Destination: Ithaca
Part 2
People and Places
1
Odysseus
Greek legends tell us very little about Odysseus before
the Trojan War. We know that he was King of Ithaca (his
father having abdicated the throne) for several years.
Some assume that he and Penelope had been married
only a short time since Telemachus, their first son, was
only a baby when the Greek fleet assembled. Legend
also says that he didn‘t want to leave his family and so
pretended to be mad in an effort to fool the recruiters.
Homer never mentions this story, but in the Iliad he does
portray Odysseus as the Greek hero who most openly
speaks of longing for home and family.
We know that on his father‘s side Odysseus was descended from a line of kings going back to Zeus. His
mother‘s family, however, was less distinguished. His maternal grandfather Autolykos was a noted thief and
trickster. This may have been were Odysseus inherited his cleverness, although in Odysseus‘ case his tricks
are most often for ―the common good‖ (i.e. the Trojan Horse) rather than solely for his own personal gain.
Odysseus does not play a major role in the Iliad, but when he does speak it is often in the role of diplomat (he is
known to be a persuasive orator) or as the voice of practicality (when Achilles, for example, is fired up to lead the
Greeks in an attack on the Trojans to revenge Patrokolus’ death Odysseus interrupts and reminds him that the men need
to eat first.) Odysseus is not a poor fighter, but he doesn‘t claim to measure up to the great warriors like Ajax
or Achilles. Odysseus‘ talents come into play in night raids, spying missions, and in devising the strategies
like the Trojan Horse.
Many and Much
A classic feature of epic poetry is the use of tags or ―epithets‖. These are identifying adjectives before people
or places or objects. Epithets were often ―space fillers‖ to add in the necessary syllables needed to complete
the hexameter phrases. Some words like ―divine‖ are used so often they don‘t have any real meaning. Some
words were traditionally used by all the bards to describe certain places, people, or things (i.e. Grey-eyed
Athena, Cloud-Gathering Zeus, and wine-dark sea).
However, some of Homer‘s epithets seem
carefully chosen to illuminate the personalities of
his characters.
Odysseus has three epithets that are used of him
(and only of him) throughout the poem;
Polymetis ―of many designs, Polymechanos, ―of
many devices‖ and Polytlas ―much-enduring‖.
These seem to sum up Odysseus pretty well.
Notice, however, that they also leave his
character open to be adapted to many different
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situations. Indeed, it seems the most noted characteristic of Odysseus is his
adaptability.
The very first epithet given to Odysseus in the first line of the poem is different
than the others. This is the word Polytropos, literally ―of many turns‖.
Translators haven‘t always been sure what Homer is driving at with this
description. Do the ―many turns‖ refer to Odysseus‘ travels, to his personality,
or to his different talents (his ability to ―turn his hand‖ to anything)? In
Zimmerman‘s play the ―many talents‖ option is chosen. The opening line describes Odysseus as ―the man
skilled in all ways of contending‖.
Scholar Eva Brann points out that after the first line of the poem, only one other character calls Odysseus a
―man of many turns‖. Ironically it‘s Circe, who is trying to ―turn‖ him into a swine. ―When she sees that she
cannot turn him, the man of many turns, the multifarious, the versatile, into anything he chooses not to be, she
exclaims: ―Surely you are Odysseus the multifarious [polytropos]!‖ His steadfastness and his flexibility are two
aspects of one nature.‖1
A New Kind of Hero
With Odysseus, Homer had created a new kind of hero; one slightly different from the more classic heroes of
the Greeks. Odysseus combines courage with
practicality. He wants the Greeks to win the war
against Troy, but he wants to survive and go home
afterwards. He doesn‘t have super-human strength like
Hercules or super-human speed like Achilles, but he is
clever. He relies on his wits as well as on his physical
prowess in order to win. In this way he has much in
common with our more modern heroes portrayed in
books, films and on television. In a study that traces
similarities between the Greek warriors and modern
superheroes, C.J. Mackie comments that,
―Odysseus‘ closest parallel amongst imaginary modern superheroes is Bruce Wayne/Batman with whom he
shares both his mortal parentage (unlike the divine/extra terrestrial parents that Heracles, Achilles and
Superman can claim) and his craftiness practiced in the dark. Odysseus operates covertly in Polyphemus‘
cave, in the wooden horse, or in Iliad II on nocturnal raids whereas Achilles and Heracles, like Superman,
perform feats of physical prowess under open skies in daylight.‖2
1
Brann, Eva. Homeric Moments: Clues to Delight in Reading The Odyssey and The Iliad. Paul Dry Books: Philadelphia. c2002. pg 142.
Hall, Edith. The Return of Ulysses: A Cultural History of Homer’s Odyssey. The Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore, 2008. Pg. 107
*1st picture: Ulysses and Calypso by Arnold Bucklin 1883/ 2nd Picture: Odysseus taunts the Cyclops/ 3rd Picture: Odysseus and the Bow/ 4th Picture: Ulysses Blinds
Polyphemus the Cyclops frieze representing the scene from the Quests of Ulysses by Pellegrino Tibaldi (1527-96)
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Ithaca
Ithaca is an island in the Ionian Sea, just off the coast of mainland Greece.
Homer describes it has having a very mountainous terrain:
―No one would use this ground for training horses,
It is too broken, has no breadth of meadow;
But there is nothing meager about the soil,
The yield of grain is wondrous, and wine too,
With drenching rains and dewfall.
There‘s good pasture for oxen and for goats
all kinds of timber,
And water all year long in the cattle ponds.
For these blessings, friend, the name of Ithaca
has made its way even as far as Troy.‖3
Laertes
Laertes comes from a line of Ithacan kings. By Zeus‘ will, Laertes‘ family has a string of ―only sons.‖ Laertes
was the only son of his father, Arcesius. Laertes‘ only son is Odysseus and Odysseus has only one son,
Telemachus. Some sources portray Laertes as living quietly at home ruling Ithaca. According to other
legends, however, he was one of the Argonauts who sailed with the Greek hero Jason on his quest to find the
Golden Fleece.
There is a strong contrast between this adventurer and the broken old man whom Odysseus finds at the end of
the play. Weakened by years of grieving for his lost son, Laertes has abandoned Penelope to the mercies of the
suitors and withdrawn to his farm to live as a recluse. It is a pitiful sight that Homer describes in the reunion
scene:
―Odysseus found his father in solitude
Spading the earth around a young fruit tree.
He wore a tunic, patched and soiled, and leggings-Oxhide patches, bound below his knees
Against the brambles; gauntlets on his hands
And on his head a goatskin cowl of sorrow.
This was the figure Prince Odysseus found-Wasted by years, racked, bowed under grief.
The son paused by a tall pear tree and wept…‖4
3
Fitzgerald, Robert (trans). Homer: The Odyssey. Everyman’s Library Alfred A Knopf: New York, 1961. Pg 237-38.
