Jean-Paul Sartre
“Sartre” redirects here.
(disambiguation).
For other uses, see Sartre cisive influence on Sartre’s philosophical development
was his weekly attendance at Alexandre Kojève's seminars, which continued for a number of years.[11]
Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (/ˈsɑrtrə/;[2] French:
[saʁtʁ]; 21 June 1905 – 15 April 1980) was a French
philosopher, playwright, novelist, political activist, biographer, and literary critic. He was one of the key figures
in the philosophy of existentialism and phenomenology,
and one of the leading figures in 20th-century French philosophy and Marxism.
From his first years in the École Normale, Sartre was one
of its fiercest pranksters.[12][13] In 1927, his antimilitarist
satirical cartoon in the revue of the school, coauthored
with Georges Canguilhem, particularly upset the director Gustave Lanson.[14] In the same year, with his comrades Nizan, Larroutis, Baillou and Herland,[15] he organized a media prank following Charles Lindbergh's
successful New York-Paris flight; Sartre & Co. called
newspapers and informed them that Lindbergh was going to be awarded an honorary École degree. Many
newspapers, including Le Petit Parisien, announced the
event on 25 May. Thousands, including journalists and
curious spectators, showed up, unaware that what they
were witnessing was a stunt involving a Lindbergh lookalike.[14][16][17] The public’s resultant outcry forced Lanson to resign.[14][18]
His work has also influenced sociology, critical theory,
post-colonial theory, and literary studies, and continues to
influence these disciplines. Sartre has also been noted for
his open relationship with the prominent feminist theorist
Simone de Beauvoir.
He was awarded the 1964 Nobel Prize in Literature but
refused it, saying that he always declined official honors
and that “a writer should not allow himself to be turned
into an institution”.[3]
In 1929 at the École Normale, he met Simone de Beauvoir, who studied at the Sorbonne and later went on to
become a noted philosopher, writer, and feminist. The
1 Biography
two became inseparable and lifelong companions, initiating a romantic relationship,[19] though they were not
monogamous.[20] The first time Sartre took the exam to
1.1 Early life
become a college instructor, he failed. But he took it
time and was first in his class, with Beauvoir
Jean-Paul Sartre was born in Paris as the only child of a second
[21]
second.
Jean-Baptiste Sartre, an officer of the French Navy, and
Anne-Marie Schweitzer.[4] His mother was of Alsatian Sartre was drafted into the French Army from 1929 to
origin and the first cousin of Nobel Prize laureate 1931 and served as a meteorologist for some time.[22] He
Albert Schweitzer. (Her father, Charles Schweitzer, was later argued in 1959 that each French person was responthe older brother of Albert Schweitzer’s father, Louis sible for the collective crimes during the Algerian War of
Théophile.)[5] When Sartre was two years old, his father Independence.[23]
died of a fever. Anne-Marie moved back to her parents’
Together, Sartre and de Beauvoir challenged the cultural
house in Meudon, where she raised Sartre with help from
and social assumptions and expectations of their upbringher father, a teacher of German who taught Sartre matheings, which they considered bourgeois, in both lifestyle
matics and introduced him to classical literature at a very
and thought. The conflict between oppressive, spirituearly age.[6] When he was twelve, Sartre’s mother remarally destructive conformity (mauvaise foi, literally, "bad
ried, and the family moved to La Rochelle, where he was
faith") and an "authentic" way of "being" became the domformally bullied.[7]
inant theme of Sartre’s early work, a theme embodied
As a teenager in the 1920s, Sartre became attracted to in his principal philosophical work L'Être et le Néant
philosophy upon reading Henri Bergson's essay Time and (Being and Nothingness) (1943).[24] Sartre’s introduction
Free Will: An Essay on the Immediate Data of Conscious- to his philosophy is his work Existentialism and Humanness.[8] He studied and earned a degree in philosophy ism (1946), originally presented as a lecture.
in Paris at the École Normale Supérieure, an institution
of higher education that was the alma mater for several
prominent French thinkers and intellectuals.[9] It was at
ENS that Sartre began his lifelong, sometimes fractious,
friendship with Raymond Aron.[10] Perhaps the most de1
2
1.2
1 BIOGRAPHY
World War II
In 1939 Sartre was drafted into the French army, where
he served as a meteorologist.[25] He was captured by German troops in 1940 in Padoux,[26] and he spent nine
months as a prisoner of war—in Nancy and finally in
Stalag XII-D, Trier, where he wrote his first theatrical
piece, Barionà, fils du tonnerre, a drama concerning
Christmas. It was during this period of confinement that
Sartre read Heidegger's Being and Time, later to become
a major influence on his own essay on phenomenological
ontology. Because of poor health (he claimed that his
poor eyesight and exotropia affected his balance) Sartre
was released in April 1941. Given civilian status, he recovered his teaching position at Lycée Pasteur near Paris,
settled at the Hotel Mistral. In October 1941 he was given
a position at Lycée Condorcet, replacing a Jewish teacher
who had been forbidden to teach by Vichy law.
with the publication of Camus’s The Rebel. Later, while
Sartre was labeled by some authors as a resistant, the
French philosopher and resistant Vladimir Jankelevitch
criticized Sartre’s lack of political commitment during
the German occupation, and interpreted his further struggles for liberty as an attempt to redeem himself. According to Camus, Sartre was a writer who resisted, not a resister who wrote.
In 1945, after the war ended, Sartre moved to an apartment on the rue Bonaparte which was where he was
to produce most of his subsequent work, and where
he lived until 1962. It was from there that he helped
establish a quarterly literary and political review, Les
Temps Modernes (Modern Times), in part to popularize
his thought.[27] He ceased teaching and devoted his time
to writing and political activism. He would draw on
his war experiences for his great trilogy of novels, Les
Chemins de la Liberté (The Roads to Freedom) (1945–
1949).
