What You’ll Learn
• You will develop descriptions
of accelerated motion.
• You will use graphs and
equations to solve problems
involving moving objects.
• You will describe the
motion of objects in
free fall.
Why It’s Important
Objects do not always
move at constant velocities.
Understanding accelerated
motion will help you better
decribe the motion of
many objects.
Acceleration Cars, planes,
subways, elevators, and
other common forms of
transportation often begin
their journeys by speeding
up quickly, and end by
stopping rapidly.
Think About This The driver of a dragster
on the starting line waits
for the green light to
signal the start of the
race. At the signal, the
driver will step on the gas
pedal and try to speed up
as quickly as possible.
As the car speeds up, how
will its position change?
physicspp.com
56
Rob Tringali/SportsChrome
Do all types of motion look
the same when graphed?
Question
How does a graph showing constant speed compare to a graph of a vehicle
speeding up?
Procedure
1. Clamp a spark timer to the back edge of a lab
table.
2. Cut a piece of timer tape approximately 50 cm
in length, insert it into the timer, and tape it to
vehicle 1.
3. Turn on the timer and release the vehicle.
Label the tape with the vehicle number.
4. Raise one end of the lab table 8–10 cm by
placing a couple of bricks under the back
legs. CAUTION: Make sure the lab table
remains stable.
5. Repeat steps 2–4 with vehicle 2, but hold the
vehicle in place next to the timer and release
it after the timer has been turned on. Catch
the vehicle before it falls.
6. Construct and Organize Data Mark the
first dark dot where the timer began as
zero. Measure the distance to each dot
from the zero dot for 10 intervals and record
your data.
7. Make and Use Graphs Make a graph of total
distance versus interval number. Place data
for both vehicles on the same plot and label
each graph.
Analysis
Which vehicle moved with constant speed?
Which one sped up? Explain how you
determined this by looking at the timer tape.
Critical Thinking Describe the shape of each
graph. How does the shape of the graph relate
to the type of motion observed?
3.1 Acceleration
U
niform motion is one of the simplest kinds of motion. You learned
in Chapter 2 that an object in uniform motion moves along a
straight line with an unchanging velocity. From your own experiences, you
know, however, that few objects move in this manner all of the time. In this
chapter, you will expand your knowledge of motion by considering a
slightly more complicated type of motion. You will be presented with
situations in which the velocity of an object changes, while the object’s
motion is still along a straight line. Examples of objects and situations you
will encounter in this chapter include automobiles that are speeding up,
drivers applying brakes, falling objects, and objects thrown straight
upward. In Chapter 6, you will continue to add to your knowledge of
motion by analyzing some common types of motion that are not confined
to a straight line. These include motion along a circular path and the
motion of thrown objects, such as baseballs.
Objectives
• Define acceleration.
• Relate velocity and
acceleration to the motion
of an object.
• Create velocity-time
graphs.
Vocabulary
velocity-time graph
acceleration
average acceleration
instantaneous acceleration
Section 3.1 Acceleration
57
Horizons Companies
Changing Velocity
A Steel
Ball Race
If two steel balls are released at
the same instant, will the steel
balls get closer or farther apart
as they roll down a ramp?
1. Assemble an inclined ramp
from a piece of U-channel or
two metersticks taped together.
2. Measure 40 cm from the top
of the ramp and place a mark
there. Place another mark 80 cm
from the top.
3. Predict whether the steel balls
will get closer or farther apart as
they roll down the ramp.
4. At the same time, release one
steel ball from the top of the ramp
and the other steel ball from the
40-cm mark.
5. Next, release one steel ball
from the top of the ramp. As soon
as it reaches the 40-cm mark,
release the other steel ball from
the top of the ramp.
Analyze and Conclude
6. Explain your observations in
terms of velocities.
7. Do the steel balls have the
same velocity as they roll
down the ramp? Explain.
8. Do they have the same
acceleration? Explain.
You can feel a difference between uniform and nonuniform motion.
Uniform motion feels smooth. You could close your eyes and it would feel
as though you were not moving at all. In contrast, when you move along
a curve or up and down a roller coaster, you feel pushed or pulled.
Consider the motion diagrams shown in Figure 3-1. How would you
describe the motion of the person in each case? In one diagram, the
person is motionless. In another, she is moving at a constant speed. In a
third, she is speeding up, and in a fourth, she is slowing down. How do
you know which one is which? What information do the motion diagrams
contain that could be used to make these distinctions?
The most important thing to notice in these motion diagrams is the
distance between successive positions. You learned in Chapter 2 that
motionless objects in the background of motion diagrams do not change
positions. Therefore, because there is only one image of the person
in Figure 3-1a, you can conclude that she is not moving; she is at rest.
Figure 3-1b is like the constant-velocity motion diagrams in Chapter 2.
The distances between images are the same, so the jogger is moving at a
constant speed. The distance between successive positions changes in the
two remaining diagrams. If the change in position gets larger, the jogger is
speeding up, as shown in Figure 3-1c. If the change in position gets
smaller, as in Figure 3-1d, the jogger is slowing down.
What does a particle-model motion diagram look like for an object with
changing velocity? Figure 3-2 shows the particle-model motion diagrams
below the motion diagrams of the jogger speeding up and slowing down.
There are two major indicators of the change in velocity in this form of the
motion diagram. The change in the spacing of the dots and the differences
in the lengths of the velocity vectors indicate the changes in velocity. If an
object speeds up, each subsequent velocity vector is longer. If the object
slows down, each vector is shorter than the previous one. Both types of
motion diagrams give an idea of how an object’s velocity is changing.
Velocity-Time Graphs
Just as it was useful to graph a changing position versus time, it also is
useful to plot an object’s velocity versus time, which is called a velocitytime, or v-t graph. Table 3-1 on the next page shows the data for a car
that starts at rest and speeds up along a straight stretch of road.
■ Figure 3-1 By noting the
distance the jogger moves in
equal time intervals, you can
determine that the jogger is
standing still (a), moving at a
constant speed (b), speeding
up (c), and slowing down (d).
58
Chapter 3 Accelerated Motion
a
b
c
d
■ Figure 3-2 The particle-model
version of the motion diagram
indicates the runner’s changing
velocity not only by the change
in spacing of the position dots,
but also by the change in length
of the velocity vectors.
The velocity-time graph obtained by plotting these data points is shown
in Figure 3-3. The positive direction has been chosen to be the same as
that of the motion of the car. Notice that this graph is a straight line, which
means that the car was speeding up at a constant rate. The rate at which
the car’s velocity is changing can be found by calculating the slope of the
velocity-time graph.
The graph shows that the slope is (10.0 m/s)/(2.00 s), or 5.00 m/s2. This
means that every second, the velocity of the car increased by 5.00 m/s.