Fitzgerald, Robert. Homer: The Odyssey. Everyman’s Library Alfred A Knopf: New York, 1961. Pg 452
*Top picture: Top picture: ariel views of Ithaca/Bottom picture: Laertes and Odysseus
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4
Penelope
Penelope is the only daughter of the Spartan king Icarios who was brother to Helen of
Troy‘s father, Tyndaros. This makes her a cousin to Helen and to Clytemnestra (wife and
murderer of Agamemnon). The fact that Homer draws attention to Penelope‘s family
tree increases the contrast between her faithfulness and her cousins‘ treachery.
According to some legends, Odysseus was originally one of the suitors who came to
Sparta seeking Helen‘s hand. King Tyndaros was worried that war would break out
among the suitors over Helen. As ruler of only a small island, Odysseus knew that his
chances with Helen were slim, so he proposed to solve King Tyndaros‘ difficulties if
Tyndaros would support him when he applied to King Icarios for Penelope‘s hand in
marriage. At Odysseus‘ suggestion all of Helen‘s suitors swear an oath that they will unite together and attack
anyone who attempts to steal Helen away from her husband. This oath kept peace among the suitors when
Menelaus was married to Helen, but it had the unfortunate result of forcing the kings (including Odysseus) to
join the Greek fleet in attacking Troy when Paris abducted Helen.
Despite the unflattering implication that Penelope was a second choice, her marriage to Odysseus is always
described as a happy one.
In the Odyssey
Homer portrays Penelope as a true partner to Odysseus; a woman of
intelligence worthy of an intelligent man. The epithet most often
used to describe Penelope is echephron. Generally translated as
―wise‖, this is a strong Greek word signifying being in complete
―control of one‘s mental powers.‖ Homer uses the word only once to
describe one other person; and that person is Odysseus.5
There is debate among scholars about whether Penelope recognizes
Odysseus when he is disguised as a beggar. Robert Fitzgerald,
however, believes that she does. He points out that the Odyssey is a story of a man moving heaven and earth
to get home to his wife. There must be a reason why he loves her and perhaps one of the reasons is that she is
his intellectual equal. Homer relates that the ―test of the bow‖ is Penelope‘s idea and Fitzgerald notes that it is
this plan which enables Odysseus to get access to a weapon; the only weapon that would drastically increase
his chances of surviving a fight even when vastly out-numbered by the suitors.
―It is Penelope who insists at the crucial moment that the beggar be given a try at the bow; she all but literally
places it in his hands. I conclude that for the last and greatest of Odysseus‘ feats of arms his wife is as
responsible as he is. The reasons for his affection should now be clear.‖6
5
Brann, Eva. Homeric Moments: Clues to Delight in Reading the Iliad and the Odyssey. Paul Dry Books, Philadelphia, 2002. Pg 263.
Fitzgerald, Robert. “Postscript” Homer: The Odyssey. Everyman’s Library Alfred A Knopf: New York, 1961. Pg 506.
*Top picture: Statue of Penelope at the Vatican in Rome/Bottom picture: Penelope speaks with “the beggar”.
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Telemachus
Telemachus was the only son of Odysseus and Penelope.
Greek myths claim that Odysseus didn‘t want to leave with
the Greek army for Troy because he had heard a prophecy
that if he did so he would be gone 20 long years. Odysseus
and his wife Penelope had only recently given birth to a son,
Telemachus. When the Greek kings Menelaus, Nestor and
Palemedes arrived to enlist Odysseus, he feigned madness
by ploughing a field with a horse and an ox, wearing a
madman‘s cap and sowing the field with salt. Palemedes, however, was a match for Odysseus in cunning.
Suspecting the ploy, he snatched Telemachus from Penelope's breast, and placed the infant in front of the
approaching plough. Odysseus had to steer the plough-team aside to avoid trampling his son. This proved
that Odysseus was not out of his wits and left him no choice but to join the army.
Homer never mentions this tale, but he does depict Odysseus as being the fond father of a son he hardly
knows. In the Iliad most heroes refer to themselves by their parentage (i.e. ―son of the great ____‖.) Odysseus,
however, twice refers to himself as ―the father of Telemachus‖. He uses it in moments of strong emotion as an
oath. ―May I not be called the father of Telemachus, if I‘ll put up with you.‖7 It seems to be an identity that is
dear to him.
In the Odyssey
In Homer‘s poem Athena states that she will send Telemachus on his own
journey so he can ―win his own renown about the world.‖8 Eva Brann,
however believes that the reason for Telemachus‘ journey was much more
specific than that.
She comments that at the beginning of the Odyssey, Telemachus is immature
and unsure of himself; in particular that he is not confident about whose son
he is. When, disguised as an old sailor, Athena asks him if he is the son of
Odysseus, he will only reply that ―his mother tells him so.‖
Athena/Mentor convinces Telemachus to go on a journey to learn news of
his father.
In actual fact, he doesn‘t bring back much concrete news from Sparta, but he does come back with a new sense
of himself. Menelaus and Helen recognize him as the son of the great Odysseus and the whole experience of
the journey gives Telemachus a new air of authority when he returns. It is interesting to note that when he
meets the stranger who is his father, he introduces himself confidently as ―the only son of Odysseus.‖
7
Brann, Eva. Homeric Moments: Clues to Delight in Reading the Iliad and the Odyssey. Paul Dry Books, Philadelphia, 2002. Pg 68.
Zimmerman, Mary. The Odyssey: adapted by Kerry Catlin (with Mary Zimmerman’s permission) for the Lookingglass Young Ensemble’s 2006-2007 Season.
Lookingglass: Chicago, 2006.
*Top picture: Odysseus’ feigns madness/Bottom picture: Athena appears to Telemachus
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Eurycleia
Eurycleia was the wet nurse to Odysseus and to Telemachus. She is a slave in Odysseus‘ house but is treated
as one of the family. An intensely loyal servant, she acts as a mothering figure to Telemachus and she soothes
Penelope in times of distress. When Odysseus returns she is among the first to recognize him and is instantly
ready to aid him in his plans.
Homer describes Eurycleia carrying a light for Telemachus as he makes his way to his bedroom:
―Eurycleia went padding, sage and old.
Her father had been Ops, Peisenor‘s son,
And she had been a purchase of Laertes
When she was still a blossoming girl. He gave
The price of twenty oxen for her, kept her
As kindly in his house as his own wife,
Though, for the sake of peace, he never touched her.
No servant loved Telemachus as she did,
She who had nursed him in his infancy.
So now she held the light; as he swung open
The door of his neat freshly painted chamber.‖9
Melantho
In contrast to Eurycleia, a purchased slave, the young maid Melantho was born in Odysseus‘ household. Yet
Melantho shows no love for her mistress, respect for her elders or courtesy to the beggar, Odysseus; a guest in
her mistress‘ house. Melantho is the daughter of Dolios, a gardener who had served Penelope faithfully since
her marriage to Odysseus.