1.3 Cold War politics and anticolonialism
French journalists visit General George C. Marshall at his office
in the Pentagon building, 1945
After coming back to Paris in May 1941, he participated
in the founding of the underground group Socialisme et
Liberté with other writers de Beauvoir, Maurice MerleauPonty, Jean-Toussaint Desanti and his wife Dominique
Desanti, Jean Kanapa, and École Normale students. In
August Sartre and de Beauvoir went to the French Riviera
seeking the support of André Gide and André Malraux.
However, both Gide and Malraux were undecided, and
this may have been the cause of Sartre’s disappointment
and discouragement. Socialisme et liberté soon dissolved
and Sartre decided to write instead of being involved in
active resistance. He then wrote Being and Nothingness,
The Flies, and No Exit, none of which was censored by the
Germans, and also contributed to both legal and illegal
literary magazines.
After August 1944 and the Liberation of Paris, he wrote
Anti-Semite and Jew. In the book he tries to explain the
etiology of “hate” by analyzing antisemitic hate. Sartre
was a very active contributor to Combat, a newspaper created during the clandestine period by Albert Camus, a
philosopher and author who held similar beliefs. Sartre
and de Beauvoir remained friends with Camus until 1951,
Jean-Paul Sartre (middle) and Simone de Beauvoir (left) meeting
with Che Guevara (right) in Cuba, 1960
The first period of Sartre’s career, defined in large part
by Being and Nothingness (1943), gave way to a second
period—when the world was perceived as split into communist and capitalist blocs—of highly publicized political
involvement. His 1948 play Les mains sales (Dirty Hands)
in particular explored the problem of being a politically
“engaged” intellectual. He embraced Marxism, but did
not join the Communist Party. While a Marxist, Sartre
attacked what he saw as abuses of freedom and human
rights by the Soviet Union. He was one of the first French
journalists to expose the existence of the labor camps,
and vehemently opposed the invasion of Hungary, Russian anti-Semitism, and the execution of dissidents. As an
anti-colonialist, Sartre took a prominent role in the struggle against French rule in Algeria, and the use of torture
and concentration camps by the French in Algeria. He
became an eminent supporter of the FLN in the Algerian
War and was one of the signatories of the Manifeste des
121. Consequently, Sartre became a domestic target of
the paramilitary Organisation de l'armée secrète (OAS),
escaping two bomb attacks in the early '60s.[28] (He had
1.4
Late life and death
an Algerian mistress, Arlette Elkaïm, who became his
adopted daughter in 1965.) He opposed U.S. involvement
in the Vietnam War and, along with Bertrand Russell and
others, organized a tribunal intended to expose U.S. war
crimes, which became known as the Russell Tribunal in
1967.
3
sexuals are Cuba’s Jews”.[32]
During a collective hunger strike in 1974, Sartre visited Red Army Faction leader Andreas Baader in
Stammheim Prison and criticized the harsh conditions of
imprisonment.[33] Towards the end of his life, Sartre became an anarchist.[34][35][36]
1.4 Late life and death
Hélène de Beauvoir's house in Goxwiller, where Sartre tried to
hide from the media after being awarded the Nobel Prize.
Sketch of Sartre for the New York Times by Reginald Gray, 1965
His work after Stalin’s death, the Critique de la raison
dialectique (Critique of Dialectical Reason), appeared in
1960 (a second volume appearing posthumously). In the
Critique Sartre set out to give Marxism a more vigorous intellectual defense than it had received until then;
he ended by concluding that Marx’s notion of “class” as
an objective entity was fallacious. Sartre’s emphasis on
the humanist values in the early works of Marx led to a
dispute with a leading leftist intellectual in France in the
1960s, Louis Althusser, who claimed that the ideas of
the young Marx were decisively superseded by the “scientific” system of the later Marx.
Sartre went to Cuba in the 1960s to meet Fidel Castro
and spoke with Ernesto “Che” Guevara. After Guevara’s
death, Sartre would declare him to be “not only an intellectual but also the most complete human being of our
age”[29] and the “era’s most perfect man.”[30] Sartre would
also compliment Guevara by professing that “he lived his
words, spoke his own actions and his story and the story of
the world ran parallel.”[31] However he stood against the
persecution of gays by Castro’s régime, which he compared to Nazi persecution of the Jews, and said: “Homo-
In 1964 Sartre renounced literature in a witty and sardonic account of the first ten years of his life, Les mots
(Words). The book is an ironic counterblast to Marcel
Proust, whose reputation had unexpectedly eclipsed that
of André Gide (who had provided the model of littérature
engagée for Sartre’s generation). Literature, Sartre concluded, functioned ultimately as a bourgeois substitute for
real commitment in the world. In October 1964, Sartre
was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature but he declined
it. He was the first Nobel laureate to voluntarily decline
the prize,[37] and remains one of only two laureates to do
so.[38] In 1945, he had refused the Légion d'honneur.[39]
The Nobel prize was announced on 22 October 1964; on
14 October, Sartre had written a letter to the Nobel Institute, asking to be removed from the list of nominees, and
warning that he would not accept the prize if awarded,
but the letter went unread;[40] on 23 October, Le Figaro
published a statement by Sartre explaining his refusal. He
said he did not wish to be “transformed” by such an award,
and did not want to take sides in an East vs. West cultural
struggle by accepting an award from a prominent Western cultural institution.[40] After being awarded the prize
he tried to escape the media by hiding in the house of
Simone’s sister Hélène de Beauvoir in Goxwiller, Alsace.