Consider a pair of data points that are separated by 1 s, such as 4.00 s and
5.00 s. At 4.00 s, the car was moving at a velocity of 20.0 m/s. At 5.00 s,
the car was traveling at 25.0 m/s. Thus, the car’s velocity increased by
5.00 m/s in 1.00 s. The rate at which an object’s velocity changes is called
the acceleration of the object. When the velocity of an object changes at
a constant rate, it has a constant acceleration.
Average and Instantaneous Acceleration
The average acceleration of an object is the change in velocity during
some measurable time interval divided by that time interval. Average acceleration is measured in m/s2. The change in velocity at an instant of time is
called instantaneous acceleration. The instantaneous acceleration of an
object can be found by drawing a tangent line on the velocity-time graph
at the point of time in which you are interested. The slope of this line is
equal to the instantaneous acceleration. Most of the situations considered
in this textbook involve motion with acceleration in which the average and
instantaneous accelerations are equal.
■ Figure 3-3 The slope of a
velocity-time graph is the
acceleration of the object
represented.
Velocity v. Time
25.0
Table 3-1
20.0
Time (s)
Velocity (m/s)
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
0.00
5.00
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
Velocity (m/s)
Velocity v. Time
15.0
10.0
rise
run
m 5.00
10.0 m/s
2.00 s
5.00 m/s2
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
Time (s)
Section 3.1 Acceleration
59
■ Figure 3-4 Looking at two
consecutive velocity vectors and
finding the difference between
them yields the average
acceleration vector for that
time interval.
a
vi
vf
vf
b
vi
vf
c
∆v
vi
a
Displaying Acceleration on a Motion Diagram
• Acceleration vectors are
violet.
• Velocity vectors are red.
• Displacement vectors are
green.
For a motion diagram to give a full picture of an object’s movement, it
also should contain information about acceleration. This can be done by
including average acceleration vectors. These vectors will indicate how the
velocity is changing. To determine the length and direction of an average
acceleration vector, subtract two consecutive velocity vectors, as shown in
Figures 3-4a and b. That is, v vf vi vf (vi). Then divide by the
time interval, t. In Figures 3-4a and b, the time interval, t, is 1 s. This vector, (vf vi)/1 s, shown in violet in Figure 3-4c, is the average acceleration
during that time interval. The velocities vi and vf refer to the velocities at the
beginning and end of a chosen time interval.
Velocity and Acceleration How would you describe the sprinter’s velocity and acceleration
as shown on the graph?
Analyze and Sketch the Problem
• From the graph, note that the sprinter’s velocity starts at
zero, increases rapidly for the first few seconds, and then,
after reaching about 10.0 m/s, remains almost constant.
2
Known:
Unknown:
v varies
a?
12.0
Velocity (m/s)
1
Solve for the Unknown
Draw a tangent to the curve at t 1.0 s and t 5.0 s.
Solve for acceleration at 1.0 s:
The slope of the line at 1.0 s is equal to
rise
a the acceleration at that time.
run
11.0 m/s 2.8 m/s
2.4 s 0.00 s
3.4 m/s2
Solve for acceleration at 5.0 s:
The slope of the line at 5.0 s is equal to
rise
a the acceleration at that time.
run
10.3 m/s 10.0 m/s
10.0 s 0.00 s
6.0
0.00
5.00
Time (s)
Math Handbook
Slope
page 850
0.030 m/s2
The acceleration is not constant because it changes from 3.4 m/s2 to 0.03 m/s2 at 5.0 s.
The acceleration is in the direction chosen to be positive because both values are positive.
3
Evaluate the Answer
• Are the units correct? Acceleration is measured in m/s2.
60
Chapter 3 Accelerated Motion
10.0
Velocity (m/s)
1. A dog runs into a room and sees a cat at the other end of the
room. The dog instantly stops running but slides along the
wood floor until he stops, by slowing down with a constant
acceleration. Sketch a motion diagram for this situation, and
use the velocity vectors to find the acceleration vector.
2. Figure 3-5 is a v-t graph for Steven as he walks along the
midway at the state fair. Sketch the corresponding motion
diagram, complete with velocity vectors.
0
3. Refer to the v-t graph of the toy train in Figure 3-6 to answer
the following questions.
a. When is the train’s speed constant?
b. During which time interval is the train’s acceleration positive?
c. When is the train’s acceleration most negative?
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 10
Time (s)
■
Figure 3-5
12.0
Velocity (m/s)
4. Refer to Figure 3-6 to find the average acceleration of the train
during the following time intervals.
a. 0.0 s to 5.0 s
b. 15.0 s to 20.0 s
c. 0.0 s to 40.0 s
5. Plot a v-t graph representing the following motion. An elevator
starts at rest from the ground floor of a three-story shopping
mall. It accelerates upward for 2.0 s at a rate of 0.5 m/s2,
continues up at a constant velocity of 1.0 m/s for 12.0 s, and then
experiences a constant downward acceleration of 0.25 m/s2 for
4.0 s as it reaches the third floor.
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0
Time (s)
■
Figure 3-6
Positive and Negative Acceleration
Consider the four situations shown in Figure 3-7a. The first motion
diagram shows an object moving in the positive direction and speeding
up. The second motion diagram shows the object moving in the positive
direction and slowing down. The third shows the object speeding up in the
negative direction, and the fourth shows the object slowing down as it
moves in the negative direction. Figure 3-7b shows the velocity vectors for
the second time interval of each diagram, along with the corresponding
acceleration vectors. Note ∆t is equal to 1 s.
a
Begin
End
v2
b
v1
v
a
Begin
End
v
v2
v1
a
v2
End
Begin
v
v1
a
v
v2
End
Begin
v1
a
■ Figure 3-7 These four motion
diagrams represent the four
different possible ways to move
along a straight line with constant
acceleration (a). When the velocity
vectors of the motion diagram and
acceleration vectors point in the
same direction, an object’s speed
increases. When they point in
opposite directions, the object
slows down (b).
Section 3.1 Acceleration
61
East
Velocity (m/s)
A
C
0
E
West
■ Figure 3-8 Graphs A and E
show motion with constant
velocity in opposite directions.
Graph B shows both positive
velocity and positive acceleration.
Graph C shows positive velocity
and negative acceleration. Graph
D shows motion with constant
positive acceleration that slows
down while velocity is negative
and speeds up when velocity is
positive.