Homer describes her faithful father and the kind treatment
that Melantho received from her mistress as a way of making
the maid‘s rudeness to Odysseus all the more shameful:
―and one smooth girl, Melantho, spoke to him
Most impudently. She was Dolios‘ daughter,
Taken as a ward in childhood by Penelope
Who gave her playthings to her heart‘s content
And raised her as her own. Yet the girl felt
Nothing for her mistress, no compunction, But
slept and made love with Eurymachus.‖10 [one of the suitors]
3 Fitzgerald, Robert. Homer: The Odyssey. Everyman’s Library Alfred A Knopf: New York, 1961.Pg 14-15.
4
Fitzgerald, Robert. Homer: The Odyssey. Everyman’s Library Alfred A Knopf: New York, 1961.Pg 346.
*Top picture: Eurycleia bathes Odysseus’ feet/Bottom picture: Penelope weaving with her maids.
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Eumaeus
As a writer, Homer appears to find the character of Eumaeus endearing.
Throughout most of the Odyssey Homer is merely the narrator offering
no personal comment on the events or the characters, but in Eumaeus‘
scenes he [Homer] repeatedly addresses him with ―O my swineherd!―
―Eumaeus--O my swineherd!--answered him:
‗Tush, friend, rudeness to a stranger is not decency,
poor though he may be…‘―11.
This sudden breaking in of the author‘s voice into the action seems to
indicate that Homer was fond of Eumaeus and approves of his kindly
nature.
According to Eumaeus himself he was born a prince in Syria but was kidnapped as a boy by Phoenician
sailors and sold as a slave to Laertes. Anticleia, Odysseus‘ mother, treated him kindly and raised him with her
own children. When he was an adult Eumaeus was given a job as the family‘s swineherd. He has grown old
in the family‘s service and he remains intensely loyal to the long absent Odysseus and regards Telemachus as a
son.
Antinous and the suitors
Despite the difference in their stations, Eumaeus is presented as being more truly the gentleman than any of
the nobly-born suitors who behave so rudely throughout the poem.
Eva Brann speculates that the crowd of young men invading Penelope‘s house is indicative of an uneasy
Ithacan society. These are probably boys about Telemachus‘ age. Their fathers have been away at war with
Odysseus for twenty years. They are without supervision. The government of the island which would
normally be the work of the nobles is on hold because the king is not present, but not dead. These idle young
aristocrats are bored and ready to follow a leader in search of
amusement. 12
That leader is clearly Antinous. He and Eurymachus are the two most
likely candidates for Penelope‘s hand in marriage and all the other
suitors defer to them. Despite the debt of gratitude that his family owes
Odysseus, Antinous is openly scheming to steal the crown. Penelope
has no love for any of the suitors, but she particularly despises
Antinous, saying:
―they are a bad lot;
they intend ruin for all of us; but Antinous
appears a blacker-hearted hound than any…‖13
11
Fitzgerald, Robert. Homer: The Odyssey. Everyman’s Library Alfred A Knopf: New York, 1961.Pg 249
Brann, Eva. Homeric Moments: Clues to Delight in Reading the Odyssey and the Iliad. Paul Dry Books: Philadelphia, 2002. Pg 267.
13
Fitzgerald, Robert. Homer: The Odyssey. Everyman’s Library Alfred A Knopf: New York, 1961.Pg 327.
*Top picture: Eumaeus serves Odysseus in the swineherds’ hut/Bottom picture: Antinous throws a chair at Odysseus disguised as a beggar.
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Phemios
Phemios is a bard in Odysseus‘ household. He is often seen playing and singing for the suitors, but Homer
makes it clear that he does so only under duress. During the final battle Phemios is about to run away but
then decides to seek mercy from Odysseus. Homer gives a touching picture of the musician whose first
concern in the midst of danger is to protect his harp:
―But first to save
His murmuring instrument he laid it down
Carefully between the wine bowl and a chair,
Then he betook himself to Lord Odysseus,
Clung hard to his knees, and said:
Mercy, mercy on a supplicant, Odysseus!
My gift is song for men and for the gods undying.
My death will be remorse for you hereafter.
No one taught me: deep in my mind a god
Shaped all the various way of life in song.
And I am fit to make verse in your company.
As in the god‘s. Put aside lust for blood.
Your own dear son Telemachus can tell you,
Never by my own will or for love
Did I feast here or sing amid the suitors.
They were too strong, too many;
they compelled me.‖14
Telemachus hears his plea and affirms that Phemios is innocent so the bard is spared.
Lord Mentor
The character of Mentor appears only briefly at the beginning of
the Odyssey. After that the ―Lord Mentor‖ that we see is actually
Athena in disguise. We know from the poem, however, that
Mentor was an old friend of Odysseus. When Odysseus left for
Troy he apparently entrusted Mentor with the guardianship of
his son, Telemachus.
Telemachus regards Lord Mentor as a trusted counselor and
teacher. Athena/Mentor guides Telemachus safely through his
journey. Because of Mentor‘s role in the Odyssey the word
―mentor‖ is used even now to describe an older, more
experienced person who gives sound advice.
14
Fitzgerald, Robert. Homer: The Odyssey. Everyman’s Library Alfred A Knopf: New York, 1961. Pg 420
*Top picture: Ancient statue of a bard/Bottom picture: Telemachus and Mentor
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Sparta
The city state of Sparta was located quite a ways inland on the Peloponnese pensiula
off the coast of mainland Greece. Telemachus reaches the city by chariot after landing
his ship at the city of Pylos. In later Greek history, Sparta was primarily known for
its military prowess and the rigourous athelic training that all Spartan citizens
participated in.
In Homer‘s life time, however, Sparta was a highly cultured city and had celebrated
sculptors in wood, potters, metal workers, weavers, and leather workers. Spartan
singers, dancers and musicians were also renowned and Sparta was famous for its
purple dyed clothes.
Menelaus
Menelaus was the son of Atreus and the brother of Agamemnon. He
married Helen of Sparta, and became the ruler of Helen's homeland,
Lacedaemon; the couple had one daughter, Hermione and no other
children.
Homer describes Menelaus as having red-hair and a strong ―war
cry.‖ (Having a general whose voice could carry above the din of
battle was a great advantage to an army.) In the Iliad Menelaus fights
bravely, but he always seems to be a bit overshadowed by his
commanding brother Agamemnon, and by the other Greek heroes.
On his way back from Troy, Menelaus' fleet is becalmed on the island
of Pharos, near Egypt. In order to learn how to obtain fair winds for
the journey home, Menelaus has to consult Proteus, the old man of
the sea. He waits until Proteus had gone to sleep and then grabs him and holds him tightly. Proteus changes
into many shapes trying to escape, but Menelaus refuses to let go. Finally Proteus agrees to answer Menelaus'
questions truthfully. He describes the sacrifices needed to appease the gods and gain favorable winds for the
rest of the voyage. Proteus also tells Menelaus about what has happened to the other Greek heroes; how his
brother Agamemnon was murdered by Clymenstra and her lover and how Odysseus is stranded on Calypso‘s
island.
