Annotated Bibliography 1
Girls in the Justice System:
An Annotated Bibliography
Linda Kelly, MSW Candidate
Lakehead University
Written for: Creighton Youth Services
September, 2008
Annotated Bibliography 2
Girls in the Justice System: An Annotated Bibliography
Foreword
This bibliography was created in the hope to locate and summarize information about girls in
the justice system for the use of workers, policymakers and the general public. The primary questions
began with what makes girls offend, the influencing factors which bring them to commit crimes, how
to understand girlhood and its inherent risks and needs, how to prevent criminal behaviour, what the
literature has to say about gender-specific programming and its implementation, as well as how best to
support girls through the justice system in reducing recidivism rates and promoting health and wellbeing.
From the 1990s onward there has been a veritable explosion in the amount of attention paid to
girls in the justice system due to their steadily rising numbers. Many of the articles reviewed here noted
that though the rate of girls' arrests has been rising, the amount of crimes and self-reported delinquency
has not changed. There was much discussion around the changing state of society, zero-tolerance rules
against aggression, and the increasing criminalization of acts which would not have been classified as
criminal in the past.
For the sake of this bibliography, the articles have been divided into three sections:
understanding girlhood, criminality, and gender-specific programming and development. Many of the
articles themselves span across all three categories, and for this instance they have been identified in
each corresponding section for the reader whose interest lies in only one category. For the rest, this
bibliography is but a small piece of the ever-growing and changing body of literature related to girls'
delinquency. However, it is hoped that readers will gain a foundation from which to begin their
research within this document.
Annotated Bibliography 3
Annotated Bibliography: Girls in the Justice System
Understanding Girlhood
Artz, s. Nicholson, D.(2002) Aggressive girls: Overview paper. National clearinghouse on family
violence, Family violence prevention unit, Health Canada. Cat No.: H72-22/24-2002E
Exploring the causes and risk factors to girls' aggression and violence, this report examines what is
happening to girls which is causing rates of violence to rise. Some risk factors include: social and
financial deprivation, harsh and inconsistent parenting, family violence, poor maternal relationships,
difficulties at school, gender and gender role issues, boredom, connections to delinquent peers,
experience with abuse, drug involvement, repeated exposure to negative events, mental illness and
delayed cognitive, mental and social development. Preventative measures identified in this report
include family care in use of assertiveness, non-authoritarian parenting, opportunities for education,
achievement, and employment. As a side-note the article states that there should be some resistance to
anger-management programming, since these programs ignore the ways in which aggression and
violence can be learned behaviours in the struggle to survive.
Chesney-Lind, M. Irwin, K. (2008) Beyond bad girls: gender, violence and hype. Taylor & Francis Grp
Using the voices of girls, Chesney-Lind explores and dispels myths about girlhood in this brilliantly
written book. She describes how the media has fixated itself upon the image of the 'bad girl', driving
public opinion in condemning girls who act out, and pushing zero tolerance policies against aggression.
The book talks about the increasing rates of policing girlhood, the difficulties faced in growing up
female, and the issue of relational aggression. All of this occurs within the current social climate in
which positive pro-social girls' relations are largely ignored in favour of a media-friendly stereotype.
Chesney-Lind, M. Morash, M. Irwin, K. (2007) Policing girlhood? Relational aggression and violence
prevention. Youth violence and juvenile justice. 5:33, 328-345
The authors here examine the meanings of relational, covert, indirect and direct aggression in youth.
They search through known literature for an understanding of how indirect types of aggression can lead
to violence, and whether these forms of aggression should be policed and lumped in with direct forms.
Relating a short history of bullying-prevention, they examine statistics on self-reports of violence
versus the national averages, finding that violence among boys is always higher than with girls, and
that girls are more likely to use covert aggression as ways to express anger due to the impact of gender
stereotypes. The authors argue that policing non-criminal behaviour as has been done in recent years
tends to attack youth who likely have little chance of being involved with crime, and would take way
important coping mechanisms for girls who may have no other ways to express their feelings. They
claim that policing would also unnecessarily involve more girls in the justice system which could lead
to further issues with the law.
Ferraro, Kathleen J. (2006) Neither angels nor demons: women, crime, and victimization. Northeastern
University Press.