In the first and third situations when the
object is speeding up, the velocity and acceleration vectors point in the same direction in
each case, as shown in Figure 3-7b. In the
other two situations in which the acceleration vector is in the opposite direction from
B
the velocity vectors, the object is slowing
down. In other words, when the object’s
D
acceleration is in the same direction as its
velocity, the object’s speed increases. When
Time (s)
they are in opposite directions, the speed
decreases. Both the direction of an object’s
velocity and its direction of acceleration are
needed to determine whether it is speeding up
or slowing down. An object has a positive
acceleration when the acceleration vector
points in the positive direction and a negative acceleration, when the acceleration vector points in the negative direction. The sign of acceleration does
not indicate whether the object is speeding up or slowing down.
Determining Acceleration from a v-t Graph
Velocity and acceleration information also is contained in velocity-time
graphs. Graphs A, B, C, D, and E, shown in Figure 3-8, represent the
motions of five different runners. Assume that the positive direction has
been chosen to be east. The slopes of Graphs A and E are zero. Thus, the
accelerations are zero. Both Graphs A and E show motion at a constant
velocity—Graph A to the east and Graph E to the west. Graph B shows
motion with a positive velocity. The slope of this graph indicates a constant, positive acceleration. You also can infer from Graph B that the speed
increased because it shows positive velocity and acceleration. Graph C has
a negative slope. Graph C shows motion that begins with a positive velocity, slows down, and then stops. This means that the acceleration and
velocity are in opposite directions. The point at which Graphs C and B
cross shows that the runners’ velocities are equal at that point. It does not,
however, give any information about the runners’ positions.
Graph D indicates movement that starts out toward the west, slows
down, and for an instant gets to zero velocity, and then moves east with
increasing speed. The slope of Graph D is positive. Because the velocity
and acceleration are in opposite directions, the speed decreases and equals
zero at the time the graph crosses the axis. After that time, the velocity and
acceleration are in the same direction and the speed increases.
Calculating acceleration How can you describe acceleration mathematically? The following equation expresses average acceleration as the slope of
the velocity-time graph.
Average Acceleration
v
v v
f
i
a t t t
f
i
Average acceleration is equal to the change in velocity, divided by the time
it takes to make that change.
62
Chapter 3 Accelerated Motion
Suppose you run wind sprints back and forth across the gym. You first
run at 4.0 m/s toward the wall. Then, 10.0 s later, you run at 4.0 m/s away
from the wall. What is your average acceleration if the positive direction is
toward the wall?
v
v v
f
i
a t t
t
f
i
(4.0 m/s) (4.0 m/s)
8 .0 m/s
0.80 m/s2
10.0 s
10.0 s
The negative sign indicates that the direction of acceleration is away from
the wall. The velocity changes when the direction of motion changes,
because velocity includes the direction of motion. A change in velocity
results in acceleration. Thus, acceleration also is associated with a change
in the direction of motion.
Acceleration Describe the motion of a ball as it rolls up a slanted
driveway. The ball starts at 2.50 m/s, slows down for 5.00 s, stops
for an instant, and then rolls back down at an increasing speed. The
positive direction is chosen to be up the driveway, and the origin is
at the place where the motion begins. What is the sign of the ball’s
acceleration as it rolls up the driveway? What is the magnitude of the
ball’s acceleration as it rolls up the driveway?
1
Analyze and Sketch the Problem
x
x
Begin
End
• Sketch the situation.
• Draw the coordinate system based on the motion diagram.
Unknown:
vi 2.5 m/s
vf 0.00 m/s at t 5.00 s
a?
Solve for the Unknown
0.00
3.00
5.00
Find the magnitude of the acceleration from the slope of
Time (s)
the graph.
Solve for the change in velocity and the time taken to make that change.
v vf vi
0.00 m/s 2.50 m/s Substitute vf 0.00 m/s at tf 5.00 s, vi 2.50 m/s at ti 0.00 s
2.50 m/s
t tf ti
5.00 s 0.00 s
Substitute tf 5.00 s, ti 0.00 s
5.00 s
10.0
Math Handbook
Solve for the acceleration.
v
a t
2.50 m/s
5.00 s
Same
point
3.00
Velocity (m/s)
2
Known:
a
Substitute v 2.50 m/s, t 5.00 s
Operations with
Significant Digits
pages 835–836
0.500 m/s2 or 0.500 m/s2 down the driveway
3
Evaluate the Answer
• Are the units correct? Acceleration is measured in m/s2.
• Do the directions make sense? In the first 5.00 s, the direction of the acceleration
is opposite to that of the velocity, and the ball slows down.
Section 3.1 Acceleration
63
6. A race car’s velocity increases from 4.0 m/s to 36 m/s over a 4.0-s time interval. What is
its average acceleration?
7. The race car in the previous problem slows from 36 m/s to 15 m/s over 3.0 s. What is
its average acceleration?
8. A car is coasting backwards downhill at a speed of 3.0 m/s when the driver gets the
engine started. After 2.5 s, the car is moving uphill at 4.5 m/s. If uphill is chosen as the
positive direction, what is the car’s average acceleration?
9. A bus is moving at 25 m/s when the driver steps on the brakes and brings the bus to
a stop in 3.0 s.
a. What is the average acceleration of the bus while braking?
b. If the bus took twice as long to stop, how would the acceleration compare with what
you found in part a?
10. Rohith has been jogging to the bus stop for 2.0 min at 3.5 m/s when he looks at his
watch and sees that he has plenty of time before the bus arrives. Over the next 10.0 s,
he slows his pace to a leisurely 0.75 m/s. What was his average acceleration during
this 10.0 s?
11. If the rate of continental drift were to abruptly slow from 1.0 cm/y to 0.5 cm/y over
the time interval of a year, what would be the average acceleration?
There are several parallels between acceleration and velocity. Both are
rates of change: acceleration is the time rate of change of velocity, and
velocity is the time rate of change of position. Both acceleration and velocity have average and instantaneous forms. You will learn later in this chapter that the area under a velocity-time graph is equal to the object’s
displacement and that the area under an acceleration-time graph is equal
to the object’s velocity.
3.1 Section Review
12. Velocity-Time Graph What information can you
obtain from a velocity-time graph?
13. Position-Time and Velocity-Time Graphs Two
joggers run at a constant velocity of 7.5 m/s
toward the east. At time t 0, one is 15 m east of
the origin and the other is 15 m west.
a. What would be the difference(s) in the positiontime graphs of their motion?
b. What would be the difference(s) in their velocitytime graphs?
14. Velocity Explain how you would use a velocitytime graph to find the time at which an object had
a specified velocity.
15. Velocity-Time Graph Sketch a velocity-time
graph for a car that goes east at 25 m/s for 100 s,
then west at 25 m/s for another 100 s.
64
Chapter 3 Accelerated Motion
16. Average Velocity and Average Acceleration A
canoeist paddles upstream at 2 m/s and then turns
around and floats downstream at 4 m/s. The turnaround time is 8 s.
a. What is the average velocity of the canoe?
b. What is the average acceleration of the canoe?