Though his name was then a household word (as was
“existentialism” during the tumultuous 1960s), Sartre remained a simple man with few possessions, actively committed to causes until the end of his life, such as the May
1968 strikes in Paris during the summer of 1968 during
which he was arrested for civil disobedience. President
Charles de Gaulle intervened and pardoned him, commenting that “you don't arrest Voltaire.”[41]
4
2 THOUGHT
for more. As a man, if a certain Jean-Paul
Sartre is remembered, I would like people to
remember the milieu or historical situation in
which I lived,... how I lived in it, in terms of all
the aspirations which I tried to gather up within
myself.[42]
Sartre’s physical condition deteriorated, partially because of the merciless pace of work (and the use of
amphetamines) [43] he put himself through during the
writing of the Critique and a massive analytical biography of Gustave Flaubert (The Family Idiot), both of which
remained unfinished. He suffered from hypertension,[44]
and became almost completely blind in 1973. Sartre was
a notorious chain smoker, which could also have contributed to the deterioration of his health.[45]
Jean-Paul Sartre in Venice in 1967
Sartre died on 15 April 1980 in Paris from edema of
the lung. He had not wanted to be buried at PèreLachaise Cemetery between his mother and stepfather,
so it was arranged that he be buried at Montparnasse
Cemetery. At his funeral on Saturday, 19 April, fifty
thousand Parisians descended onto Boulevard Montparnasse to accompany Sartre’s cortege.[46] [47] The funeral
started at “the hospital at two p.m., then filed through the
fourteenth arrondissement, past all Sartre’s haunts, and
entered the cemetery through the gate on the Boulevard
Edgar Quinet.” Sartre was initially buried in a temporary
grave to the left of the cemetery gate.[48] Four days later
the body was disinterred for cremation at Père-Lachaise
Cemetery, and his ashes were reburied at the permanent
site in Montparnasse Cemetery, to the right of the cemetery gate.[49]
2 Thought
See also: Being and Nothingness
Sartre’s primary idea is that people, as humans, are “condemned to be free”.[50] This theory relies upon his position that there is no creator, and is illustrated using the
example of the paper cutter. Sartre says that if one considered a paper cutter, one would assume that the creSartre’s and de Beauvoir’s grave in the Cimetière de Montparator would have had a plan for it: an essence. Sartre said
nasse
that human beings have no essence before their existence
because there is no Creator. Thus: “existence precedes
In 1975, when asked how he would like to be remem- essence”.[51] This forms the basis for his assertion that
bered, Sartre replied:
since one cannot explain one’s own actions and behaviour
by referencing any specific human nature, they are necessarily fully responsible for those actions. “We are left
I would like [people] to remember Nausea,
alone, without excuse.”
[my plays] No Exit and The Devil and the Good
Lord, and then my two philosophical works,
Sartre maintained that the concepts of authenticity and
more particularly the second one, Critique of
individuality have to be earned but not learned. We need
Dialectical Reason. Then my essay on Genet,
to experience “death consciousness” so as to wake up ourSaint Genet.... If these are remembered, that
selves as to what is really important; the authentic in our
would be quite an achievement, and I don't ask
lives which is life experience, not knowledge.[52] Death
5
draws the final point when we as beings cease to live for
ourselves and permanently become objects that exist only
for the outside world.[53] In this way death emphasizes the
burden of our free, individual existence.
As a junior lecturer at the Lycée du Havre in 1938, Sartre
wrote the novel La Nausée (Nausea), which serves in
some ways as a manifesto of existentialism and remains
one of his most famous books. Taking a page from the
German phenomenological movement, he believed that
our ideas are the product of experiences of real-life situations, and that novels and plays can well describe such
fundamental experiences, having equal value to discursive essays for the elaboration of philosophical theories
such as existentialism. With such purpose, this novel concerns a dejected researcher (Roquentin) in a town similar
to Le Havre who becomes starkly conscious of the fact
that inanimate objects and situations remain absolutely
indifferent to his existence. As such, they show themselves to be resistant to whatever significance human consciousness might perceive in them.
He also took inspiration from phenomenologist epistemology, explained by Franz Adler in this way: “Man
chooses and makes himself by acting. Any action implies
the judgment that he is right under the circumstances not
only for the actor, but also for everybody else in similar
circumstances.”[54]
This indifference of “things in themselves” (closely linked
with the later notion of “being-in-itself” in his Being and
Nothingness) has the effect of highlighting all the more
the freedom Roquentin has to perceive and act in the
world; everywhere he looks, he finds situations imbued
with meanings which bear the stamp of his existence.
Hence the “nausea” referred to in the title of the book;
all that he encounters in his everyday life is suffused with
a pervasive, even horrible, taste—specifically, his freedom. The book takes the term from Friedrich Nietzsche's
Thus Spoke Zarathustra, where it is used in the context
of the often nauseating quality of existence. No matter
how much Roquentin longs for something else or something different, he cannot get away from this harrowing
evidence of his engagement with the world.
Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir at the Balzac Memorial
3 Career as public intellectual
While the broad focus of Sartre’s life revolved around
the notion of human freedom, he began a sustained intellectual participation in more public matters in 1945.
Prior to this—before the Second World War—he was
content with the role of an apolitical liberal intellectual:
“Now teaching at a lycée in Laon [...] Sartre made his
headquarters the Dome café at the crossing of Montparnasse and Raspail boulevards. He attended plays, read
novels, and dined [with] women. He wrote. And he
was published.”[55] Sartre and his lifelong companion, de
The novel also acts as a terrifying realization of some
Beauvoir, existed, in her words, where “the world about
of Immanuel Kant's fundamental ideas about freedom;
us was a mere backdrop against which our private lives
Sartre uses the idea of the autonomy of the will (that
were played out”.[56]
morality is derived from our ability to choose in reality; the ability to choose being derived from human free- Sartre portrayed his own pre-war situation in the chardom; embodied in the famous saying “Condemned to be acter Mathieu, chief protagonist in The Age of Reason,
free”) as a way to show the world’s indifference to the which was completed during Sartre’s first year as a soldier
individual. The freedom that Kant exposed is here a in the Second World War. By forging Mathieu as an absostrong burden, for the freedom to act towards objects is lute rationalist, analyzing every situation, and functioning
ultimately useless, and the practical application of Kant’s entirely on reason, he removed any strands of authentic
content from his character and as a result, Mathieu could
ideas proves to be bitterly rejected.