This book looks at women involved in the justice system, exploring the social and political aspects of
their incarceration and chronicling, as Meda Chesney-Lind refers, the criminalization of victimization
Annotated Bibliography 4
in girls' lives. As studies determine that girls' crimes are often precipitated by forms of violence or
abuse, more literature is pointing to the effects of abuse as the key to a development of survival
mechanisms which ultimately land girls and women in prison. From the battered wife who murders her
husband to the sexually abused girl who turns to hard drug use, this book looks at the dual characters
women present, reuniting the angels with the demons.
Hill, Danielle L. (2005) Just because you are serving girls does not mean that girls are being served.
11th national workshop on adult and juvenile female offenders. New Jersey Juvenile Justice
Commission. Powerpoint Presentation, April 2005.
This presentation explains that traumatic issues in girls’ lives tend to lead to striking inward or outward,
which leads to delinquent behaviours. Witnessing trauma and abuse makes girls distrust others and
allows abuse to be normalized and passed on. One way of striking out is through substance abuse,
which is said to be used by girls to relieve stress, lose weight, improve their mood, or to reduce
inhibitions. The presentation gives the often overlooked reasons why many girls end up in the justice
system, and suggests strategies to support them by using the strengths available, as well as by providing
a continuum of care consisting of prevention, early intervention, and treatment. Some of the factors
girls say they need for success according to the article are medical care, transportation, support of
family and community, life skills, anger management programming, and sex education. It ends with a
few suggestions for gender-specific programming consisting of the need to create a safe environment,
ensuring adequate medical care, being culturally competent, and having awareness and sensitivity to
victimization.
Natalucci-Persichetti, Geno (1996) Youth violence: a learned behavior? Juvenile Justice and programs,
American Correctional Association, P. 51-62
This article looks at statistics on violent crimes and adolescents, identifies profiles of violent juveniles,
causative factors and intervention strategies. The author includes a brief writeup of specific programs
like Victim Awareness, Morals Awareness Self Esteem (MASE), and other support groups. The article
points out that the issues which need most attention are the causative factors, and prevention will be the
only way to put a stop to violent crime. Preventative measures should strengthen families to provide
guidance, discipline and strong values, should support core institutions in helping children develop
their full potential, and must intervene early and effectively in situations of violence, abuse and neglect.
Pettingell, S.L. Bearinger, L.H. Skay, C.L. Resnick, M.D. Potthoff, S.J. Eichhorn, J. (2008) Protecting
urban american indian young people from suicide. American Journal of health behavior. 32:5 P.
465-476
The authors studied results of a survey created to determine suicidal risk in American Indian youth.
Data was examined from 569 surveys of youth aged 9-15 over the course of three years. Suicidal risk
was weighed based on the presence of protective factors such as connectedness to others, family caring,
parental pro-social behavior norms, peer pro-social behavior norms, perceived self-image, positive
mood, and school connectedness versus risk factors of substance abuse and violence perpetration. It
was concluded that examining protective factors along with risk factors was a better determination of
suicide risk than risk factors alone, and that suicidal risk significantly decreased with the presence of
one or more protective factors.
Annotated Bibliography 5
Simkins, Sandra. Katz, Sarah (2002) Criminalizing abused girls. Violence against women, Vol 8:12,
December 2002, 1474-1499
This article delves into the reasoning behind aggression in girls, concluding that there are not enough
services available to assist girls in recovering from traumatic experiences, and girls who should be
receiving services end up in custody due to acting on survival skills learned through abuse. The authors
interviewed girls from a Philadelphia female detention project to create profiles that illustrate the
inadequate treatment girls are subjected to. For example, one girl tried to commit suicide, the police
were called and she immediately 'became a delinquent.' Having not addressed the primary reasons
behind her attempt, this girl was then put in a position of exposure to experiences in the justice system
which could help to further deteriorate her mental health. The authors conclude with a call for better
understanding of girls' violence and for the appropriation of resources for girls in need.
Wiseman, Rosalind. (2002) Queen bees and wannabes: helping your daughter survive cliques, gossip,
boyfriends, and other realities of adolescence. Three Rivers Press.
This book takes an in-depth look into the social systems and relationships of young women. The
narrative reaches out to parents of adolescents in a bid to help bridge the gap and promote
understanding between parents and teen girls. This book identifies the many different groups and roles
girls are forced to take on as they mature, cautioning parents on how to interact if they hope to open the
lines of communication. It emphasizes that what adolescent girls go through as teens will hugely
impact their lives as adults, and these events can have the capacity to determine how they will respond
to socialization, problem-solving, self-image and other challenges throughout their lives.