17. Critical Thinking A police officer clocked a
driver going 32 km/h over the speed limit just
as the driver passed a slower car. Both drivers
were issued speeding tickets. The judge agreed
with the officer that both were guilty. The judgement was issued based on the assumption that
the cars must have been going the same speed
because they were observed next to each other.
Are the judge and the police officer correct?
Explain with a sketch, a motion diagram, and a
position-time graph.
physicspp.com/self_check_quiz
3.2 Motion with Constant Acceleration
Y
ou have learned that the definition of average velocity can be algebraically rearranged to show the new position after a period of time,
given the initial position and the average velocity. The definition of average
acceleration can be manipulated similarly to show the new velocity after a
period of time, given the initial velocity and the average acceleration.
Velocity with Average Acceleration
If you know an object’s average acceleration during a time interval, you
can use it to determine how much the velocity changed during that time.
The definition of average acceleration,
v
Objectives
• Interpret position-time
graphs for motion with
constant acceleration.
• Determine mathematical
relationships among position,
velocity, acceleration,
and time.
• Apply graphical and
mathematical relationships
to solve problems related to
constant acceleration.
a , can be rewritten as follows:
t
v at
vf vi at
The equation for final velocity with average acceleration can be written
as follows.
Final Velocity with Average Acceleration
vf vi at
The final velocity is equal to the initial velocity plus the product of the
average acceleration and time interval.
In cases in which the acceleration is constant, the average acceleration,
a, is the same as the instantaneous acceleration, a. This equation can be
rearranged to find the time at which an object with constant acceleration
has a given velocity. It also can be used to calculate the initial velocity of an
object when both the velocity and the time at which it occurred are given.
18. A golf ball rolls up a hill toward a miniature-golf hole. Assume that
the direction toward the hole is positive.
a. If the golf ball starts with a speed of 2.0 m/s and slows at a
constant rate of 0.50 m/s2, what is its velocity after 2.0 s?
b. What is the golf ball’s velocity if the constant acceleration
continues for 6.0 s?
c. Describe the motion of the golf ball in words and with a motion
diagram.
19. A bus that is traveling at 30.0 km/h speeds up at a constant rate of
3.5 m/s2. What velocity does it reach 6.8 s later?
20. If a car accelerates from rest at a constant 5.5 m/s2, how long will
it take for the car to reach a velocity of 28 m/s?
21. A car slows from 22 m/s to 3.0 m/s at a constant rate of 2.1 m/s2.
How many seconds are required before the car is traveling at 3.0 m/s?
Section 3.2 Motion with Constant Acceleration
65
Position-Time Graph for a Car
70.0
Table 3-2
60.0
Time (s)
Position (m)
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
0.00
2.50
10.0
22.5
40.0
62.5
Displacement (m)
Position-Time Data
for a Car
60.0 m 20.0 m
5.00 s 3.00 s
m 50.0
20.0 m/s
40.0
30.0
20.0
m
10.0
10.0 m/s
0.00
1.00
■
Figure 3-9 The slope of a
position-time graph of a car
moving with a constant
acceleration gets steeper as
time goes on.
20.0 m 0.00 m
3.00 s 1.00 s
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
Time (s)
Position with Constant Acceleration
You have learned that an object experiencing constant acceleration
changes its velocity at a constant rate. How does the position of an object
with constant acceleration change? The position data at different time
intervals for a car with constant acceleration are shown in Table 3-2.
The data from Table 3-2 are graphed in Figure 3-9. The graph shows
that the car’s motion is not uniform: the displacements for equal time
intervals on the graph get larger and larger. Notice that the slope of the line
in Figure 3-9 gets steeper as time goes on. The slopes from the positiontime graph can be used to create a velocity-time graph. Note that the slopes
shown in Figure 3-9 are the same as the velocities graphed in Figure 3-10a.
A unique position-time graph cannot be created using a velocity-time
graph because it does not contain any information about the object’s position. However, the velocity-time graph does contain information about
the object’s displacement. Recall that for an object moving at a constant
velocity, v v d/t, so d vt. On the graph in Figure 3-10b, v is
the height of the plotted line above the t-axis, while t is the width of
the shaded rectangle. The area of the rectangle, then, is vt, or d. Thus, the
area under the v-t graph is equal to the object’s displacement.
a
b
25.0
Figure 3-10 The slopes of the
p-t graph in Figure 3-9 are the
values of the corresponding v-t
graph (a). For any v-t graph,
the displacement during a given
time interval is the area under
the graph (b).
66
Chapter 3 Accelerated Motion
15.0
10.0
5.00
0.00
20.0 m/s 15.0 m/s
m 4.00 s 3.00 s
5.00 m/s2
1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
Time (s)
Velocity (m/s)
■
Velocity (m/s)
20.0
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
v
∆t
1
2
Time (s)
3
4
Finding the Displacement from a v-t Graph The v-t graph below shows the motion of
an airplane. Find the displacement of the airplane at t 1.0 s and at t 2.0 s.
1
Analyze and Sketch the Problem
• The displacement is the area under the v-t graph.
• The time intervals begin at t 0.0.
Unknown:
v 75 m/s
t 1.0 s
t 2.0 s
d ?
80
Velocity (m/s)
2
Known:
82
Solve for the Unknown
Solve for displacement during t 1.0 s.
d vt
(75 m/s)(1.0 s)
Substitute v 75 m/s, t 1.0 s
75 m
Solve for displacement during t 2.0 s.
d vt
(75 m/s)(2.0 s)
Substitute v 75 m/s, t 2.0 s
150 m
3
78
76
74
∆t
72
∆t
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
Time (s)
Math Handbook
Operations with
Significant Digits
pages 835–836
Evaluate the Answer
• Are the units correct? Displacement is measured in meters.
• Do the signs make sense? The positive sign agrees with the graph.
• Is the magnitude realistic? Moving a distance equal to about one football field
is reasonable for an airplane.
25. A car is driven at a constant velocity of 25 m/s for 10.0 min. The
car runs out of gas and the driver walks in the same direction
at 1.5 m/s for 20.0 min to the nearest gas station. The driver
takes 2.0 min to fill a gasoline can, then walks back to the car
at 1.2 m/s and eventually drives home at 25 m/s in the direction
opposite that of the original trip.
a. Draw a v-t graph using seconds as your time unit.
Calculate the distance the driver walked to the gas station
to find the time it took him to walk back to the car.
b. Draw a position-time graph for the situation using the
areas under the velocity-time graph.