“recognize no allegiance except to [him]self”,[57] though
he realized that without “responsibility for my own existence, it would seem utterly absurd to go on existing”.[58]
Mathieu’s commitment was only to himself, never to the
outside world. Mathieu was restrained from action each
6
4 LITERATURE
time because he had no reasons for acting. Sartre then,
for these reasons, was not compelled to participate in the
Spanish Civil War, and it took the invasion of his own
country to motivate him into action and to provide a crystallization of these ideas. It was the war that gave him a
purpose beyond himself, and the atrocities of the war can
be seen as the turning point in his public stance.
the late 1960s Sartre supported the Maoists, a movement that rejected the authority of established communist parties.[66] However, despite aligning with the
Maoists, Sartre said after the May events: “If one
rereads all my books, one will realize that I have not
changed profoundly, and that I have always remained an
anarchist.”[34] He would later explicitly allow himself to
[35][36]
The war opened Sartre’s eyes to a political reality he had be called an anarchist.
not yet understood until forced into continual engagement In the aftermath of a war that had for the first time propwith it: “the world itself destroyed Sartre’s illusions about erly engaged Sartre in political matters, he set forth a
isolated self-determining individuals and made clear his body of work which “reflected on virtually every imporown personal stake in the events of the time.”[59] Return- tant theme of his early thought and began to explore aling to Paris in 1941 he formed the “Socialisme et Liberté" ternative solutions to the problems posed there”.[67] The
resistance group. In 1943, after the group disbanded, greatest difficulties that he and all public intellectuals of
Sartre joined a writers’ Resistance group,[60] in which he the time faced were the increasing technological aspects
remained an active participant until the end of the war. of the world that were outdating the printed word as a
He continued to write ferociously, and it was due to this form of expression. In Sartre’s opinion, the “traditional
“crucial experience of war and captivity that Sartre began bourgeois literary forms remain innately superior”, but
to try to build up a positive moral system and to express there is “a recognition that the new technological 'mass
media' forms must be embraced” if Sartre’s ethical and
it through literature”.[61]
The symbolic initiation of this new phase in Sartre’s work political goals as an authentic, committed intellectual are
is packaged in the introduction he wrote for a new journal, to be achieved: the demystification of bourgeois politiboth
Les Temps Modernes, in October 1945. Here he aligned cal practices and the raising of the consciousness,
[68]
political
and
cultural,
of
the
working
class.
the journal, and thus himself, with the Left and called for
writers to express their political commitment.[62] Yet, this The struggle for Sartre was against the monopolising
alignment was indefinite, directed more to the concept of moguls who were beginning to take over the media and
the Left than a specific party of the Left.
destroy the role of the intellectual. His attempts to reach
a public were mediated by these powers, and it was often
Sartre’s philosophy lent itself to his being a public intellectual. He envisaged culture as a very fluid concept; these powers he had to campaign against. He was skilled
neither pre-determined, nor definitely finished; instead, enough, however, to circumvent some of these issues by
in true existential fashion, “culture was always conceived his interactive approach to the various forms of media,
in a newspaper column
as a process of continual invention and re-invention.” advertising his radio interviews
[69]
for
example,
and
vice
versa.
This marks Sartre, the intellectual, as a pragmatist, willing to move and shift stance along with events. He did
not dogmatically follow a cause other than the belief in
human freedom, preferring to retain a pacifist’s objectivity. It is this overarching theme of freedom that means
his work “subverts the bases for distinctions among the
disciplines”.[63] Therefore, he was able to hold knowledge across a vast array of subjects: “the international
world order, the political and economic organisation of
contemporary society, especially France, the institutional
and legal frameworks that regulate the lives of ordinary
citizens, the educational system, the media networks that
control and disseminate information. Sartre systematically refused to keep quiet about what he saw as inequalities and injustices in the world.”[64]
Sartre always sympathized with the Left, and supported
the French Communist Party (PCF) until the 1956 Soviet invasion of Hungary. Following the Liberation
the PCF were infuriated by Sartre’s philosophy, which
appeared to lure young French men and women away
from the ideology of communism and into Sartre’s own
existentialism.[65] From 1956 onwards Sartre rejected
the claims of the PCF to represent the French working
classes, objecting to its “authoritarian tendencies”. In
The role of a public intellectual can lead to the individual placing himself in danger as he engages with disputed topics. In Sartre’s case, this was witnessed in June
1961, when a plastic bomb exploded in the entrance of
his apartment building. His public support of Algerian
self-determination at the time had led Sartre to become
a target of the campaign of terror that mounted as the
colonists’ position deteriorated. A similar occurrence
took place the next year and he had begun to receive
threatening letters from Oran, Algeria.[70]
4 Literature
Sartre wrote successfully in a number of literary modes
and made major contributions to literary criticism and
literary biography. His plays are richly symbolic and
serve as a means of conveying his philosophy. The
best-known, Huis-clos (No Exit), contains the famous
line “L'enfer, c'est les autres”, usually translated as “Hell
is other people.”[71] Aside from the impact of Nausea,
Sartre’s major work of fiction was The Roads to Freedom
trilogy which charts the progression of how World War
7
II affected Sartre’s ideas. In this way, Roads to Freedom is to kill two birds with one stone, to destroy an oppressor
presents a less theoretical and more practical approach to and the man he oppresses at the same time: there remains
existentialism.
a dead man and a free man,” has been criticized by AnDespite their similarities as polemicists, novelists, derson and Michael Walzer for supporting the killing of
adapters, and playwrights, Sartre’s literary work has been European civilians by the FLN during the Algerian War.
was a hypocrite
counterposed, often pejoratively, to that of Camus in Walzer suggests that Sartre, a European, [77][79]
for
not
volunteering
to
be
killed
himself.
the popular imagination. In 1948 the Roman Catholic
Church placed Sartre’s oeuvre on the Index Librorum Pro- Clive James excoriated Sartre in his book of mini bihibitorum (List of Prohibited Books).
ographies Cultural Amnesia (2007). Among other things,
James attacks Sartre’s philosophy as being “all a pose”.[80]
5
Criticism
Some philosophers argue that Sartre’s thought is contradictory. Specifically, they believe that Sartre makes
metaphysical arguments despite his claim that his philosophical views ignore metaphysics. Herbert Marcuse criticized Being and Nothingness for projecting anxiety and
meaninglessness onto the nature of existence itself: “Insofar as Existentialism is a philosophical doctrine, it remains an idealistic doctrine: it hypostatizes specific historical conditions of human existence into ontological
and metaphysical characteristics. Existentialism thus becomes part of the very ideology which it attacks, and its
radicalism is illusory.”[72] In Letter on Humanism, Heidegger criticized Sartre’s existentialism:
Existentialism says existence precedes
essence.