Wu, P. Hoven, C.W. Liu, X. Fuller, C.J. Fan, B. Musa, G. Wicks, J. Mandell, D. Cook, J.A. (2008) The
relationship between depressive symptom levels and subsequent increases in substance use
among youth with severe emotional disturbance. Journal of studies on alcohol and drugs. 69:4 P.
520-527
This study examined 784 youth at five sites throughout the US to see if depressive symptoms in youth
had any link with substance abuse. From May 1997 to May 1999, interviews were conducted with
youth and caregivers to collect data. The authors found that levels of depressive symptoms were
significantly linked with substance use as well as increasing use with different substances during
adolescence. The study indicated that early intervention with youth exhibiting depressive symptoms
may deter them from developing substance use issues.
Zahn, Margaret A. (2007) The cause of girls' delinquency and their program implications. Family
Court Review. 45:3, P. 456-465
Zahn summarizes literature on girls' delinquency and the programs designed to treat these issues. She
examines statistics on delinquency, concluding that family dysfunction, antisocial peers, poor school
attachment and exposure to disadvantaged neighborhoods are key factors in predicting delinquency in
youth. Factors specific to girls are involvement with delinquent males and early puberty coupled with
harsh parenting. Zahn, along with the Girls Study Group, then examines 58 girls' programs, only 16 of
which had formal evaluation measures in place. Along with a number of recommendations for girls'
programs, the article closes with the statement that girls' programs must be multidimensional, involving
families, schools, pro-social organizations, economic opportunities and strategies for appropriately
Annotated Bibliography 6
addressing sexuality, abuse, and male relationships.
See Also: Acoca, 1999, Pasko, 2008, King & Gibbs, 2002
Criminality
Ariga, M. Uehara, T. Takeuchi, K. Ishige, Y. Nakano, R. Mikuni, M. (2008) Trauma exposure and
posttraumatic stress disorder in delinquent female adolescents. The Journal of Child
Psychology and Psychiatry. 49:1, P. 79-87
Sixty-four girls involved in the juvenile justice system in Japan were interviewed using structured
surveys and tools. It was found that of those girls, 77% had been exposed to traumatic episodes and
33% displayed evidence of suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder, often paired with other mental
health disorders such as depression. The authors call for better interventions for girls in the juvenile
justice system which address the prevention of PTSD as well as other mental health disorders.
Barnes, Carol Wolff, Franz, Randall S. (1989) “Questionably adult:” determinants and effects of the
juvenile waiver decision. Justice Quarterly, 6:1, 117-135. 1-Apr-1989
The authors collected data over a six-year period on youth considered for a transfer to adult court,
analyzing the reasons why the transfers were occurring and how the subsequent judgments in adult
courts varied from judgments in youth courts for youth with similar crimes. The severity of crimes had
an effect on the treatment of youth in adult court, but the amount and frequency of crimes had a greater
effect on treatment of youth in juvenile court.
Foster, E.M. Qaseem, A. Conner, T. (2004) Can better mental health services reduce the risk of
juvenile justice system involvement? American journal of public health, 94:5. P. 859-865
This article described a study of integrated mental health systems which collaborated with the juvenile
justice system to gauge the effects on youth receiving mental health services. A sample of 449 youth,
aged 6 to 17, was taken for a longitudinal study over the course of three years. The study found that
juvenile justice involvement was more likely for boys and non-white youth, as well as youth who are
struggling in school. The sample study produced results of less involvement in the juvenile justice
system for youth receiving services. This article was a preliminary study which would need to be
replicated in order to gain more insight into the effects of collaboration between mental health services
and the juvenile justice system.
Grogan-Kaylor, Andrew. Ruffolo, Mary C. Ortega, Robert M. Clarke, Jenell. (2008) Behaviours of
youth involved in the child welfare system. Child abuse and neglect, 32, 2008 (35-49)
The authors collected data from a national panel study in two waves to find out what the risk factors
were in developing delinquent behaviour for children in the child welfare system. The authors found
that older boys were the most likely to engage in delinquency, with younger girls as the least likely, and
that preventative work through the enhancement of caregiver and child relations seemed to be the best
predictor of the child’s success and non-reliance on deviant behaviour. This article’s prediction of how
relationships between caregivers and children directly correlate with child/youth delinquency is a very
important step in the understanding and prevention of delinquent behaviours.