Figure 3-11
80
Velocity (m/s)
24. A position-time graph for a pony running in a field is shown
in Figure 3-12. Draw the corresponding velocity-time graph
using the same time scale.
■
82
78
76
74
72
70
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
Time (s)
Displacement (m)
22. Use Figure 3-11 to determine the velocity of an airplane that is
speeding up at each of the following times.
a. 1.0 s
b. 2.0 s
c. 2.5 s
23. Use dimensional analysis to convert an airplane’s speed of
75 m/s to km/h.
y
Time (s)
■
Figure 3-12
x
Section 3.2 Motion with Constant Acceleration
67
Velocity (m/s)
vf
vi
0
ti
tf
Time (s)
■
Figure 3-13 The displacement
of an object moving with constant
acceleration can be found by
computing the area under the
v-t graph.
The area under the v-t graph is equal to the object’s displacement.
Consider the v-t graph in Figure 3-13 for an object moving with constant
acceleration that started with an initial velocity of vi. What is the object’s
displacement? The area under the graph can be calculated by dividing
it into a rectangle and a triangle. The area of the rectangle can be found
by drectangle vit, and the area of the triangle can be found by
dtriangle 12vt. Because average acceleration, a, is equal to v/t,
v can be rewritten as at. Substituting v at into the equation for the
triangle’s area yields dtriangle 12(at)t, or 12a(t)2. Solving for the total
area under the graph results in the following:
1
2
d drectangle dtriangle vi(t) a(t)2
When the initial or final position of the object is known, the equation
can be written as follows:
1
2
1
2
df di vi(t) a(t)2 or df di vi(t) a(t)2
If the initial time is ti 0, the equation then becomes the following.
1
2
An object’s position at a time after the initial time is equal to the sum of its
initial position, the product of the initial velocity and the time, and half the
product of the acceleration and the square of the time.
df di vitf atf 2
Position with Average Acceleration
An Alternative Expression
Often, it is useful to relate position, velocity, and constant acceleration
without including time. Rearrange the equation vf vi atf to solve for
Drag Racing A dragster
driver tries to obtain maximum
acceleration over a 402-m
(quarter-mile) course. The fastest
time on record for the 402-m
course is 4.480 s. The highest final
speed on record is 147.63 m/s
(330.23 mph). v v
a
f
i .
time: tf Rewriting df di vitf 12 atf2 by substituting tf yields the following:
v v
a
v v 2
a
1
f
f
i
i a
df di vi
2
This equation can be solved for the velocity, vf , at any time, tf .
Velocity with Constant Acceleration
vf2 vi2 2a(df di)
The square of the final velocity equals the sum of the square of the initial
velocity and twice the product of the acceleration and the displacement since
the initial time.
The three equations for motion with constant acceleration are summarized in Table 3-3. Note that in a multi-step problem, it is useful to add
additional subscripts to identify which step is under consideration.
Table 3-3
Equations of Motion for Uniform Acceleration
Equation
Variables
Initial Conditions
vf vi at f
t f, vf, a
vi
df di vit f at f2
t f, df, a
di , vi
vf2 vi2 2a(df di )
df, vf, a
di , vi
1
2
68
Chapter 3 Accelerated Motion
Displacement An automobile starts at rest and speeds up at 3.5 m/s2 after
the traffic light turns green. How far will it have gone when it is traveling
at 25 m/s?
1
Analyze and Sketch the Problem
• Sketch the situation.
• Establish coordinate axes.
• Draw a motion diagram.
Known:
End
x
Unknown:
di 0.00 m
df ?
vi 0.00 m/s
vf 25 m/s
a a 3.5 m/s2
2
Begin
v
a
Begin
Solve for the Unknown
Math Handbook
Order of Operations
page 843
Solve for df .
vf2 vi2 2a(df di)
v2 v2
2a
(25 m/s)2 (0.00 m/s)2
0.00 m 2(3.5 m/s2 )
End
f
i
df di Substitute di 0.00 m, vf 25 m/s, vi 0.00 m/s
89 m
3
Evaluate the Answer
• Are the units correct? Position is measured in meters.
• Does the sign make sense? The positive sign agrees with both the pictorial and
physical models.
• Is the magnitude realistic? The displacement is almost the length of a football
field. It seems large, but 25 m/s is fast (about 55 mph); therefore, the result is
reasonable.
26. A skateboarder is moving at a constant velocity of 1.75 m/s when
she starts up an incline that causes her to slow down with a
constant acceleration of 0.20 m/s2. How much time passes from
when she begins to slow down until she begins to move back down
the incline?
27. A race car travels on a racetrack at 44 m/s and slows at a constant
rate to a velocity of 22 m/s over 11 s. How far does it move during
this time?
28. A car accelerates at a constant rate from 15 m/s to 25 m/s while
it travels a distance of 125 m. How long does it take to achieve this
speed?
29. A bike rider pedals with constant acceleration to reach a velocity
of 7.5 m/s over a time of 4.5 s. During the period of acceleration,
the bike’s displacement is 19 m. What was the initial velocity of
the bike?
Section 3.2 Motion with Constant Acceleration
69
Two-Part Motion You are driving a car, traveling at
a constant velocity of 25 m/s, when you see a child
suddenly run onto the road. It takes 0.45 s for you to
react and apply the brakes. As a result, the car slows
with a steady acceleration of 8.5 m/s2 and comes to
a stop. What is the total distance that the car moves
before it stops?
1
Analyze and Sketch the Problem
Begin
• Sketch the situation.
• Choose a coordinate system with the motion
of the car in the positive direction.
• Draw the motion diagram and label v and a.
2
Known:
Unknown:
vreacting 25 m/s
treacting 0.45 s
a abraking 8.5 m/s2
vi, braking 25 m/s
vf, braking 0.00 m/s
dreacting ?
dbraking ?
dtotal ?
Reacting
End
Braking
x
0
Begin
v
a
Solve for the Unknown
Reacting:
Solve for the distance the car travels at a constant speed.
dreacting vreactingtreacting
dreacting (25 m/s)(0.45 s)
Substitute vreacting 25 m/s, treacting 0.45 s
11 m
Braking:
Solve for the distance the car moves while braking.
vf, braking2 vreacting2 2abraking(dbraking)
Math Handbook
Solve for dbraking.
vf, braking2
Isolating a Variable
page 845
vreacting2
dbraking 2abraking
(0.00 m/s) (25 m/s)
2
2
2(8.5 m/s )
2
Substitute vf, braking 0.00 m/s,
vreacting 25 m/s, abraking 8.5 m/s2
37 m
The total distance traveled is the sum of the reaction distance
and the braking distance.
Solve for dtotal.
dtotal dreacting dbraking
11 m 37 m
48 m
3
Substitute dreacting 11 m, dbraking 37 m
Evaluate the Answer
• Are the units correct? Distance is measured in meters.
