THE GREEK WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
Russia wanted to expand its influence in Balkan and one way in doing this was to try to weaken Turkey. In 1821 a rebellion directed against Turkish rule was started among the Christians with Russian backing. The idea had been to unite all christian groups against the Turks but as this didn't take place Russia got anxious and withdrew its forces. The rebellion was then brutally crushed by the turks.
But the independence struggle of the greeeks continued which resulted in a greek deklaration of independence in 1822. Turkey decided to deal with the matter and to state an example to other oppositional groups (The massacre at Chios in april 1822, Delacroix).
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According to the viennasettlement the Great Powers didn't intervene but the public opinion in favour of the Greeks grew rapidly in Europe. Money was collected and volunteers joined the freedomfighters. Due to growing pressure from the public opinion a compromise was suggested by the governments in Russia, France and Britain. When this was turned down Turkey was defeated by a allied fleet. The grat powers were concerned that the situation otherwise could have been used as an excuse by some of the Great Powers to intervene and disturb the balance of power.
The result was finally a peacetreaty in 1829 and Greece gained its independance (1830). sep 14­21:34
THE RESTORED MONARCHY IN FRANCE
Why was the Bourbon monarchy successfully restored in France in 1815? Explain how the basis of this success was destroyed by 1830.
The restored France after the Viennasettlement would face a major confrontation of returning émigrés who had “learnt nothing and forgotten nothing” and the new classes of bourgeois, propertied men and professional officials ­ this weakened the monarchy and hindered the establishment of a stable regime.
'It was not what he did but all that he failed to do that brought about his fall'. Discuss this verdict on Louis Philippe.
Why were the hopes of revolutionaries in France in 1848 not fulfilled and why was Napoleon III able to establish an autocratic regime by 1852?
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The French political system
The rule wasn't constitutional or parliamentary even though the King had granted a constitution but it didn’t come from the elected assembly.
The situation didn’t become easier by the decision to replace the tricolour with the Bourbon flag.
Louis XVIII guaranteed the individual rights (equality/freedom) and a parliamentary system was introduced in which a chamber of Deputies (elected by voters restricted by age and property, 1/100) and a Chamber of Peers (hereditary) existed. But the monarch was given considerable powers;
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LOUIS XVIII (1814­24) and the Charter
The Bourbon monarchy was restored through Talleyrand's iniative and the allied rulers acceptance (didn't want a republic) in 1814.
Louis XVIII (brother of executed Louis XVI) represented the "ancien régime". Believed in the divine hereditary right (absolute power of the Bourbouns) but also that the situation requred him to rule as a moderate constitutional monarch.
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The King had great powers;
­appointed the ministers in the government
­could declare "state of emergency"
­could start a war
­could veto legislation
­could dissolve the Chamber
­controlled foreign policy and the army
The government
­carried out the rule
­independent of the assembly
The Assembly
­taxes and legislation
­divided in a) chamber of deputies (elected) and b) chamber of peers (partly elected/partly appointed by the King, the King could increase his influence by making someone a peer)
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Charter of 1814 (with small alterations until 1848)
A compromise to satisfy all political parties but the most liberal on the continent.
1) King was to govern through his ministers but could dissolve the chamber of Peers and create Peers.
2) could alter the electorate and rule directly by ordinances in times of emergency.
3) an assembly was to be formed (chamber of deputies and chamber of Peers). Elected by voters restricted by age and property to about 1% of the male population.
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4) A fifth of the deputies had to be elected each year
to be elected one had to be over 40 y. and pay more than 1000 fr. in taxes/year (12 000). Suffrage was restricted to those males who were over 30 years and payed at least 300 francs annually in taxes (only 90 000 out of a population of 25 million could vote).
5) Only the King could propose laws but the Assembly could refuse to pass them or to levy taxes.
6) All Frenchmen to be equal before the law/secure from arbitrary (godtycklig) imprisonment and to be eligible for civil and military appointments.
7)Trial by jury, freedom of press and religious toleration
The charter gave the wealthiest middleclass political power.