Menelaus grieves deeply over Agamemnon‘s death and Odysseus‘ troubles. He makes the necessary sacrifices
to the gods and continues his journey. Eventually Menelaus and Helen return to Sparta where they apparently
settle back into happily married life.
*Top picture: The ruins of Sparta/Bottom picture: engraving of Menelaus
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Helen
Helen, Queen of Sparta, was the daughter of Zeus and a mortal woman, Leda. Since
Zeus took the form of a swan during his encounter with Leda Helen was born out of
an egg. Her siblings were Clytemnestra, Castor,and Polydeuces. All the Greek stories
agree that Helen was The Most Beautiful Woman in the World and heiress to the
kingdom of Sparta. This meant that there was no shortage of kings competing for her
hand in marriage. Some traditions say that Odysseus was one of suitors. Helen was
eventually married to Menelaus, younger brother of Agamemnon. The couple
reigned as king and queen of Sparta and had one daughter, Hermione. Then Prince
Paris arrived in Sparta and Helen left with him for Troy. Depending on which version
you read, Helen is either kidnapped by Paris against her will or leaves willingly with
him but regrets it later. At all events, after the war she returns with Menelaus to live
in peace and prosperity. When Telemachus arrives in the Odyssey they have just been
celebrating the wedding of Hermione to Neoptolemus, son of Achilles.
Helen in the Odyssey
Eva Brann comments that while Helen has only a brief cameo in the Odyssey
she contributes greatly to the character development of Telemachus.
―She recognizes him. Recall that when Athena tells him that he has Odysseus‘
looks and beautiful eyes, he says uncertainly: ―My mother says that I am
his.‖…But Helen descends and recognizes him at the first glance. She never
saw anyone—awe seizes her as she looks—so like another as he is like the son
of great-hearted Odysseus, this baby he left behind when he went to Troy, for
the sake of ―dog-faced me‖…The lovely thing is this: She says she never saw
any two, man or women, look so alike as Telemachus and Odysseus‘ son.
She doesn‘t say that he looks like Odysseus but that he looks like the son of
Odysseus, like himself. Of course, she‘s never seen this son before, but she
evidently has the intuition to recognize immediately what the son of Odysseus must look like, to recognize
him instantaneously.
Moreover, she had taken one look and asked her husband, ―Do we know who among men these claim to be
who have come to our house?‖ And she points to him: ―that man,‖ he is the one who looks like Odysseus‘
young son. It may be the first time in his prolonged boyhood that he has been called a man, and by such a
personage! I think perhaps Helen is never more beautiful than when she gives this boy the recognition that
makes him Telemachus, the son of Odysseus, a young man.‖15
15
Brann, Eva. Homeric Moments: Clues to Delight in Reading the Odyssey and the Iliad. Paul Dry Books: Philadelphia. c2002. pg 163.
*Top picture: Helen of Troy, Evelyn de Morgan, 1898/ Bottom picture: Helen recognizes Menelaus
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Phaecia
Historical tradition has associated Homer‘s isle of Scheria with the Greek island of
Corfu. There is a rock formation just off the coast of Corfu which (if you cock your head
and squint a bit) looks like a ship turned to stone. Most scholars, however, hasten to
point out that Homer clearly never intended the kingdom of Phaecia to be a real place.
He describes the country as though it were a fairy land. The king's palace has doors of
gold and walls of bronze. The entrance is protected by gold and silver dogs that serve
as sentries. In the orchards pear, pomegranate, apple, fig, and olive trees give fruit of
the best quality at all year round. The Phaecians seem to fill their days with nothing
but games, dancing, music and feasting.
Alcinous was the grandson of Poseidon. His father Nausithous led the Phaecians from Hypereia to the
island of Scheria to escape the Cyclopes; now Alcinous has inherited the throne. Of all the characters in the
Odyssey, Alcinous most exemplifies the virtue of hospitality so important to ancient Greek culture. Not only
does he feast Odysseus royally and load him down with gifts, but he and the Phaecians promise safe passage
home to any stranger who comes to their island—no matter how dangerous or how far. Alcinous even goes so
far as to offer Odysseus his daughter‘s hand in marriage—an honor that Odysseus tactfully refuses.
Arete
Queen Arete is the daughter of Alcinous‘ brother, Rhexenor whom Alcinous married after Rhexenor was
killed without an heir. In the Odyssey, Arete is described as an honored queen and clearly has a great deal of
influence. When Nausicaa gives instructions to Odysseus about presenting himself at the palace she makes it
plain that it‘s her mother, not her father, to whom Odysseus should appeal. Athena (disguised as a Phaecian)
also gives him the same advice:
“Rhexenor had no sons; even as a bridegroom
He fell before the silver bow of Apollo,
His only child a daughter, Arete.
When she grew up, Alcinous married her
And holds her dear. No lady in the world,
No other mistress of a man’s household,
Is honored as our mistress is, and loved,
By her own children, by Alcinous,
And by the people. When she walks the town
They murmur and gaze, as though she were a goddess.
No grace or wisdom fails in her; indeed
Just men in quarrels come to her for equity.
Supposing, then, she looks upon you kindly,
The chances are that you shall see your friends
Under your own roof, in your father’s country.”16
Fizgerald, Robert (trans). Homer: The Odyssey. Everyman’s Library Alfred A. Knopf: New York, 1961. Pg 113
*Top picture: Rock formation off the coast of Corfu/Bottom picture: Odysseus begs for Arete’s help.
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Nausicaa
Nausicaa is the daughter of Alcinous and Arete. She finds Odysseus on the
beach after he has been ship-wrecked on the island of Scheria. Homer portrays
Nausicaa as a charming young girl just beginning to think of husbands and
marriage. She is women enough to wish to wash her clothes in preparation for
a future wedding day, but girl enough to play ball with her maids while they
wait for the clothes to dry. In the Odyssey she has a bit of a crush on Odysseus.
Her father offers Odysseus Nausicaa‘s hand in marriage and it is clear that this
would be fine with Nausicaa. Odysseus, however, graciously turns the offer
aside; complementing Nausicaa but remaining true to his own wife.
Students of Homer have often commented on the detailed realistic portrayal of
girlhood that Homer gives to the relatively minor character of Nausicaa. A 19th
century translator of Homer, Samuel Butler, even went so far as to say that the
author of the Odyssey was a woman and that Nausicaa was the author‘s selfportrait. This is unlikely, but it has given other writers food for thought.
Modern novelist Robert Graves uses this idea as the basis for his historical
fiction, Homer’s Daughter.
Demodocus
Demodocus is a bard in Alcinous‘ court. He is described as blind (having to be led to his seat by a young boy
who assists him) but with a sweet voice and a rare gift in song. Some scholars think that Demodocus is a selfportrait of Homer.
The Phaecians do not ask Odysseus his name but they give a feast in honor of him as their guest. During the
meal, Demodocus sings a song of Trojan War and Odysseus weeps to hear it. He pays Demodocus one of the
highest compliments a performer can receive, saying that the
story was so real one would think that Demodocus himself had
been at Troy:
―Demodocus, accept my utmost praise.