Annotated Bibliography 7
King, D. Gibbs, A. (2002) Women who offend: their experiences explored. Practice: Social work in
action. 14:4 P. 53-64
This MSW project interviewed six formerly incarcerated women in New Zealand to find out their
personal stories of being involved in the justice system. Three focus groups were also conducted using
nine female probation officers who had worked with women offenders. Using a feminist interactionist
framework, the author deconstructed and analyzed the interviews, finding themes of women
experiencing abuse, making bad choices, keeping unwise company, dependent relationships, and
women offending for survival rather than excitement or stimulation. There was also a refusal to accept
gendered norms that often led some women to commit crimes in order to escape the typical female
stereotype.
Lenssen, V. S.A.M., Doreleijers, T.A.H., van Dijk, M.E., Hartman, C.A. (2000) Girls in detention:
what are their characteristics? A project to explore and document the character of this target
group and the significant ways in which it differs from one consisting of boys. Journal of
Adolescence. 23, P. 287-303
This article looks at the different behaviours of female and male juvenile delinquents in the
Netherlands by examining the literature and reporting on a study of delinquents conducted between
1995 and 1997. The literature review claimed that girls are more often charged for status offenses than
boys, their rate of violence rises and falls at younger ages, and they are being charged more often for
incidents which would not in the past have qualified as crimes. In the study, less than half (44%) of the
girls came from their own families compared with 76% of boys. And the majority of girls (70%) had a
combined psychiatric diagnosis. The article concludes that the study results must be viewed with
caution since they were conducted on a limited number of participants, but that the literature indicated
reasons to back up their findings including the types of risk behavior girls engage in which puts them
into custody after experiencing trauma and abuse, and that girls commit fewer and less serious crimes
than boys.
Pasko, Lisa. (2008) The wayward girl revisited: understanding the gendered nature of juvenile justice
and delinquency. Sociology Compass. 2/3 P. 821-836
Due to the overwhelming spike in rates of female youth delinquency and involvement in the justice
system, Pasko examines the history of girls' delinquency and the evolution of treatment methods. This
article explained the blurred lines between the victim and offender within the context of growing up
female. She explained the process in which girls' unique troubles actually lead the way into their crime
and delinquency, and ended with a look at current programming for delinquent girls which could lead
the way for gender-specific initiatives.
Pogarsky, Greg. KiDeuk, Kim. Paternoster, R. (2005) Perceptual change in the national youth survey:
lessons for deterrence theory and offender decision-making. Justice Quarterly, 22:1, 1-29
Data from the National Youth Survey was taken on 1247-1295 participants between 21 and 27 years
old. The study was based on a theoretical framework that offenders' attitudes about re-offending change
in correlation with their involvement in the justice system. The study concluded that of the participants
surveyed, they found that arrests had no effect on perceptions of sanction certainty, and that peer
Annotated Bibliography 8
offending increased the likelihood of offense for stealing, but not attacking. The fact that arrests did not
deter offending conflicted with the central tenet of deterrence theory. More study is needed on the
subject.
Quinn, M.M. Poirier, J.M. Garfinkel, L. (2005) Girls with mental health needs in the juvenile justice
system: challenges and inequities confronting a vulnerable population. Exceptionality, 13:2 P.
125-139
Researchers have determined that 74% of girls in the juvenile justice system have mental health
disorders and comorbidity is as high as 82%. Due to these statistics, this article addresses girls' needs,
determining that the current justice system does not have the resources to deal with the high prevalence
of mental health disorders in incarcerated girls. It states that girls are still improperly treated because of
subjection to assessments and treatments designed for boys. A number of suggestions for enhancing
services is provided for prevention, treatment, transition, and aftercare. This article also discusses the
inequity of the justice system in its over-attention to boys, and calls for better gender-responsive
programming for girls to even out and enhance services.
Reams, Patricia N. (1996) Unique health care needs of female juvenile offenders. Juvenile justice
programs and trends, American correctional assocation. P. 63-70
Dr. Reams took samples of data from female and male delinquents in Virginia and compared their
health care needs. After routine physical examinations and urine tests, 73% of girls were diagnosed
with sexually transmitted diseases and/or infections, compared with 5% of boys. Since girls do not
always show symptoms and are more often with older partners, they have a higher risk of contracting
one of more sexually transmitted diseases and are more likely to suffer long-term difficulties as a result.