• Do the signs make sense? Both dreacting and dbraking are positive,
as they should be.
• Is the magnitude realistic? The braking distance is small because
the magnitude of the acceleration is large.
70
Chapter 3 Accelerated Motion
End
30. A man runs at a velocity of 4.5 m/s for 15.0 min. When going up an increasingly steep
hill, he slows down at a constant rate of 0.05 m/s2 for 90.0 s and comes to a stop.
How far did he run?
31. Sekazi is learning to ride a bike without training wheels. His father pushes him with a
constant acceleration of 0.50 m/s2 for 6.0 s, and then Sekazi continues at 3.0 m/s for
another 6.0 s before falling. What is Sekazi’s displacement? Solve this problem by
constructing a velocity-time graph for Sekazi’s motion and computing the area
underneath the graphed line.
32. You start your bicycle ride at the top of a hill. You coast down the hill at a constant
acceleration of 2.00 m/s2. When you get to the bottom of the hill, you are moving at
18.0 m/s, and you pedal to maintain that speed. If you continue at this speed for
1.00 min, how far will you have gone from the time you left the hilltop?
33. Sunee is training for an upcoming 5.0-km race. She starts out her training run by moving
at a constant pace of 4.3 m/s for 19 min. Then she accelerates at a constant rate until
she crosses the finish line, 19.4 s later. What is her acceleration during the last portion
of the training run?
You have learned several different tools that you can apply when solving problems dealing with motion in one dimension: motion diagrams,
graphs, and equations. As you gain more experience, it will become easier
to decide which tools are most appropriate in solving a given problem. In
the following section, you will practice using these tools to investigate the
motion of falling objects.
3.2 Section Review
34. Acceleration A woman driving at a speed of
23 m/s sees a deer on the road ahead and applies
the brakes when she is 210 m from the deer. If the
deer does not move and the car stops right before
it hits the deer, what is the acceleration provided by
the car’s brakes?
35. Displacement If you were given initial and final
velocities and the constant acceleration of an
object, and you were asked to find the displacement, what equation would you use?
36. Distance An in-line skater first accelerates from
0.0 m/s to 5.0 m/s in 4.5 s, then continues at this
constant speed for another 4.5 s. What is the total
distance traveled by the in-line skater?
37. Final Velocity A plane travels a distance of
5.0102 m while being accelerated uniformly from
rest at the rate of 5.0 m/s2. What final velocity does
it attain?
38. Final Velocity An airplane accelerated uniformly
from rest at the rate of 5.0 m/s2 for 14 s. What final
velocity did it attain?
physicspp.com/self_check_quiz
39. Distance An airplane starts from rest and accelerates at a constant 3.00 m/s2 for 30.0 s before
leaving the ground.
a. How far did it move?
b. How fast was the airplane going when it took off?
40. Graphs A sprinter walks up to the starting blocks
at a constant speed and positions herself for the
start of the race. She waits until she hears the
starting pistol go off, and then accelerates rapidly
until she attains a constant velocity. She maintains
this velocity until she crosses the finish line, and
then she slows down to a walk, taking more time
to slow down than she did to speed up at the
beginning of the race. Sketch a velocity-time and a
position-time graph to represent her motion. Draw
them one above the other on the same time scale.
Indicate on your p-t graph where the starting
blocks and finish line are.
41. Critical Thinking Describe how you could calculate the acceleration of an automobile. Specify the
measuring instruments and the procedures that
you would use.
Section 3.2 Motion with Constant Acceleration
71
3.3 Free Fall
Objectives
• Define acceleration due
to gravity.
• Solve problems involving
objects in free fall.
Vocabulary
free fall
acceleration due to gravity
D
rop a sheet of paper. Crumple it, and then drop it again. Drop a rock
or a pebble. How do the three motions compare with each other?
Do heavier objects fall faster than lighter ones? A light, spread-out object,
such as a smooth sheet of paper or a feather, does not fall in the same manner as something more compact, such as a pebble. Why? As an object falls,
it bumps into particles in the air. For an object such as a feather, these little
collisions have a greater effect than they do on pebbles or rocks. To understand the behavior of falling objects, first consider the simplest case: an
object such as a rock, for which the air does not have an appreciable effect
on its motion. The term used to describe the motion of such objects is free
fall, which is the motion of a body when air resistance is negligible and
the action can be considered due to gravity alone.
Acceleration Due to Gravity
■ Figure 3-14 An egg accelerates
at 9.80 m/s2 in free fall. If the
upward direction is chosen as
positive, then both the velocity
and the acceleration of this egg
in free fall are negative.
About 400 years ago, Galileo Galilei recognized that to make progress
in the study of the motion of falling objects, the effects of the substance
through which the object falls have to be ignored. At that time, Galileo had
no means of taking position or velocity data for falling objects, so he rolled
balls down inclined planes. By “diluting” gravity in this way, he could
make careful measurements even with simple instruments.
Galileo concluded that, neglecting the effect of the air, all objects in free
fall had the same acceleration. It didn’t matter what they were made of, how
much they weighed, what height they were dropped from, or whether they
were dropped or thrown. The acceleration of falling objects, given a special
symbol, g, is equal to 9.80 m/s2. It is now known that there are small variations in g at different places on Earth, and that 9.80 m/s2 is the average value.
The acceleration due to gravity is the acceleration of an object in free
fall that results from the influence of Earth’s gravity. Suppose you drop a
rock. After 1 s, its velocity is 9.80 m/s downward, and 1 s after that, its
velocity is 19.60 m/s downward. For each second that the rock is falling,
its downward velocity increases by 9.80 m/s. Note that g is a positive number. When analyzing free fall, whether you treat the acceleration as positive
or negative depends upon the coordinate system that you use. If your coordinate system defines upward to be the positive direction, then the acceleration due to gravity is equal to g; if you decide that downward is the
positive direction, then the acceleration due to gravity is g.
A strobe photo of a dropped egg is shown in Figure 3-14. The time
interval between the images is 0.06 s. The displacement between each pair
of images increases, so the speed is increasing. If the upward direction is
chosen as positive, then the velocity is becoming more and more negative.
Ball thrown upward Instead of a dropped egg, could this photo also illustrate a ball thrown upward? If upward is chosen to be the positive direction, then the ball leaves the hand with a positive velocity of, for example,
20.0 m/s. The acceleration is downward, so a is negative. That is, a g 9.80 m/s2. Because the velocity and acceleration are in opposite directions,
the speed of the ball decreases, which is in agreement with the strobe photo.