The Muse, daughter of Zeus in radiance,
Or else Apollo gave you skill to shape
with such great style your songs of the Achaeans- Their hard
lot, how they fought and suffered war.
You shared it, one would say, or heard it all.‖17
If Demodocus really is a portrait of Homer that is very clever self-promotion.
17
17
Fitzgerald, Robert (trans). Homer: The Odyssey. Everyman’s Library Alfred A. Knopf: New York, 1961. Pg 140
*Top picture: Painting of Nausicaa/Bottom picture: painting of Demodocus singing for Alcinous’ court by Francesco Hayez
13
The Islands
Ancient and modern scholars have debated whether Homer based Odysseus‘ journey on real islands that he
had seen/heard stories about or whether these places are simply meant to be ―fairyland‖ homes for the
nymphs and monsters that inhabit them. Many theories have been put forward but no one can really be sure.
Calypso
Calypso (appropriately) means ―I will conceal.‖ She is a nymph, the
daughter of the Titan Atlas, who lives all alone on the island of Ogygia.
Homer describes Ogygia as being in ―the navel of the sea‖—in other
words the middle of no-where. Even Hermes, when he is sent there as a
messenger complains of having to cross all the way over ―that tract of
desolation the bitter sea.‖18
Being so far out of the way, Calypso is naturally lonely and when a
shipwrecked Odysseus washes up on her shores she is delighted. She
saves him and keeps him hidden away on her island as her lover. The
literal Greek describes the couple as ―she willing, he unwilling.‖19 Homer
portrays Calypso‘s cave as being wondrously beautiful and she showers
luxuries on Odysseus, but still, all he does is pine for home.
Circe
Circe means ―The Encircler‖ implying the falcon‘s circling flight
or perhaps a reference to her magic spells. At any rate, it is a
predatory title appropriate for one who entraps men. Her island
has an equally ominous name; Aiaia comes from the root word
aia which means ―a wailing cry or a lament.‖20 Circe is a minor
goddess, the daughter of Helios (the sun god) and Perse (a
Oceanid or water goddess).
Most stories about Circe involve her enchanting things. She is
said to have turned Picus into a woodpecker for refusing her
love, the nymph Scylla into a monster with twelve dog heads and, of course, Odysseus‘ men into swine.21
Circe has been a popular figure with artists and there have been many attempts to portray one of literature‘s
first femme fatales. In Homer‘s Odyssey, however, once she and Odysseus have reached an understanding Circe
becomes a benevolent character; graciously hospitable and full of good advice for Odysseus and his men.
Fitzgerald, Robert (trans). Homer’s The Odyssey. Everyman’s Library Alfred A Knopf: New York, 1961. Pg 84
Brann, Eva. Homeric Moments: Clues to Delight in Reading the Odyssey and the Iliad. Paul Dry Books: Philadelphia, 2002. Pg 215.
20
Boyd, Tracy. “Circe’s Circle of Oaks at the Edge of the World.” Sacred Threads.net http://www.sacredthreads.net/www.sacredthreads.net/circe.html. c.2004.
10.28.10
21 Parada, Carols. ―Circe.‖ Greek Mythology Link, http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/Circe.html © 1997 Carlos Parada and Maicar Förlag.
11/05/10.
*Top picture: Calypso and Odysseus/Bottom picture: ―The Enchantress Circe‖ by Wright Baker
18
19
14
The Sirens
The Sirens were three sea nymphs who lured sailors to their death with a bewitching song. Legend says that
they were formerly handmaidens of the goddess Persephone. When Persephone was secretly abducted by
Hades, Demeter gave the Sirens the bodies of birds, and sent to look for their mistress. They eventually gave
up, settled on the flowery island of Anthemoessa and began to lure in
sailors. In the Odyssey, Homer records the Siren‘s song. Some of the
verses read:
―Sea rovers here take joy/ Voyaging onward,
As from our song of Troy/ Greybeard and rower-boy
Goeth more learned…/Charmed out of time we see.
No life on earth can be/ Hid from our dreaming.
Ancient Greek philosophers used to ponder ―what song the sirens sang?‖22 What is the ultimate temptation?
Scholar W.B. Stanford notes that rather than offering any sensual pleasures, the Sirens are promising Odysseus
knowledge of all things—just exactly the kind of temptation that would appeal to his inquiring mind.23 Mary
Zimmerman takes an ironic approach to the Sirens. In her staging of the Odyssey the Sirens are all stereotypes
(Nurse, Girl Scout, Business Woman, Teacher, Bride, Nun) who sing flattering lyrics about men being more
important than women.
The Cyclops
Polyphemus was a Cyclops, a one-eyed giant. He was the son of
Poseidon and the grandson (on his mother‘s side) of Phorcys,
another Greek sea god. Homer describes the Cyclops as an
uncivilized people:
―Cyclopses have no muster and no meeting
no consultation or old tribal ways,
but each one dwells in his own mountain cave
dealing out rough justice to wife and child,
indifferent to what the others do.‖24
Odysseus‘ conflict with Polyphemus is most often interpreted as
―brains over brawn.‖ Polyphemus is a huge giant who eats men
raw, but his wits are no match for Odysseus‘. However, Odysseus comes off the worse from the encounter
when (in an uncharacteristically foolish moment) he tells Polyphemus his name. The curse of Poseidon that
Polyphemus then calls down on Odysseus‘ head is what delays Odysseus‘ homecoming for ten long years.
22
Brann, Eva. Homeric Moments: Clues to Delight in Reading the Odyssey and the Iliad. Paul Dry Books: Philadelphia, 2002. Pg 209.
Stanford, W.B and J.V. Luce. The Quest for Ulysses. Phaidon Press Ltd: London, 1974. Pg 45.
Fitzgerald, Robert (trans). Homer’s The Odyssey. Everyman’s Library Alfred A Knopf: New York, 1961. Pg 148.
*Top picture: Odysseus and the Sirens by Herbert Draper/Bottom Picture: Ulysses Blinding Polyphemus the Cyclops, frieze representing scenes from the Quests of
Ulysses, a painting by Pellegrino Tibaldi.
23
24
15
Aeolus
―AIOLOS (or Aeolus) was the king of the winds who kept the stormy Anemoi, Thuellai and
Aellai locked away inside the hollow heart of the floating island of Aiolia. At the command of
the gods he released these to wreck devastating storms. Since the Winds were often conceived
of as horse-shaped spirits, Aiolos was titled Hippotades, "the reiner of horses," from the Greek
hippos ("horse") and tadên ("reined in tightly").‖25
Aeolus‘ name means ―fast shifting‖ or ―changeable‖ referring to the winds he commands, but Mary
Zimmerman also makes this a description of Aeolus temper. At first he helps Odysseus, but when Odysseus
returns having lost the winds that Aeolus gave him, then Aeolus is suddenly furious and banishes Odysseus‘
from his island.