The author contends that for this reason, girls who are brought into custody need access to health care
and resources to learn about sexual health, birth control, and techniques on how to convince unwilling
partners to use protective barriers. Due to the higher number of incidents with girls asking for medical
attention with psychosomatic issues, many need to be examined on a mental health basis while in
custody, and it should be a goal of the justice system to provide opportunities for these needs to be met.
Tucker, J.S. Ellickson, P.L. Klein, D.J. (2008) Growing up in a permissive household: what deters atrisk adolescents from heavy drinking? Journal of studies on alcohol and drugs, 69:4 P. 528-534
This study used a sample of 710 adolescents who were previously identified in survey results to be
living in permissive households to examine what factors influenced their alcohol use. The surveys
looked at students first in grade 9 and later in grade 11. They studied social influences, school bonds,
alcohol beliefs, delinquency, demographics and evidence of heavy drinking in grade 9, followed by
evidence of heavy drinking in grade 11. Though adolescents from permissive households were deemed
to be more at-risk, some factors which were associated with less frequent heavy drinking were less
exposure to peer drinking, greater peer disapproval or alcohol use, less drinking by the most important
adult in their lives, a stronger academic orientation, less positive non-health beliefs about alcohol use,
higher resistance self-efficacy and less involvement in delinquent behaviour.
Veysey, B.M. (2003) Adolescent girls with mental health disorders involved in the juvenile justice
system. National Center for Mental Health and Juvenile Justice. Research and Program Brief.
Located on the internet: August, 2008
Annotated Bibliography 9
http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/1b/3c/11.pdf
This article looks briefly at the differences between girls and boys in the juvenile justice system, and
gives a list of recommendations for service providers to use in working with girls' mental health issues.
They call for more research to be done regarding girls' mental health issues, for the training of workers
to focus on trauma, screening and assessment of girls, and for more gender-specific and gendersensitive treatment. Veysey states that the current gender-specific programming available in the
juvenile justice system must be expanded and enhanced.
Wheeler, D.P. Patterson, G. (2008) Prisoner Reentry. Health & Social Work, 33:2 P. 145-147
This brief look at reentry into society by those formerly incarcerated and the difficulties faced
by individuals and communities concludes that social workers can be a significant help in reducing
recidivism rates through proper pre-release planning and arranging referrals to other appropriate
services after release. This article states that social workers require knowledge of the criminal justice
system and the policies behind it in order to understand the issues faced in prisoner reentry, and to
understand that some of the policies need to be changed to better promote a healthy nation and to
reduce recidivism rates.
See Also: Zahn, 2007, Ferraro, 2006, Kennedy, 2006
Gender-Specific Programming and Development
Acoca, Leslie. (1999) Investing in girls: a 21 st century strategy. Journal of the office of juvenile justice
and delinquency prevention. 6:1, P. 3-13
Victimization: physical, sexual and emotional, is the first step along females' pathways into the juvenile
justice system. This article investigates the reasons why the rates of girls' delinquency has risen so
much in recent years such as family fragmentation, academic failure, health and mental health issues
and non-serious, nonviolent patterns of offense. The National Council on Crime and Delinquency
interviewed girls in the justice system and found that the services available to girls were few and
insufficient in addressing family issues. This article agreed with many and recommended relational,
girl-directed programming be available in order to better address delinquency.
American Bar Association & National Bar Association. (2001) Justice by Gender: The lack of
appropriate prevention, diversion and treatment alternatives for girls in the justice system.
Washington, DC.: American Bar Association & National Bar Association. Available on the
Internet: Sept. 1, 2008
http://www.abanet.org/crimjust/juvjus/justicebygenderweb.pdf
This report looks at the treatment of girls in the justice system, exploring the context of girls'
delinquency, bias in the handling of girls' cases, the need for more research and alternatives to
incarceration, as well as the need for providing a continuum of care and services in order to prevent
recidivism.
Bloom, B. Owen, B. Covington, S.S. (2003) The Gender-Responsive Strategies Project: Approach and
Findings. A Summary of Research, Practice, and Guiding Principles for Women Offenders..