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THE ULTRAS AND THE WHITE TERROR
The first election of deputies in 1815 resulted in a large majority of extreme royalists ­ Ultras who wished to restore as much as possible of the l'ancien régime (the French nobility and Church to regain its privileges). Wanted censorship of the press and education to be controlled by the Church. What followed was a temporary suspension of some of the liberties of the Charter and a wave of terror in which at least 300 protestants, republicans and Bonapartists died. 18 of the most prominent rebels were executed. The Ultras were led by the brother of the King, Comte d'Artois (who was also the commander of the National guard).
THE HUNDRED DAYS (1815)
Napoleons' return was disastrous for the Bourbon monarchy. though Napoleon did not become popular it was obvious that the monarch had little support either. When Louis XVIII returned after Napoleons defeat he had many things against him;
­His throne was granted by foreigners
­The second peace treaty of Paris had taken away Saar (Prussia) and Savoy (Piedmont) and people regretted the lost days of the Napoleon's glory days.
­a liberal constitution could no longer be granted.
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The Charter was defended by two political groups;
a) The INDEPENDENTS, drawn from the urban middle class, purchasers of émigré property and ex­imperial soldiers (also included liberals, Bonapartisis and republicans).
b) The Doctrinaires, a moderate conservative group which saw the Charter as the basis for stability. The King depended heavily upon this group.
The return of the royal family of the Bourbon
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THE FIRST RICHELIEU MINISTRY (1815­16)
The government was in a deadlock situation when faced with an avalanche of demands by Ultra deputies for the repudiation (förkastande) of all government debts incurred (tagna) before the restoration (1814), the return of confiscated lands, further limitations on the electoral system and abolition of Napoleon's University of France which supervised educational provision (stadganden).
In April 1816, under pressure from his ministers and the Allies, the King dissolved the Chamber.
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THE ULTRAS (1820­24)
Richelieu soon had to give way to a more reactionary policy demanded by the Ultras;
­The re­establishment of censorship.
­A new electoral law expanded the influence of the Ultras (some 16 000 of the wealthiest were given a double vote, rural interests were restored)
­The French intervention in Spain 1822 against the spanish contitutionalists.
In 1824 Louis XVIII died and was succeeded by his brother, Comte d'Artois, now Charles X.
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THE SECOND RICHELIEU MINISTRY (1816­1818)
With a majority of Doctrinaires and a new harmony, there was a chance for some valuable legislation.
1) The restoration of the National finances; the war indemnity was paid off and the army of occupation evacuated, 1818.
2) The rebuilding of the army. Conscription restored.
3) The electoral laws of 1818. Introduced a new voting system which weakened the influence of the rural interests.
4) Relatively liberal Press control; Censorship abolished but the circulation of newspapers controlled by a stamp duty introduced.
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THE REIGN OF CHARLES X
To gain popular support the new King began by abolishing censorship and released some political prisoners but it was obvious that his government, under Comte de Villèlle, would try to carry out a very reactionary policy;
­The emigrés were compensated with a new law which angered the middle classes.
­A clerical revival; persecution (förföljelsemani) of anti­clerical critics and re­establishment of clerical control over education. The death penalty for sacrilege (vanhelgande) introduced 1826. The opposition grew steadily and the press constantly challenged the domestic policies of the government. The oppositional newspapers were 3 times as popular as the government press.
The government could have gain more popularity through a more daring foreign policy eg. Greece but was over­cautious.
In 1827 the opposition gained the majority in the Assembly and the prime minister resigned.
The King wasn't obliged to choose ministers with a majority support but when he appointed de Polignac, who was known to be very reactionary and his extremist cabinet the oppositional pressure started growing steadily.
This should be seen in the connection with bad harvests, economic recession and a bad winter (1829).
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When the oppositional forces increased its influence in the elections of 1830 Charles X launched a coup d'etat. The king tried to rule by ordinances but the leading journalists (Thiers) responeded by inviting the country to decide "how far she ought to carry resistance against tyranny".
France's resent invasion of Algeria had removed the 40 000 best troops and in the end of July workers and student demonstrations escalated in to a revolution. The soldiers began fraterising with the revolutionaries and on 30 july a group of opposition deputies nominated Louis Philppe, Duke of Orleans, to become the new King. On 2 August Charles X abdicated in favour of his grandson but it was to late and on 9 august Louis Philippe was proclaimed King of France by the Chambers.
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