The Lotus Eaters
In this picture Odysseus is hauling his men away from the Lotus Eaters. The
Greek word lotos can be used to describe several different flowers, so it is
unclear just what the people living on this island where eating, but it was a
narcotic of some sort. The idea of travelers being lulled to forgetfulness by a
decadent parasdise is a theme that has been picked up often in literature. One
example is the popular children‘s series, Percy Jackson and the Olympians, in
which ―The Lotus‖ is a casino/arcade where people play games for years and
never come out.
Helios
Helios was the god of the sun. He emerged from his palace each dawn driving a chariot drawn by four, fiery
winged steeds and crowned with the aureole of the sun. Each day he would travel across the sky from East to
West giving light to the earth. When Helios hears that Odysseus‘ men have eaten his cattle he is enraged and
appeals to Zeus:
―O Father Zeus and gods in bliss forever,
punish Odysseus‘ men! So overweening,
Now they killed my peaceful kine, my joy
at morning when I climbed the sky of stars,
And evening, when I bore westward from heaven
Restitution or penalty they shall pay-and pay in full—or I go down forever
to light the dead men in the underworld.‖26
Zeus promises Helios that he will strike Odysseus‘ ship with a lightning bolt if Helios will keep on shining on
the earth and not go down to the Underworld.
25
26
“Aiolus” Theoi Greek Mythology. http://www.theoi.com/Titan/Aiolos.html Post date unknown. 11/05/10.
Fitzgerald, Robert (trans). Homer’s The Odyssey. Everyman’s Library Alfred A Knopf: New York, 1961. Pg 222.
16
Charybdis
In Greek mythology Charybdis was the daughter of Poseidon and Gaia, and took the form of a huge watery
mouth. She sucked down water three times a day and then belched it back out
again to create whirlpools. Originally Charybdis was a sea-nymph and very loyal
to her father. She flooded land in an attempt to enlarge her father's underwater
kingdom, until Zeus turned her into a monster. As punishment for trying to
swallow up his land he made it so that she would be incredibly thirsty three times
a day and would have to swallow up water. Greek myths describe Charybdis and
Scylla as being on two side of a narrow channel of water. The two sides of the
channel are within an arrow's range of each other so that sailors trying to avoid
Charybdis will pass too close to Scylla and vice versa.
Scylla
―Scylla was a nymph, daughter of Phorcys. The fisherman-turned-seagod Glaucus fell madly in love with her, but she fled from him onto the
land where he could not follow. Despair filled his heart. He went to the
sorceress Circe to ask for a love potion to melt Scylla's heart. As he told
his tale of love to Circe, she herself fell in love with him. She wooed him
with her sweetest words and looks, but the sea-god would have none of
her. Circe was furiously angry, but with Scylla and not with Glaucus.
She prepared a vial of very powerful poison and poured it in the pool
where Scylla bathed. As soon as the nymph entered the water she was
transformed into a frightful monster with twelve feet and six heads, each
with three rows of teeth. Below the waist her body was made up of
hideous monsters, like dogs, who barked unceasingly. S he stood there
in utter misery, unable to move, loathing and destroying everything that
came into her reach, a peril to all sailors who passed near her. Whenever
a ship passed, each of her heads would seize one of the crew.‖27
Between a Rock and a Hard Place
―The phrase ―between Scylla and Charybdis‖ has come to mean being in a
state where one is between two dangers and moving away from one will
cause you to be in danger of the other. ―Between Scylla and Charybdis‖ is
the origin of the phrase "between the rock and the whirlpool" (the rock upon
which Scylla dwelt and the whirlpool of Charybdis) and may be the genesis
of the phrase "between a rock and a hard place".28 ( ex. The British political
cartoon by James Gillray shown here is entitled “The Vessel of the Constitution
steered clear of the Rock of Democracy, and the Whirlpool of Arbitrary-Power”).
27
Lindemans, Michael F. “Scylla”. Encyclopedia Mythica. http://www.pantheon.org/articles/s/scylla.htm Mod. January 18, 2006. 11/1/10.
“Charybdis.”http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Mythology/RM/ScyllaHarybdisJohannHeinric.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.mlah
anas.de/Greeks/Mythology/Charybdis.html&usg. 11/1/10
*Pictures: Top PIcture: painting of Charybdis/Middle picture: sculputre of Scylla/Political cartoon by James Gillray
28
17
Mount Olympus
Mount Olympus is the highest mountain in Greece. Ancient Greek
mythology identifies the mountain as the home of the gods. Classical
Greek tradition (later than Homer) specified that the twelve most
powerful gods resided on Mount Olympus; Zeus, Hera, Poseidon and
Demeter (who were siblings and the children of Cronos) and Athena,
Ares, Apollo, Artemis, Aphrodite, Dionysus, Hephaestus and Hermes
(who were all traditionally identified as children of Zeus).
Mary Zimmerman‘s The Odyssey describes the mountain:
―Up on Mount Olympus, where the home of the gods
stands firm and unmoving forever, they say,
Not spattered with rain, nor ever piled under the snow,
But where the shinning bright clouds stretch out below,
And the white light glances upon them,
There the gods are all at home.‖29
Zeus
Zeus is the ruler of Mount Olympus and the ―father of gods and men.‖ In
classical Greek mythology the Titans ruled the universe before the gods
arrive. Zeus was one of many children fathered by the Titan leader,
Cronos. When he was grown Zeus led his siblings in a revolt against their
father. They imprisoned Cronos and set up the reign of the gods.
The epic poets most often refer to Zeus as ―cloud gathering Zeus‖ invoking
his role as the god of the sky and of thunder. In Greek art (as well as in
later paintings) the symbols most commonly associated with Zeus‘ are the
lightning bolt, the eagle, the bull, and the oak.
In Homer‘s poems, Zeus is an active participant in the Iliad. In the Odyssey,
however, it is Athena and Poseidon who play more active roles with Zeus
as an observer. One notices, however, that Athena won‘t take action to
help Odysseus, nor Poseidon take action against the Phaecians without
first receiving permission from Zeus.
29
Zimmerman, Mary. The Odyssey: adapted by Kerry Catlin (with Mary Zimmerman’s permission) for the Lookingglass Young Ensemble’s 2006-2007 Season.
Lookingglass: Chicago, 2006.
*Top picture: Mount Olympus by Andy Park, 2005/Bottom picture: Statue of Zeus hold a royal scepter, Altes Museum, Berlin
18
Poseidon
In Greek mythology Poseidon is the brother of Zeus and the god of the sea,
of storms and of earthquakes. He is given the epithet ―earth-shaker‖ by
Homer and the epic poets. In the Iliad the gods were divided; some
supporting the Trojans and some the Greeks. Poseidon and Athena both
supported the Greek army. In the Odyssey, however, they are in
opposition because of Poseidon‘s grudge against Odysseus.