Annotated Bibliography 10
National Institute of Corrections, Accession Number: 020418 Found on the Internet: Aug 2008
http://www.nicic.gov/Library/020418
This comprehensive report studies women offenders, their characteristics, the corresponding justice
treatments they are subject to, the way that gender makes a difference in treatment responsivity, as well
as guiding principles for gender-responsive practice. Project staff reviewed multi-disciplinary literature
and research to construct a solid knowledge base around which to develop gender-responsive
programming in the justice system. National focus groups and interviews were also conducted to get
the widest array of opinions and sources on the subject matter.
Chalmers, J. Townsend, M.A.R. (1990) The effects of training in social perspective taking on socially
maladjusted girls. Child Development. 61, P. 178-190
From the assumption that female delinquents are deficient in social skills and social-cognitive
development, the author conducted an experimental program which addressed the building of these
skills. Sixteen girls in a minimal security institution in New Zealand participated in fifteen sessions of
coaching and role-playing on socialization skills and social perspective ability. Using a variety of
assessment tools, the researchers determined that at the end of the sessions, the girls demonstrated
better pro-social tendencies, interpersonal problem analysis skills, empathy, and the acceptance of
individual differences on a social level.
Covington, Stephanie S. (2001) A woman's journey home: Challenges for female offenders and their
children. From Prison to home: The effects of incarceration and reentry on children, families
and communities.
http://www.urban.org/uploadedpdf/410630_FemaleOffenders.pdf
Covington examines the effects of incarceration on women, finding that there is often much more stress
on mothers in the system than fathers since women are judged more harshly as parents. She states that
release-planning must take place immediately upon entry and that since the causes for women's
incarceration are mostly different to that of men's, programming must be done in a gender-specific
manner, following through with empowerment practices, and wraparound services.
Covington, Stephanie S. (2002) A new vision: guiding principles for a gender-responsive criminal
justice system. Gender-responsive strategies. Chapter 4
This report explains the clear need for gender-responsive services for women and gives examples for
changes which could be made. They state that the justice system itself must be structured differently for
women since their reasons for crimes and the crimes themselves are often different from mens', and
that women respond differently to treatment. Beginning with the creation of a safe, consistent and
supportive environment, policies in the justice system can be changed to be more supportive of
treatment for women. The authors develop six guiding principles for practice and include ways of
implementing them, ending with a section on the need to understand female offenders in order to best
help them in getting appropriate treatment.
Covington, Stephanie S. (2005) Becoming trauma informed: a critical element of gender-responsive
services, Powerpoint Presentation. Institute for Relational Development, center for gender and
justice. AJOW, Minneapolis.
Annotated Bibliography 11
This powerpoint presentation explains the definition of trauma, its effect on children, as well as policy
and programming guidelines which can be used in order to create stronger trauma-informed services
for rehabilitation. Describing symptoms of trauma, this presentation enables staff and other workers to
recognize post-traumatic stress disorders. The most important information presented are the guidelines
for creating gender-responsive programs which focus on: creating homogenous groups, recognizing the
multiple issues involved, developing a variety of therapeutic techniques for intervention, focusing on
women's specific competencies and strengths, and the planning of individualized treatment plans which
match treatment to identified strengths and issues. Also examined are the theory of girls' psychological
development, theory of attachment, theory of trauma, theory of resilience, and theory of addiction.
Daniel, M.D. (1999) Female Intervention Team. Journal of the office of juvenile justice and
delinquency prevention. 6:1, P.14-20
This article describes a project developed in Baltimore in 1992 to deal specifically with female
delinquents. The article focused highly on the importance of staff training and developing rapport with
the girls. The project developed programs after researching the needs of the girls in custody and came
up with programs for academic career enrichment, technology training, transitioning to womanhood,
sexual health and pregnancy, teen parenting, substance use and conflict resolution.
Ervin, M.H. (1998) Teaching self-care to delinquent adolescents. Juvenile pediatric health care, 12,
20-26 Jan/Feb 1998
Written for the use of nurses and health practitioners, this article details the importance of hygiene and
self-care for youth, explaining the difference between self-care and self-harming behaviours. It lists
techniques which can be used to help adolescent delinquents achieve standards of self care such as
minimization of negative behaviours through a harm-reduction approach, insulation, substitution, selfmonitoring, modeling, skills training, delay of onset of criminal behaviour, and the use of self-help and
support groups. Though written from a health provider's perspective, this article and its list of
techniques can be very useful for anyone working with adolescents.