In this statement he is taking
existentia and essentia according to their
metaphysical meaning, which, from Plato’s
time on, has said that essentia precedes existentia. Sartre reverses this statement. But the
reversal of a metaphysical statement remains
a metaphysical statement. With it, he stays
with metaphysics, in oblivion of the truth of
Being.[73]
Philosophers Richard Wollheim and Thomas Baldwin
have argued that Sartre’s attempt to show that Sigmund
Freud's theory of the unconscious is mistaken was based
on a misinterpretation of Freud.[74][75] Author Richard
Webster considers Sartre one of many modern thinkers
who have reconstructed Judaeo-Christian orthodoxies in
secular form.[76]
Brian C. Anderson denounced Sartre as an apologist for
tyranny and terror because of his support for Stalinism,
Maoism, and Castro’s regime in Cuba.[77] Paul Johnson
denounced Sartre’s ideas for their influence on the Khmer
Rouge: “The events in Cambodia in the 1970s, in which
between one-fifth and one-third of the nation was starved
to death or murdered, were entirely the work of a group
of intellectuals, who were for the most part pupils and
admirers of Jean-Paul Sartre – 'Sartre’s Children' as I call
them.”[78]
Sartre, who stated in his preface to Frantz Fanon's The
Wretched of the Earth that, “To shoot down a European
Munich 1972 and Israel
When eleven Israeli Olympians were killed by the Palestinian organization Black September in Munich 1972,
Sartre referred to terrorism as a “terrible weapon but the
oppressed poor have no others.” He also found it “perfectly scandalous that the Munich attack should be judged
by the French press and a section of public opinion as
an intolerable scandal.” (Sartre: The Philosopher of the
Twentieth Century, Bernard-Henri Lévy, p. 343).
He legitimizes and justifies the use of the death penalty
for political reasons. He supports the Palestinian terrorist
attacks of 1972, saying that, “Palestinians don't have any
other choice, because of a lack of weapons and supporters, than to turn to terrorism…The terrorist act committed in Munich, I once said, was justified on two levels:
first, because the Israeli athletes in the Olympic Games
were soldiers, and second, because the action was committed for an exchange of prisoners.”
However, in other comments he indicated that no means
should be used which dehumanize a target and disfigure
an organization’s goal. He identified as one of those “who
affirm the sovereignty of the Israeli state and also believe
the Palestinians have a right to sovereignty for the same
reason...” He was also known for his strong opposition to
anti-semitism.
6 Works
7 See also
• For a detailed chronology of Sartre’s life, see Ronald
Hayman, Sartre: A Biography (Carroll & Graf Publishers, Inc., 1987), pages 485–511.
• Bad faith (existentialism)
• Sartre’s Roads to Freedom Trilogy
• Situation (Sartre)
• Freud: The Secret Passion
• Wilfrid Desan
8
8
9
Sources
• Aronson, Ronald (1980) Jean-Paul Sartre – Philosophy in the World. London: NLB
REFERENCES
[10] Memoirs: fifty years of political reflection, By Raymond
Aron (1990)
[11] Auffret, D. (2002), Alexandre Kojeve. La philosophie,
l'Etat, la fin de l'histoire, Paris: B. Grasset
• Gerassi, John (1989) Jean-Paul Sartre: Hated Con- [12] Jean-Pierre Boulé Sartre, self-formation, and masculinities
p.53
science of His Century. Volume 1: Protestant or
Protester? Chicago: University of Chicago Press
• Judaken, Jonathan (2006) “Jean-Paul Sartre and the
Jewish Question: Anti-antisemitism and the Politics
of the French Intellectual. Lincoln: University of
Nebraska Press
[13] Cohen-Solal, Annie (1988) Sartre: A Life pp.61–2 quote:
“During his first years at the Ecole, Sartre was the fearsome instigator of all the revues, all the jokes, all the scandals.”
[14] John Gerassi (1989) Jean-Paul Sartre: Protestant or
protester? pp.76–7
• Kirsner, Douglas (2003) The Schizoid World of
Jean-Paul Sartre and R.D. Laing. New York: [15] Godo, Emmanuel (2005) Sartre en diable p.41
Karnac
[16] Hayman, Ronald (1987) Sartre: a life pp.69, 318
• Scriven, Michael (1993) Sartre and The Media.
London: MacMillan Press Ltd
[17] “Jeanj.m.m.,n,mnn-Paul Sartre – philosopher, social advocate”. Tameri.com. Retrieved 27 October 2011.
• Scriven, Michael (1999) Jean-Paul Sartre: Politics [18] Sartre By David Drake p.26
and Culture in Postwar France. London: MacMillan
[19] Humphrey, Clark (28 November 2005). “The People
Press Ltd
• Thody, Philip (1964) Jean-Paul Sartre. London:
Hamish Hamilton
9
References
[1] “Sartre’s Debt to Rousseau” (PDF). Retrieved 2 March
2010.
[2] “Sartre”. Random House Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary.
[3] The Nobel Foundation (1964)."Minnen, bara minnen”
ISBN 9100571407 from year 2000 by Lars Gyllensten
Nobel Prize in Literature 1964 – Press Release. Address
by Anders Österling, Member of the Swedish Academy.
Retrieved on: 4 February 2012.
[4] Forrest E. Baird (22 July 1999). Twentieth Century Philosophy. Prentice Hall. p. 226. ISBN 978-0-13-021534-5.
Retrieved 4 December 2011.
[5] “Louis Théophile Schweitzer”. Roglo.eu. Retrieved 18
October 2011.
[6] Brabazon, James (1975). Albert Schweitzer: A Biography.
Putnam. p. 28.