Poseidon does not appear often in the Odyssey, but he is an ominous
presence throughout the poem. Poseidon‘s children; the Cyclops
Polyphemus and the whirlpool Charybdis are among the monsters that Odysseus must fight. Poseidon is
worshiped by the Phaecians but punishes them for helping Odysseus, and it is Poseidon who must be
appeased in the end of the poem by Odysseus‘ journey inland to find ―men who have never seen the sea.‖
Hermes
Greek mythology identifies Hermes as the messenger of the gods. Because of this,
Hermes is often shown with winged sandals or a winged cap. Epics poets also called
Hermes ―giant slayer‖ referring to the story of Hermes killing the hundred eye giant
who (on Hera’s orders) was guarding the nymph Io in order to keep Zeus away from
her.
In Greek tradition, Hermes also guides mortals to the gates of the underworld. Homer
has a scene at the end of the Odyssey that describes Hermes leading a long line of dead
suitors down to Hades. Zimmerman makes use of this idea in her staging of The
Odyssey when she has the character of Hermes lead dead characters off the stage. In
the play Hermes even leads the dead dog Argos away (although Homer’s poem doesn’t
specify whether animals go to Hades or not.)
The Muse
The Muses, commonly thought to be daughters of Zeus, were the source of
knowledge for the stories of the past and it was they who inspired the
creation of art and literature. All epic Greek poems begin with an invocation
to the Muse implying that the poet is merely a mouthpiece for the goddess to
relate the story. In his notes on the Odyssey, Gary Carey comments that,
―The custom of invoking the muse is based on an ancient belief that the
ability to create poetry, which was also thought of as the ability to give a
kind of immortality to the people whose stories were told in the poem, was a
mysterious and godlike act that could only be practiced with supernatural
help.‖30
Carey, Gary. Cliffs Notes on Homer’s the Odyssey. Cliffs’ Notes Inc: Lincoln, 1966. Pg. 15.
*Top Picture: Ancient vase painting showing Poseidon in battle/Middle Picture: Hermes/Bottom Picture: “Muse Playing the Harp” by Herbert.
30
19
Athena
Athena is the goddess of wisdom, strength, battle strategy, crafts, justice
and skill in Greek mythology. She is also a companion of heroes, the
goddess of heroic endeavor, and the virgin patron of Athens. There are
several myths about Athena‘s birth, but the most common is that she was
the daughter of Zeus and the Titan goddess Metis, and that she sprang
fully grown and dressed for battle from the head of Zeus after Zeus had
eaten her pregnant mother. She is said to be the only god who
occasionally wielded Zeus‘ thunder-bolt. Homer represents their
relationship as that of indulgent father and favored daughter, though in
his poems Athena is careful not to push Zeus too far.
Athena is sometimes called Pallas Athena. There are different stories about how she acquired this name, but in
most of the tales Pallas is someone Athena killed in battle. In the stories where Pallas is a friend, Athena is
distraught and takes the name for herself in grief over what she has done. In other stories Athena takes the
name as a sign of triumph over a slain foe. The epic poets commonly use the epithet glaukopis to describe
Athena. This word is generally translated ―grey-eyed‖ or ―gleaming-eyed‖ or sometimes ―owl-eyed‖. No one
is exactly sure what this refers to, but it seems to indicate Athena‘s wisdom. Homer also describes Athena as
carrying a great battle spear—notice that both these pictures show Athena with her spear.
In the Odyssey
The bond between Athena and Odysseus in the Odyssey is one of Greek
mythology‘s closest (non-romantic) relationships between god and mortal.
Several of Homer‘s characters comment on the favor that Athena shows
Odysseus, but going beyond the formal term ―favor‖ Athena expresses
herself as genuinely fond of Odysseus. At times they converse almost as
equals. She exclaims that he and she have much in common. Both use
―clever‖ strategies to achieve their ends, and it is Athena and Odysseus who
most often take on other roles and ―appear‖ as someone else.
Eva Brann remarks that while this friendship between Athena and Odysseus
is more fully portrayed in the Odyssey, it is hinted at even in the Iliad. ―In the
Iliad, when Diomedes [another Greek warrior] prayed to her [Athena] before
that dreadful night patrol, he asked her formally to help him on that exploit
as earlier she had helped his father. Here in contrast, is part of Odysseus‘
trustful prayer: ―I am never out of your sight as I move about. Be my friend
again, now especially!‖31
31
Brann, Eva. Homeric Moments: Clues to Delight In Reading the Odyssey and the Iliad. Paul Dry Books: Philadelphia, 2002. Pg 230.
*Top picture: Athena appears to Telemachus/ Bottom picture: a modern portrait of Athena by Bryan Larsen
20
Classroom Discussions and Activities
1)
The character of Odysseus is a strong warrior and a brave leader but his principle character trait is
his cleverness. What are some examples from The Odyssey of situations in which Odysseus uses his
wits to save his life or the lives of his companions.
2)
Athena plays an active role in helping Odysseus to get home. In fact, she is more active in
Odysseus‘ life than any other god mentioned in The Odyssey. Why do you think Athena likes
Odysseus so much?
3)
Storytelling was very important in the Greek culture. The Odyssey indicates this at the beginning of
the play by having the divine Muse inspire the actress to begin the story. How important is
storytelling in our modern culture? What mediums do we use to tell stories?
4)
The Odyssey is a story about longing for home; a longing for more than just a physical place but the
things/people that make you feel ―at home.‖ The play describes the great joy that Penelope and
Odysseus share when they are at last reunited as the almost desperate kind of joy a shipwrecked
sailor has when he finally reaches land:
“Few men can keep alive through a big surf
to crawl, clotted in brine on kindly beaches
in joy, in joy knowing the abyss behind:
and so she too [Penelope] rejoiced,
her gaze upon her husband
her white arms round him pressed as though forever.”
In what way is Penelope ―home‖ for Odysseus? In what way is Odysseus ―home‖ for Penelope?
What are the things in your life that matter the most? What goals do you have that are so
important you would travel for years (or wait for years) in order to gain them?
5)
Which do you think would be harder: 1) to risk your life for 20 years and travel into dangerous
place trying to get back home or 2) to wait at home for 20 years for someone you love to come back?
6)
In the Greek culture showing hospitality to strangers was very important because these actions
honored the gods and there was always the chance that the stranger might be a god in disguise. In
The Odyssey which characters show hospitality? Which characters do not?
7)
In Homer‘s Odyssey the Sirens are nymphs that lure in sailors with their sweet singing. In Mary
Zimmerman‘s re-telling of The Odyssey she makes a specific choice to make the Sirens stereotypes of
women (a bride, a nun, a teacher, a nurse etc) and she adds new words to the Sirens song:
“My face, my face is nothing but a mirror
My arms, my arms are nothing but a cradle
My self, my self is nothing.”
What do you think Mary Zimmerman is trying to say about gender stereotypes?