72
Chapter 3 Accelerated Motion
Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs
20.0
0.00
20.0
0
1
2
3
0.00
0.50
2.00
4
Time (s)
Displacement (m)
0
1
2
Time (s)
2.08
20.41
d
Displacement (m)
0
2.04
Time (s)
25
c
■ Figure 3-15 In a coordinate
system in which the upward
direction is positive, the velocity
of the thrown ball decreases until
it becomes zero at 2.04 s. Then it
increases in the negative direction
as the ball falls (a, b). The p-t
graphs show the height of the
ball at corresponding time
intervals (c, d).
0.50
b
Velocity (m/s)
Velocity (m/s)
a
3
4
20.40
20.39
2.00
2.04
2.08
Time (s)
After 1 s, the ball’s velocity is reduced by 9.80 m/s, so it now is traveling
at 10.2 m/s. After 2 s, the velocity is 0.4 m/s, and the ball still is moving
upward. What happens during the next second? The ball’s velocity is
reduced by another 9.80 m/s, and is equal to 9.4 m/s. The ball now is
moving downward. After 4 s, the velocity is 19.2 m/s, meaning that the
ball is falling even faster. Figure 3-15a shows the velocity-time graph for
the ball as it goes up and comes back down. At around 2 s, the velocity
changes smoothly from positive to negative. Figure 3-15b shows a closer
view of the v-t graph around that point. At an instant of time, near 2.04 s,
the ball’s velocity is zero. Look at the position-time graphs in Figure 3-15c
and d, which show how the ball’s height changes. How are the ball’s position and velocity related? The ball reaches its maximum height at the
instant of time when its velocity is zero.
At 2.04 s, the ball reaches its maximum height and its velocity is zero.
What is the ball’s acceleration at that point? The slope of the line in the
v-t graphs in Figure 3-15a and 3-15b is constant at 9.80 m/s2.
Often, when people are asked about the acceleration of an object at the
top of its flight, they do not take the time to fully analyze the situation,
and respond that the acceleration at this point is zero. However, this is not
the case. At the top of the flight, the ball’s velocity is 0 m/s. What would
happen if its acceleration were also zero? Then the ball’s velocity would
not be changing and would remain at 0 m/s. If this were the case, the ball
would not gain any downward velocity and would simply hover in the air
at the top of its flight. Because this is not the way objects tossed in the air
behave on Earth, you know that the acceleration of an object at the top of
its flight must not be zero. Further, because you know that the object will
fall from that height, you know that the acceleration must be downward.
Section 3.3 Free Fall
73
Free-fall rides Amusement parks use the concept of free fall to design
rides that give the riders the sensation of free fall. These types of rides
usually consist of three parts: the ride to the top, momentary suspension,
and the plunge downward. Motors provide the force needed to move the
cars to the top of the ride. When the cars are in free fall, the most massive
rider and the least massive rider will have the same acceleration. Suppose
the free-fall ride at an amusement park starts at rest and is in free fall for
1.5 s. What would be its velocity at the end of 1.5 s? Choose a coordinate
system with a positive axis upward and the origin at the initial position of
the car. Because the car starts at rest, vi would be equal to 0.00 m/s. To
calculate the final velocity, use the equation for velocity with constant
acceleration.
vf vi atf
0.00 m/s (9.80 m/s2)(1.5 s)
15 m/s
How far does the car fall? Use the equation for displacement when time
and constant acceleration are known.
1
2
df di vitf atf2
1
2
0.00 m (0.00 m/s)(1.5 s) (9.80 m/s2)(1.5 s)2
11 m
42. A construction worker accidentally drops a brick from a high
scaffold.
a. What is the velocity of the brick after 4.0 s?
b. How far does the brick fall during this time?
43. Suppose for the previous problem you choose your coordinate
system so that the opposite direction is positive.
a. What is the brick’s velocity after 4.0 s?
b. How far does the brick fall during this time?
44. A student drops a ball from a window 3.5 m above the sidewalk.
How fast is it moving when it hits the sidewalk?
45. A tennis ball is thrown straight up with an initial speed of 22.5 m/s.
It is caught at the same distance above the ground.
a. How high does the ball rise?
b. How long does the ball remain in the air? Hint: The time it takes
the ball to rise equals the time it takes to fall.
46. You decide to flip a coin to determine whether to do your physics
or English homework first. The coin is flipped straight up.
a. If the coin reaches a high point of 0.25 m above where you
released it, what was its initial speed?
b. If you catch it at the same height as you released it, how much
time did it spend in the air?
74
Chapter 3 Accelerated Motion
You notice a water balloon fall past your classroom window. You
estimate that it took the balloon about t seconds to fall the length of
the window and that the window is about y meters high. Suppose the
balloon started from rest. Approximately how high above the top of the
window was it released? Your answer should be in terms of t, y, g, and
numerical constants.
Remember to define the positive direction when establishing your coordinate system. As motion problems increase in complexity, it becomes
increasingly important to keep all the signs consistent. This means that any
displacement, velocity, or acceleration that is in the same direction as the
one chosen to be positive will be positive. Thus, any displacement, velocity, or acceleration that is in the direction opposite to the one chosen to be
positive should be indicated with a negative sign. Sometimes it might be
appropriate to choose upward as positive. At other times, it might be
easier to choose downward as positive. You can choose either direction you
want, as long as you stay consistent with that convention throughout the
solution of that particular problem. Suppose you solve one of the practice
problems on the preceding page again, choosing the direction opposite to
the one you previously designated as the positive direction for the coordinate system. You should arrive at the same answer, provided that you
assigned signs to each of the quantities that were consistent with the coordinate system. It is important to be consistent with the coordinate system
to avoid getting the signs mixed up.
3.3 Section Review
47. Maximum Height and Flight Time Acceleration
due to gravity on Mars is about one-third that on
Earth. Suppose you throw a ball upward with the
same velocity on Mars as on Earth.
a. How would the ball’s maximum height compare
to that on Earth?
b. How would its flight time compare?
48. Velocity and Acceleration Suppose you throw a
ball straight up into the air. Describe the changes in
the velocity of the ball. Describe the changes in the
acceleration of the ball.
49. Final Velocity Your sister drops your house keys
down to you from the second floor window. If you
catch them 4.3 m from where your sister dropped
them, what is the velocity of the keys when you
catch them?
physicspp.com/self_check_quiz
50. Initial Velocity A student trying out for the football team kicks the football straight up in the air.
The ball hits him on the way back down. If it took
3.0 s from the time when the student punted the
ball until he gets hit by the ball, what was the football’s initial velocity?
51. Maximum Height When the student in the previous problem kicked the football, approximately
how high did the football travel?