[7] Jean-Paul Sartre, by Andrew N. Leak, (London 2006),
page 16-18
[8] Jean-Paul, Sartre; Arlette Elkaïm-Sartre, Jonathan Webber (2004) [1940]. The Imaginary: A Phenomenological
Psychology of the Imagination. Routledge. pp. viii. ISBN
0-415-28755-3.
[9] Schrift, Alan D. (2006). Twentieth-century French Philosophy: Key Themes and Thinkers. Blackwell Publishing. p.
174. ISBN 1-4051-3217-5.
Magazine approach to a literary supercouple”. The Seattle
Times. Retrieved 20 November 2007.
[20] Siegel, Liliane (1990). In the shadow of Sartre. Collins
(London). p. 182. ISBN 0-00-215336-X.
[21] Wilfred Desan, The Tragic Finale: An Essay on the Philosophy of Jean-Paul Sartre (New York: Harper Torchbooks,
1960) xiv.
[22] Ann Fulton, Apostles of Sartre: Existentialism in America,
1945–1963 (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press,
1999) 7.
[23] Le Sueur, James D.; Pierre Bourdieu (2005) [2005]. Uncivil War: Intellectuals and Identity Politics During the Decolonization of Algeria. University of Nebraska Press. p.
178. ISBN 0-8032-8028-9.
[24] McCloskey, Deirdre N. (2006). The Bourgeois Virtues:
Ethics for an Age of Commerce. University of Chicago
Press. p. 297. ISBN 0-226-55663-8.
[25] Van den Hoven, Adrian; Andrew N. Leak (2005). Sartre
Today: A Centenary Celebration. Andrew N. Leak.
Berghahn Books. pp. viii. ISBN 1-84545-166-X.
[26] Boulé, Jean-Pierre (2005). Sartre, Self-formation, and
Masculinities. Berghahn Books. p. 114. ISBN 1-57181742-5.
[27] Ann Fulton, Apostles of Sartre: Existentialism in America, 1945–1963 (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University
Press, 1999) 12.
[28] István Mészáros, The Work of Sartre: Search for Freedom and the Challenge of History, rev. ed. (New York:
Monthly Review, 2012), p. 16.
[29] ""Remembering Che Guevara”, 9 October 2006, ''The International News’', by Prof Khwaja Masud”. The News International. 9 October 2006. Retrieved 27 October 2011.
9
[30] Amazon Review of: ',The Bolivian Diary: Authorized Edition',. Amazon.com. ISBN 1920888241.
[53] Death. (1999). In Gordon Hayim (Ed.) Dictionary of
Existentialism (p. 105). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
[31] HeyChe.org – People about Che Guevara
[54] Adler, Franz. “The Social Thought of Jean-Paul Sartre”.
American Journal of Sociology 55 (3).
[32] Live recording in Conducta Impropria by Nestor Almendros, 1983.
[33] Jean-Paul Sartre (7 December 1974). “The Slow Death of
Andreas Baader”. Marxists.org. Retrieved 2 March 2010.
[34] “Sartre at Seventy: An Interview by Jean-Paul Sartre and
Michel Contat”. The New York Review of Books. 7 August
1975. Retrieved 27 October 2011.
[35] “R.A. Forum > Sartre par lui-même ( Sartre by Himself)".
Raforum.info. 28 September 1966. Retrieved 27 October
2011.
[36] “Interview with Jean-Paul Sartre” in The Philosophy of
Jean-Paul Sartre, ed. P.A. Schilpp, p.21.
[37] “Nobel Prize in Literature 1964 – Press Release”. nobelprize.org. Retrieved 11 February 2009.
[38] “Nobelprize.org”.
[39] “Le Figaro”.
[40] Histoire de lettres Jean-Paul Sartre refuse le Prix Nobel
en 1964, Elodie Bessé
[41] “Superstar of the Mind”, by Tom Bishop in New York
Times 7 June 1987
[55] Gerassi 1989: 134
[56] de Beauvoir 1958: 339
[57] Sartre 1942: 13
[58] Sartre 1942: 14
[59] Aronson 1980: 108
[60] Aronson, Ronald (2004). Camus & Sartre: The Story of
a Friendship and the Quarrel That Ended It. University
of Chicago Press. p. 30. ISBN 0-226-02796-1, ISBN
978-0-226-02796-8.
[61] Thody 1964: 21
[62] Aronson 1980: 10
[63] Kirsner 2003: 13
[64] Scriven 1999: xii
[65] Scriven 1999: 13
[66] “Jean-Paul Sartre”. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Retrieved 27 October 2011.
[67] Aronson 1980: 121
[42] Charlesworth, Max (1976). The Existentialists and JeanPaul Sartre. University of Queensland Press. p. 154.
ISBN 0-7022-1150-8.
[68] Scriven 1993: 8
[43] “New Criterion review of La Cérémonie des adieux by
Simone de Beauvoir”.
[70] Aronson 1980: 157
[44] Ronald Hayman. Sartre: A Biography. Carroll & Graf,
1992, p. 464.
[45] Samuel, Henry (10 March 2005). “Hell is other people
removing your cigarette”. The Telegraph.
[69] Scriven 1993: 22
[71] Woodward, Kirk (9 July 2010). “The Most Famous Thing
Jean-Paul Sartre Never Said”. Rick on Theater. Blogger
(Google: blogspot.com). Retrieved 8 January 2010.
[72] Marcuse, Herbert. “Sartre’s Existentialism”. Printed in
Studies in Critical Philosophy. Translated by Joris De Bres.
London: NLB, 1972. p. 161
[46] “Histoire Du Monde”.
[47] Singer, Daniel (5 June 2000). “Sartre’s Roads to Freedom”. The Nation. Archived from the original on 2 June
2008. Retrieved 9 May 2009.
[48] Cohen-Solal, Annie. Sartre: A Life. Random House, Inc.,
1987, p. 523.
[49] Cohen-Solal, Annie, p. 523. Also, Ronald Hayman,
Sartre: A Biography. Carroll & Graf Publishers, Inc.,
1992, p. 473. Also see Simone De Beauvoir, Adieux:
A Farewell to Sartre. Translated by Patrick O'Brian. Pantheon Books, 1984. Chapter: “The Farewell Ceremony,”
unpaginated ebook.