Flash, Kimberly (2003) Treatment strategies for juvenile delinquents: alternative solutions. Child &
adolescent Social Work Journal. Vol 20, 6. Dec. 2003
This article examines studies based on recidivism rates from three alternatives to youth incarceration:
victim-offender reconciliation programs, boot camps, and community wraparound care. For each,
recidivism rates were not significant enough to draw conclusions about efficacy. In victim-offender
reconciliation programs, both victim and offender had to be willing to participate, and this initial factor
could have been responsible for showing low recidivism rates since the offenders may have been more
willing to seek treatment or rehabilitation. Participants of boot camps reported a high rate of attitudinal
change upon program completion, but recidivism rates were very similar to those offenders leaving
traditional incarceration. With community-based wraparound care, this article reported that youth
satisfaction with service directly correlated with the caregiver involvement, meaning that the more
caregiver involvement, the higher reported youth satisfaction. The author explains that there is not
enough literature available which specifically evaluates programs based on recidivism rates, but that it
is important for social workers to be aware of program evaluation methods in order to ensure
effectiveness.
Annotated Bibliography 12
Goodkind, Sara. (2005) Gender-specific services in the juvenile justice system: a critical examination.
Affilia, 20:1 Spring 2005, 52-70
Pulling on feminist and critical theories, Goodkind examines existing guidelines and implications for
gender-specific programming and arrives at four major critiques. First, that the currently rising
numbers of young female delinquents are not based on a rising crime rate or issues within this specific
group, but instead are due to the excessive failure of social systems and agencies in providing help in
time. As well, she explains that law enforcement is reacting more harshly to female juvenile
delinquents than they have in the past. Second, that the notion of gender in gender-specific work is
more based on sometimes negative gender stereotypes rather than fluid, relational ideas of different
genders, and that we must deconstruct the meaning of gender before moving ahead with enforcing
these stereotypical gender roles. Another critique of gender-specific programming is that programs
focus on changing the individuals almost to the complete exclusion of the possibility of social
structures and environments as having impact on the invidivuals. For this she suggests moving beyond
only cognitive work and finding opportunities for girls to become advocates, raising awareness and
creating social change in their own rights. Fourth, Goodkind states that girls' victimization is
continually linked to delinquency, but that often delinquent acts are performed as a way to deal with or
escape traumatic situations. Moreover, she says that girls are far more often punished by the law for
this type of delinquency than boys, which in turn allows them to be failed again in gaining help from
the social services around them. These critiques of gender-specific programming are vital to review in
order to keep programming relevant and effective.
Hipwell, A.E. Loeber, R. (2006) Do we know which interventions are effective for disruptive and
delinquent girls? Clinical child and family psychology review. 9:3&4, P. 221-255
This article reviews literature on girls' delinquency and makes recommendations for the development
and evaluation of intervention and prevention strategies to address delinquent and destructive
behaviour. The article claims that girls delinquency is on the rise and that this behaviour often leads to
dysfunctional intimate relationships and deficient parenting skills, as well as diagnoses of mental health
disorders, primarily depression. The article concludes that treatment interventions must be theorydriven, and based on extensive information of the clients' backgrounds, and the onset of inappropriate
behaviour. The treatments must be multi-modal due to the likelihood of concurrent disorders, and must
include focus on building positive relationships.
Kennedy, Sharon M. (2006) Treatment responsivity: reducing recidivism by enhancing treatment
effectiveness. Correctional Service of Canada, Chapter 5. P. 1-12 Available on the Internet: Sept
2008
http://www.unafei.or.jp/referencematerials/135th/135thweb/English_pdf/V%20Correctional%20Progra
mmes/6%20Issues%20Related%20to%20Programme%20Delivery/chap_5_e.pdf
This article examines the factors which add to treatment responsivity. Internal factors such as offender
maturity level, cognitive ability, engagement, and readiness for change are emphasized as important in
the development of a program which would reduce recidivism. External factors such as the matching of
offenders to specific counselors, individualized treatments, and group versus individual work are
considered. Several assessments are reviewed which determine appropriate matching for offenders and
counselors, personality traits, as well as some which survey for pre-responsiveness to treatment.
Annotated Bibliography 13
Oppaga (2005) Gender-specific services for delinquent girls vary across programs, but help reduce
recidivism rates. Office of program policy analysis and government accountability, Report No.
05-13.
