-blogger-sued-for-restaurant-review/.
14
One of such news sites is: http://en.rsf.org/zimbabwe-internet-user-freed-on-bail-06-04-2011,39877.html.
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A Guidebook on Ethical Strategies for Social Media Writers-Fredrick Mugira
CIME Fellowship 2012
He was accused of posting content on the Facebook page of Prime Minister Morgan Tsvangirai
that indicated Mavhudzo’s support for the Arab Spring.
His post read in parts: “What happened in Egypt is sending shockwaves to dictators around the
world. No weapon but unity of purpose. Worth emulating.” 15
After about a month, Mavhudzi was released from prison on bail but banned from traveling
more than 40 kilometers out of Bulawayo City.
Case Six
A prominent Syrian blogger Hussein Ghrer was detained by security officials in October 2011
and charged with several counts, including inciting demonstrations through his blog posts.
According to the Committee to Protect Journalists,16 part of Ghrer’s post read: “Silence doesn’t
serve us after today. We don’t want a country where we get imprisoned for uttering a word.
We want a country that embraces and welcomes words.”
Ghrer was later released on bail of U.S $ 1000 after 37 days in jail.
Case Seven
In July 2010, Siamak Ghaderi, an Iranian blogger, was detained for posting content about street
protests after the contested 2009 presidential election on his blog, IRNA-ye maa.
Subsequently, in January 2011, the court sentenced Ghaderi to four years in prison and 60
lashes for “propagating against the regime,” “creating public anxiety,” and “spreading
falsehoods,” according to the Committee to Protect Journalists which cites BBC’s Persian
service.
Arab Spring
On December 18, 2010, Tarek al-Tayeb Mohamed Bouazizi, a frustrated street vendor in Sidi
Bouzid City of Tunisia, set himself ablaze in an apparent act of protest. Bouazizi was protesting
against harassment by the municipal officials.
Bouazizi’s self-immolation sparked a wave of protests and demonstrations in Tunisia. The
protests later extended to the neighboring countries and to other Arab countries in North
Africa and the Middle East.
16
See: http://www.cpj.org/killed/2012/.
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A Guidebook on Ethical Strategies for Social Media Writers-Fredrick Mugira
CIME Fellowship 2012
Within one and a half years, this wave of protests and demonstrations had caused the
Presidents of Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, and Yemen to leave office.
As the protests climaxed in Tunisia, the country’s President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali fled to Saudi
Arabia on January 14, 2011.
In Egypt, after 18 days of massive protests and demonstrations, President Hosni Mubarak, who
had ruled for 30 years, resigned on February 11, 2011.
In Libya, the protests and demonstrations left Colonel Muammar Gaddafi, the man who had
wanted to rule the whole of Africa, powerless. His government was overthrown on August 23,
2011, by the National Transition Council (NTC). Two months later, Gaddafi was killed in his
hometown of Sirte.
In Yemen, as the protests heightened, President Ali Abdullah Saleh cemented a power transfer
deal in November 2011 to end months of protests and violence over his 33-year rule in
exchange for immunity from prosecution. His three-decade rule came to an end on February
27, 2012, with his successor Abd al-Rab Mansur al-Hadi formally replacing him after presidential
polls.
Ali Abdullah Saleh apologized for "any shortcoming" in his 33-year rule and asked Yemenis to
forgive him for past mistakes.
By September 2012, more uprisings had been witnessed in Syria, Algeria, Bahrain, Kuwait,
Jordan, Sudan, Iran, Oman, and Mauritania, among others.
In countries like Sudan and Iraq, the protests seem to have forced the heads of governments to
announce their intentions to step down after their current term of office.
What was amazing is the way these citizens’ strikes, demonstrations, marches, and rallies were
systematically organized and coordinated. Several commentators, researchers, and scholars
have argued that social media platforms such as Facebook and Twitter, among others, acted as
tools that supported the uprisings, while others think they were the main instigators of the
events.
The role of social media in the Arab Spring is made explicit by Ledgard (2011:3) when he asserts
that “When the protests that toppled the country’s strongman, Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali, began
in the town of Sidi Bouzid, coverage was coming at first from posts on Facebook and Twitter,
then in incendiary footage on Flickr and YouTube.” Likewise, in Egypt, Bohler-Muller et al.
(2012:27) contend that the revolution was “Organized and supported to a large extent by the
use of social media platforms such as Facebook and Twitter as communication tools: more than
80,000 people online joined the Facebook event in support of Egyptian revolution.”
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What is undisputed is the fact that these social media platforms helped to bring citizens
together in a virtual community to demand their rights, which had been denied to them for
decades by their presidents. They were therefore vital in the organization of these uprisings.
Social media platforms helped to disseminate news about what was going to happen, and the
dissemination was done by the audiences themselves. The local people affected were part and
parcel of the communication process.
With social media, diffusion, two-step flow and extension approaches of mass communication
no longer hold true. Communication is bottom-up. The audiences are now competing with
traditional media houses to break stories first. This in turn makes the communication process
participatory, useful, and development-focused as it centers on the audience.
Social media platforms have created a network that leaves social media writers in close contact
at all times. This enables increased awareness and support among antigovernment protesters.
For example, a Facebook page created in honor of Khaled Said, an Egyptian man who died
under disputed circumstances after being arrested by police, had 470,000 fans, while 500,000
people watched the YouTube video about his murder. These are the same people who would
leave the virtual communities of social media and form physical communities of protesters.
Social media also helps to increase the density of information flow. This means that the number
of times people hear about a particular issue has increased. This change comes from the
background of controlled press freedom in these countries. Similarly, social media platforms
increase emotional density. This means individuals’ cognizance of other people’s perceptions
about events increase. All these help to increase people’s exposure to the message and their
reflection on it.
But what is also important to note is that the Arab Spring helped to popularize various social
media platforms such as Faceboook, YouTube, and Twitter. This has been made explicit by
Kabwato (2011:19) when he notes that “Given the so-called Spring Revolution in the Arab
World, social media has moved from the margins to the mainstream in terms of people’s
consciousness.” It is no wonder, therefore, that as Ledgard reveals, there were “about 17
million Facebook users in Africa at the start of 2011.”
Through various social media platforms, information found its way into international media
houses, which re-broadcast it to the whole world, quickly shifting it from the national public
sphere to a global public sphere. Several media houses used social media platforms as their
sources of information in the countries that were under revolution. For example, as BohlerMuller et al. (2012:28) notes, “Al Jazeera used Twitter, CNN used I-Report.”
In the end the picture was clear. Although the social media writers did not cause the uprisings,
their posts in various social media platforms, such as Twitter and Facebook, played a great role
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in disseminating information and networking the public. This role was vital in organizing the
protests.
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