21
Just to try it…
1)
The main props that the cast of The Odyssey use on stage are small stools and bamboo pools. Using
actors with four small stools and six long poles (substitutes: yardsticks or wrapping paper rolls) how
would you create the following scenes:
a. An assembly in a great palace hall
b. Cutting down trees to build a raft
c. An oared ship caught in a storm
d. A javelin throwing contest
2) Pronouncing lots of Greek names on stage can be tricky so the cast has worked hard to learn the
correct pronunciations of words. Challenge the class to recite the following list. How fast can you
say it? For a very funny You-Tube video try recording people while they say it!
Alcinous
ahl-SIN-oh-us
Antinous
an-TIN-oh-us
Laodamas
lay-ODD-ah-mas
Demodocus
de-MAH-do-kus
Teiresias
teh-REE-see-us
Odysseus
o-DIS-ee-us
Icamalius
ic-MAY-lee-us
Ikarios
i-KARE-ee-os
Thesprotia
theh-SPRO-tee-ah
Thrinakia
thri-NAH-kee-ah
Eurycleia
yer-RIK-lee-ah
Aeolia
ay-OH-lee-ah
Orsilokhos
or-SIL-oh-kus
Eurylochus
yer-RILL-oh-kus
Eurymachus
yer-RIM-ah-kus
Telemachus
tah-LEM-ah-kus
Persephone
per-SEF-oh-nee
Penelope
pa-NEL-oh-pee
Alcippe
ahl-SIP-ay (and)
Eumaeus
yew-MAY-us
3) Odysseus‘ journey is the most famous part of Homer‘s Odyssey. However, Telemachus also goes on
a journey (often called the Telemachy) and he becomes more grown up as a result of his adventures.
The ―coming of age‖ story about a young man who has an adventure, learns more about himself
and comes home all grown up is a common theme in literature. Challenge the students to bring in
a movie clip showing a character like Telemachus. Some examples to get you started are: Luke
Skywalker (Star Wars), Simba (Lion King), Will Turner (Pirates of the Caribbean) or Maori (Whale
Rider). As an extra challenge ask them to identify the ―Mentor‖ character in each of these stories.
Who is it who guides these characters and gives them advice?
22
Sources
Books
1.
Brann, Eva. Homeric Moments: Clues to Delight in Reading the Odyssey and the Iliad. Paul Dry Books:
Philadelphia, 2002.
2.
Carey, Gary ed. Cliffs Notes on Homer’s The Odyssey. Cliffs Notes Ince: Lincoln, 1966.
3.
Finley, M.I. Early Greece: The Bronze and Archaic Ages. W.W. Norton & Company: New York, 1970.
4.
Fitzgerald, Robert (trans.) Homer: The Odyssey. Everyman‘s Library, Alfred A. Knopf: New York, 1961.
5.
Fliotsos, Anne and Wendy Vierow. ―Mary Zimmerman.‖ American Women Stage Directors of the Twentieth Century.
University of Chicago Press: Chicago, 2008.
6.
Gardiner, Robert. The age of the Galley: Mediterranean Oared Vessels since Pre-classical Times. Naval Institute Press:
London, 1995.
7.
Hall, Edith. The Return of Ulysses: A Cultural History of Homer’s Odyssey. The Johns Hopkins University Press:
Baltimore, 2008.
8.
Homer. The Odyssey: Performed by Norman Dietz. Recorded Books Productions: New York. 1989.
9.
Hughes, Bettany. Helen of Troy: Goddess, Princess, Whore. Alfred A. Knopf: New York, 2005.
10. Luce, J.V. Celebrating Homer’s Landscapes: Troy and Ithaca Revisited. Yale University Press: New Haven, 1998.
11. Rubens, Beaty and Oliver Taplin. An Odyssey Round Odysseus: The Man & His Story Traced Through Time & Place.
BBC Books: London, 1989.
12. Stanford, W.B. The Ulysses Theme: A Study in the Adaptability of a Traditional Hero. Barnes and Noble: New York,
1964.
13. Stanford, W.B and J.V. Luce. The Quest for Ulysses. Phaidon Press Ltd: London, 1974.
14. Strauss, Barry. The Trojan War: A New History. Simon & Schuster: New York, 2006.
15. Torr, Cecil. Ancient Ships. Argonaut, Inc Publishers: Chicago, 1964.
16. Vermeule, Emily. Greece in the Bronze Age. University of Chicago Press: Chicago, 1964.
17. Zimmerman, Mary. The Odyssey: adapted by Kerry Catlin (with Mary Zimmerman’s permission) for the Lookingglass
Young Ensemble’s 2006-2007 Season. Lookingglass: Chicago, 2006.
Articles
23
1.
Helbig, Jack. ―Reviving 'The Odyssey' Mary Zimmerman brings the revamped, rewritten classic back to the
Goodman‖. Daily Herald. Arlington Heights, Ill.:Sep 17, 1999. p. 22
2.
Helbig, Jack. ―Awe-inspiring 'Odyssey' The classic Greek masterpiece takes to the stage in a flourish of perfect
adaptation by Mary Zimmerman‖. Daily Herald. Arlington Heights, Ill.:Oct 1, 1999. p. 28
3.
Jones, Chris. ―The Zimmerman Touch.‖ American Theatre. March 2002. Pg18-22.
4.
Klein, Alvin. ―Telling the Tale of Brave Odysseus‖ New York Times. New York, N.Y.: Sep 24, 2000. p. NJ.21
5.
York, Julie. ―‘Odyssey' a long, strange -- and magical – trip‖ South Bend Tribune. South Bend, Ind.:Oct 3, 1999. p.
E6
Web Articles (attributed)
1.
Boyd, Tracy. ―Circe‘s Circle of Oaks at the Edge of the World.‖ Sacred Threads.net
http://www.sacredthreads.net/www.sacredthreads.net/circe.html. c.2004. 10.28.10
2.
Galland, Nicole. ―Interview with Mary Zimmerman, complied by Berkley Reperatory Theatre Dramaturg Nicole
Galland‖. http://www.mccarter.org/education/secretinthewings/page10.htm 10/27/10
3.
Lindemans, Michael F. ―Scylla‖. Encyclopedia Mythica. http://www.pantheon.org/articles/s/scylla.htm Mod.
Posted January 18, 2006. 11/1/10.
4.
Parada, Carlos. ―Circe.‖ Greek Mythology Link, http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/Circe.html © 1997
Carlos Parada and Maicar Förlag. 11/05/10.
Web Articles (non attributed)
1.
―Aiolus‖ Theoi Greek Mythology. http://www.theoi.com/Titan/Aiolos.html Post date unknown. 11/05/10.
2.
―Charybdis.‖ Greek Mythology.
http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Mythology/RM/ScyllaHarybdisJo
hannHeinric.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Mythology/Charybdis.html&usg. Posted date
unknown. 11/1/10
3.
1
―Mary Zimmerman‖. Bio from Lookingglass Theatre Wedsite.
http://www.lookingglasstheatre.org/content/mary-zimmerman. October 30, 2010.
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