Oppaga’s report reviewed fifteen gender-specific programs to determine the extent to which they were
meeting the target goals for gender-specific programming. The reviews were conducted through
observing operations, examining program documents, interviewing managers, therapists and nurses, as
well as conducting focus groups with resident girls. The target goals of gender-specific programs were
based on mental health, relationships, emotional and physical safety, health and hygiene, social and
educational programming, program design and evaluation, and staff hiring and training. The study
found that most of the programs met requirements, but a few did not. Services were very different
across the board, but it seemed that gender-specific work helped reduce recidivism rates. The Oppaga
board recommended more training for staff in communication skills and positive relationship-building,
to involve girls in program design and evaluation, and to incorporate gender-specific quality-assurance
evaluations.
Pam. Boyce, Erica J. (2003) Guidelines “at a glance”: effective gender-specific programming for
delinquent and at-risk girls. Girls’ equitable treatment coalition, Colorado Division of Criminal
Justice, March 2003
This report provides specific and direct guidelines for gender-specific programming. Focusing on the
importance of relationships for girls’ development, the article goes on to state that the creation of
physically and emotionally safe environments for girls is key in gender-specific programming. Staff
must be hired on the basis that they are aware of boundaries, positive relationships and their own
constant learning and growth. Ongoing evaluation of programs is vitally important to ensure
effectiveness and resilience with different participants. Strength-based approaches which give girls
power and control over some aspects of their lives are very important right from the outset of
programming, as well as tailoring programs to girls’ unique needs such as relationships and emotional,
spiritual and physical health.
Porporino, F.J. Fabiano, E. (2005) Is there an evidence base supportive of women-centered
programming in corrections? Corrections Today, 67:6, P. 26-27 & 101
This brief article looks for reasoning to lend credibility to the current search for gender-specific
programming in corrections, and concludes that is it due to the fact that women offenders commit
crimes for different reasons than men that programming must be different. One example is the use of
drugs and alcohol. While men have a tendency to use substances for hedonistic purposes, these
substances are more often abused by women as a coping or survival mechanism. The article states that
the tendency for women to be sensitive and caring to others may lead to more self-criticism, and that
programming for women might be more appropriate in addressing esteem and me-centered coping and
decision-making skills.
Ravoira, Rawanda. (1999) National Girls' Caucus. Journal of the office of juvenile justice and
delinquency prevention. 6:1 P. 21-28
The NGC, an advocacy group, detailed the needs of at-risk girls which must be addressed through
Annotated Bibliography 14
programming. Suggested topics for girls' education and the societal problems they face were: dealing
with violence, sexual and physical abuse, domestic violence, high-risk sexual behaviour, incarceration
of family members, gang involvement, alcohol and drug use, and girls' mental, physical and emotional
health.
Smith, D.C. Hall, J.A. (2008) Strengths-oriented family therapy for adolescents with substance abuse
problems: Practice Update. Social Work. 53:2 P. 185-188
This article describes SOFT (Strengths-oriented family therapy) as an intervention technique with
unique features such as a pretreatment family motivational enhancement session called the Strengthsoriented referral for teens (SORT), a foundation in solution-focused language and treatment
techniques, and a formal strength and resource assessment in the early stages of treatment. The stages
of treatment are 1) engagement and initial strengths assessment, 2) development and implementation of
a solution plan, and 3) monitoring and refinement of goals until termination. SOFT employs
motivational interviewing techniques, and strives to develop strong parental-teen communication to
treat adolescent substance abuse. In initial empirical studies this twelve-week program has had positive
results, though more testing will be necessary in the future.
Van Gundy-Yoder, Alana. (2008) Gender-responsive programming for female offenders. Agenda for
Social Justice 2008, Chapter 7. P. 1-6
http://www.sssp1.org/File/Agenda_For_Social_Justice_2008_Chapter_7.pdf
The majority of women offenders are convicted of non-violent offenses. The author discusses the
difference between female and male criminality and points out the need for gender-specific services to
women in the justice system. Included are recommendations for gender-specific programming such as
the need to examine and implement alternatives to incarceration, to dedicate at least 7% of government
research funding to researching female offenders' histories, social and cultural factors contributing to
criminality and pathways to crime. As well, the creation of a task force to design and implement a
successful, sustainable gender-responsive program model, to establish a federal government position to
monitor correctional facilities, and to increase awareness of gender-responsive practice.
Also see: Covington, 2001, Zahn 2007, Pasko, 2008, Quinn et. Al, 2005, King & Gibbs, 2002, Veysey,
2003, Reams, 1996