[50] Existentialism and Humanism
[51] Existentialism and Humanism, page 27
[52] Being and Nothingness, p. 246
[73] Martin Heidegger, “Letter on Humanism”, in Basic Writings: Nine Key Essays, plus the Introduction to Being and
Time , trans. David Farrell Krell (London, Routledge;
1978), 208. Google Books
[74] Thomas Baldwin (1995). Ted Honderich, ed. The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 792. ISBN 0-19-866132-0.
[75] Wollheim, Richard. Freud. London, Fontana Press, pp.
157–176
[76] Webster, Richard (2005). Why Freud Was Wrong: Sin,
Science and Psychoanalysis. Oxford: The Orwell Press.
p. 7. ISBN 0-9515922-5-4.
[77] The Absolute Intellectual Brian C. Anderson
[78] Johnson, Paul, "The Heartless Lovers of Humankind",
The Wall Street Journal, 5 January 1987.
10
11
[79] Can There Be a Decent Left? Michael Walzer
[80] http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/clives_
lives/2007/03/jeanpaul_sartre.html
[81] “Jean-Paul Sartre Biography”. People.brandeis.edu. Retrieved 27 October 2011.
EXTERNAL LINKS
• Heiner Wittmann, L'esthétique de Sartre. Artistes et
intellectuels, translated from the German by N. Weitemeier and J. Yacar, Éditions L'Harmattan (Collection L'ouverture philosophique), Paris 2001.
[82] “Nobel Prize, Jean-Paul Sartre biography”. Nobelprize.org. 15 April 1980. Retrieved 27 October 2011.
• Élisabeth Roudinesco, Philosophy in Turbulent
Times: Canguilhem, Sartre, Foucault, Althusser,
Deleuze, Derrida, Columbia University Press, New
York, 2008.
10
• Jean-Paul Sartre and Benny Levy, Hope Now: The
1980 Interviews, translated by Adrian van den
Hoven, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.
Further reading
Full-length biographies and memoirs
• P.V. Spade, Class Lecture Notes on Jean-Paul
Sartre’s Being and Nothingness. 1996.
• Annie Cohen-Solal, Sartre: A Life. Translated by
Anna Cancogni. New York: Pantheon Books, 1987.
• Jonathan Webber The existentialism of Jean-Paul
Sartre, London: Routledge, 2009
• Ronald Hayman, Sartre: A Biography. New York:
Carroll & Graf Publishers, 1987. (Detailed chronology of Sartre’s life on pages 485–510.)
• H. Wittmann, Sartre und die Kunst. Die Porträtstudien von Tintoretto bis Flaubert, Tübingen: Gunter
Narr Verlag, 1996.
• Simone de Beauvoir, Adieux: A Farewell to Sartre,
New York: Pantheon Books, 1984.
• H. Wittmann, Sartre and Camus in Aesthetics. The
Challenge of Freedom.Ed. by Dirk Hoeges. Dialoghi/Dialogues. Literatur und Kultur Italiens und
Frankreichs, vol. 13, Frankfurt/M: Peter Lang 2009
ISBN 978-3-631-58693-8
10.1
10.2
Criticism
• Steven Churchill and Jack Reynolds (eds.) JeanPaul Sartre: Key Concepts, London/NewYork:
Routledge, 2014.
• Gianluca Vagnarelli, La democrazia tumultuaria.
Sulla filosofia politica di Jean-Paul Sartre, Macerata,
EUM, 2010.
• Robert Doran, “Sartre’s Critique of Dialectical Reason and the Debate with Lévi-Strauss,” Yale French
Studies 123 (2013): 41–62.
• Wilfrid Desan, The Tragic Finale: An Essay on the
philosophy of Jean-Paul Sartre (1954)
• BBC (1999). "The Road to Freedom". Human, All
Too Human.
11 External links
• Jean-Paul Sartre at DMOZ
• Thomas Flynn, Sartre and Marxist Existentialism: 11.1 By Sartre
The Test Case of Collective Responsibility, Chicago:
• Works by or about Jean-Paul Sartre at Internet
University of Chicago Press, 1984.
Archive
• John Gerassi, Jean-Paul Sartre: Hated Conscience
• Americans and Their Myths Sartre’s essay in The
of His Century, Volume 1: Protestant or Protester?,
Nation (18 October 1947 issue)
University of Chicago Press, 1989. ISBN 0-22628797-1.
• Sartre Texts on Philosophy Archive
• R. D. Laing and D. G. Cooper, Reason and Violence:
A Decade of Sartre’s Philosophy, 1950–1960, New
York: Pantheon, 1971.
• Sartre Internet Archive on Marxists.org
• Works by Jean-Paul Sartre at Open Library
• Suzanne Lilar, A propos de Sartre et de l'amour,
Paris: Grasset, 1967.
11.2
• Axel Madsen, Hearts and Minds: The Common
Journey of Simone de Beauvoir and Jean-Paul
Sartre, William Morrow & Co, 1977.
On Sartre
• UK Sartre Society
• Groupe d'études sartriennes, Paris
11.2
On Sartre
• Sartre’s Critique of Dialectical Reason essay by
Andy Blunden
• Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980): Existentialism Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Jean-Paul Sartre (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
• Sartre.org Articles, archives, and forum
• “The Second Coming Of Sartre”, John Lichfield,
The Independent, 17 June 2005
• The World According to Sartre essay by Roger Kimball
• Reclaiming Sartre A review of Ian Birchall, Sartre
Against Stalinism
• Sartre’s Existential Marxism and the Quest for Humanistic Authenticity essay by Daniel Jakopovich in
the journal Synthesis Philosophica
• Biography and quotes of Sartre
• Living with Mother. Sartre and the problem of
maternity, Benedict O'Donohoe, International WebjournalSens Public.
• L’image de la femme dans le théâtre de Jean-Paul
Sartre – Jean-Paul Sartre:sexiste? by Stephanie Rupert
• Pierre Michel, Jean-Paul Sartre et Octave Mirbeau.
• Listen to Radio 4’s In Our Time programme on
Sartre – RealAudio
• Sartre: philosophy, literature, politics (articles), International Webjournal Sens Public
• Buddhists, Existentialists and Situationists: Waking
up in Waking Life
• Hell is other people people at breakfast
• Sartre phenomenological theory of emotions –
Adolfo Vasquez Rocca – J.P. Sartre: Teoría
Fenomenológica de las Emociones (in spanish)
• Mim Udovitch – a contributing editor for Esquire (6
December 1988). “Hot and Epistolary: 'Letters to
Nelson Algren', by Simone de Beauvoir”. The New
York Times. Retrieved 9 June 2012.
• Louis Menand (26 September 2005). “Stand By
Your Man: The strange liaison of Sartre and Beauvoir (Book review of the republished The Second Sex
by Simone de Beauvoir)". The New Yorker. Retrieved 9 June 2012.
11
12
12
12
12.1
TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
Text
• Jean-Paul Sartre Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Paul%20Sartre?oldid=650639222 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Derek
Ross, Brion VIBBER, Vicki Rosenzweig, Tarquin, Youssefsan, Danny, Christian List, Enchanter, Deb, Formulax, Camembert, Hephaestos, Olivier, Quintessent, Pit, Kwertii, Llywrch, Jtdirl, Gabbe, Menchi, Dramatic, GTBacchus, Delirium, Skysmith, Minesweeper,
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D6, Jayjg, Simonides, Ocon, EugeneZelenko, Buffyg, Sfeldman, Marlowe, Bedders, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, FranksValli, Xjy,
BalowStar, Silence, Lulu of the Lotus-Eaters, Number 0, Calair, Ignignot, Whooper, Brian0918, Aecis, MBisanz, El C, Zenohockey,
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T1980, Yurivict, RyanGerbil10, Hunfe, Defixio, Mwalcoff, OleMaster, Woohookitty, Etacar11, Simon Shek, Sburke, Azaziel, Ruud Koot,
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SeanMack, The wub, FlavrSavr, Hanshans23, Saksham, FayssalF, FlaBot, Pruneau, Moskvax, RobertG, Ground Zero, Wikidgood, Oliver
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Ophiccius, Ainlina, ImageRemovalBot, Leranedo, Martarius, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, SummerWithMorons, Tikka72, All Hallow’s Wraith,
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Citation bot, Smmlit, Raven1977, ArthurBot, Quebec99, LilHelpa, Sally putnam, Xavierjouve, Xqbot, Tripodian, IsleofPlan, Hammersbach, Jeffrey Mall, Notono, Grim23, Path3, J04n, GrouchoBot, JanDeFietser, Omnipaedista, Sekwanele, Maria Sieglinda von Nudeldorf,
RibotBOT, Abcdefgfedcba, GhalyBot, Dbdkmezz, Rajvaddhan, Shadowjams, Heiner Wittmann, Petros000, Thehelpfulbot, JennKR, Green
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quarta, Snow Blizzard, Kxdqjo, Anthrophilos, Mediran, JYBot, Dexbot, Carlgreymartin, Anakronik, Shubhamashokgandhi, Sponseljames,
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Images
• File:2010.05.30.113308_Haus_Hélène_de_Beauvoir_Goxwiller_FR.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/
7c/2010.05.30.113308_Haus_H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne_de_Beauvoir_Goxwiller_FR.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Hermann Luyken
• File:Beauvoir_Sartre_-_Che_Guevara_-1960_-_Cuba.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Beauvoir_
Sartre_-_Che_Guevara_-1960_-_Cuba.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Revista Verde Oliva, 1960; Museo Che Guevara (Centro
de Estudios Che Guevara en La Habana, Cuba) Original artist: Alberto Korda
• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
• File:Edit-clear.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The
Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist:
The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the file, specifically: “Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although
minimally).”
• File:Flag_of_France.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Jean-Paul_Sartre_signature.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Jean-Paul_Sartre_signature.svg
License: Public domain Contributors: Beinecke Library Original artist: Jean-Paul Sartre
Created in vector format by Scewing
• File:Jean_Paul_Sartre_1967.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Jean_Paul_Sartre_1967.jpg License:
CC BY 3.0 Contributors: English Wikipedia, originally uploaded by en:User:T1980. Citing “Taken by my father in 1967”. Original
artist: User:T1980
• File:Jean_Paul_Sartre_by_Gray.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Jean_Paul_Sartre_by_Gray.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Reginald gray
• File:Le_Général_George_C._Marshall_de_visite_de_journalistes.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/
34/Le_G%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral_George_C._Marshall_de_visite_de_journalistes.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://
memory.loc.gov/service/pnp/cph/3c00000/3c08000/3c08000/3c08032v.jpg Original artist: Office of War Information
• File:Nobel_Prize.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png License: ? Contributors:
Derivative of File:NobelPrize.JPG Original artist:
Photograph: JonathunderMedal: Erik Lindberg (1873-1966)
• File:P_vip.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/69/P_vip.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:People_icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg License: CC0 Contributors: OpenClipart Original artist: OpenClipart
• File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
• File:Sartre_and_Simone_de_Beauvoir_grave,_Montparnasse,_Paris,_France-16June2009.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Sartre_and_Simone_de_Beauvoir_grave%2C_Montparnasse%2C_Paris%2C_France-16June2009.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as Sartre/De Beauvior grave, Montparnasse, Paris, France Original artist:
Le Grand Portage
• File:Sartre_and_de_Beauvoir_at_Balzac_Memorial.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Sartre_and_
de_Beauvoir_at_Balzac_Memorial.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Schwarzer, Alice: Simone de Beauvoir, Reinbek, Rowohlt,
2007, ISBN: 978-3-498-06400-6, S. 68 Original artist: Unknown. Copyright holder is Archives Gallimard at Paris, Archives Gallimard no
longer exists
• File:Wikidata-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Planemad
• File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
12.3
Content license
• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0