52. Critical Thinking When a ball is thrown vertically upward, it continues upward until it reaches
a certain position, and then it falls downward. At
that highest point, its velocity is instantaneously
zero. Is the ball accelerating at the highest
point? Devise an experiment to prove or disprove
your answer.
Section 3.3 Free Fall
75
Acceleration Due to Gravity
Alternate CBL instructions
can be found on the
Web site.
physicspp.com
Small variations in the acceleration due to gravity, g, occur at different places
on Earth. This is because g varies with distance from the center of Earth and is
influenced by the subsurface geology. In addition, g varies with latitude due to
Earth’s rotation.
For motion with constant acceleration, the displacement is df di vi(tf ti) 1
1
a(tf ti)2. If di 0 and ti 0, then the displacement is df vitf atf2.
2
2
Dividing both sides of the equation by tf yields the following: df /tf vi 12 atf .
The slope of a graph of df/tf versus tf, is equal to 12 a. The initial velocity, vi, is
determined by the y-intercept. In this activity, you will be using a spark timer to
collect free-fall data and use it to determine the acceleration due to gravity, g.
QUESTION
How does the value of g vary from place to place?
Objectives
Procedure
■ Measure free-fall data.
■ Make and use graphs of velocity versus time.
■ Compare and contrast values of g for different
1. Attach the spark timer to the edge of the lab
table with the C-clamp.
locations.
Safety Precautions
■ Keep clear of falling masses.
Materials
spark timer
timer tape
1-kg mass
C-clamp
stack of newspapers
masking tape
2. If the timer needs to be calibrated, follow your
teacher’s instructions or those provided with
the timer. Determine the period of the timer
and record it in your data table.
3. Place the stack of newspapers on the floor,
directly below the timer so that the mass,
when released, will not damage the floor.
4. Cut a piece of timer tape approximately 70 cm
in length and slide it into the spark timer.
5. Attach the timer tape to the 1-kg mass with a
small piece of masking tape. Hold the mass
next to the spark timer, over the edge of the
table so that it is above the newspaper stack.
6. Turn on the spark timer and release
the mass.
7. Inspect the timer tape to make sure that there
are dots marked on it and that there are no
gaps in the dot sequence. If your timer tape is
defective, repeat steps 4–6 with another piece
of timer tape.
8. Have each member of your group perform the
experiment and collect his or her own data.
9. Choose a dot near the beginning of the timer
tape, a few centimeters from the point where
the timer began to record dots, and label it 0.
Label the dots after that 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc. until
you get near the end where the mass is no
longer in free fall. If the dots stop, or the
distance between them begins to get smaller,
the mass is no longer in free fall.
76
Horizons Companies
Data Table
Time period (#/s)
Interval
Distance (cm)
Time (s)
Speed (cm/s)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
10. Measure the total distance to each numbered
dot from the zero dot, to the nearest millimeter
and record it in your data table. Using the
timer period, record the total time associated
with each distance measurement and record
it in your data table.
Real-World Physics
Why do designers of free-fall amusement-park
rides design exit tracks that gradually curve
toward the ground? Why is there a stretch of
straight track?
Analyze
1. Use Numbers Calculate the values for speed
and record them in the data table.
2. Make and Use Graphs Draw a graph of
speed versus time. Draw the best-fit straight
line for your data.
3. Calculate the slope of the line. Convert your
result to m/s2.
Conclude and Apply
1. Recall that the slope is equal to 12a. What is the
acceleration due to gravity?
2. Find the relative error for your experimental
value of g by comparing it to the accepted
value.
Communicate the average value of g to
others. Go to physicspp.com/internet_lab
and post the name of your school, city,
state, elevation above sea level, and average
value of g for your class. Obtain a map for
your state and a map of the United States.
Using the data posted on the Web site by
other students, mark the values for g at the
appropriate locations on the maps. Do you
notice any variation in the acceleration due
to gravity for different locations, regions
and elevations?
Relative error Accepted value Experimental value
100
Accepted value
3. What was the mass’s velocity, vi , when you
began measuring distance and time?
Going Further
To find out more about accelerated motion, visit
the Web site: physicspp.com
What is the advantage of measuring several
centimeters away from the beginning of the timer
tape rather than from the very first dot?
77
Mirror
Time Dilation
at High Velocities
Observer
inside the
spacecraft
t0
Can time pass differently in two reference frames? How can one of a pair of
twins age more than the other?
Light clock
Mirror
Light Clock Consider the following
thought experiment using a light clock.
A light clock is a vertical tube with a
mirror at each end. A short pulse of light
is introduced at one end and allowed to
bounce back and forth within the tube.
Time is measured by counting the number of bounces made by the pulse of
light. The clock will be accurate because
the speed of a pulse of light is always c,
which is 3108 m/s, regardless of the
velocity of the light source or the observer.
Suppose this light clock is placed in a
very fast spacecraft. When the spacecraft goes at
slow speeds, the light beam bounces vertically
in the tube. If the spacecraft is moving fast, the
light beam still bounces vertically—at least as
seen by the observer in the spacecraft.
A stationary observer on Earth, however, sees
the pulse of light move diagonally because of
the movement of the spacecraft. Thus, to the
stationary observer, the light beam moves a
greater distance. Distance velocity time,
so if the distance traveled by the light beam
increases, the product (velocity time) also
must increase.
Because the speed of the light pulse, c, is the
same for any observer, time must be increasing
for the stationary observer. That is, the stationary observer sees the moving clock ticking
slower than the same clock on Earth.
Suppose the time per tick seen by the stationary observer on Earth is ts , the time seen by the
observer on the spacecraft is to, the length of
the light clock is cto , the velocity of the spacecraft is v, and the speed of light is c. For every
tick, the spacecraft moves vts and the light
pulse moves cto. This leads to the following
equation:
t
o
ts v
1
c 2
2
To the stationary observer, the closer v is to
78
Extreme Physics
D
D
Observer on Earth
c, the slower the clock ticks. To the observer
on the spacecraft, however, the clock keeps
perfect time.
Time Dilation This phenomenon is called
time dilation and it applies to every process
associated with time aboard the spacecraft. For
example, biological aging will proceed more
slowly in the spacecraft than on Earth. So if the
observer on the spacecraft is one of a pair of
twins, he or she would age more slowly than
the other twin on Earth. This is called the twin
paradox. Time dilation has resulted in a lot of
speculation about space travel. If spacecraft
were able to travel at speeds close to the speed
of light, trips to distant stars would take only
a few years for the astronaut.
Going Further
1. Calculate Find the time dilation ts/to
for Earth’s orbit about the Sun if
vEarth 10,889 km/s.
2. Calculate Derive the equation for ts
above.
3. Discuss How is time dilation similar to
or different from time travel?
3.1 Acceleration
Vocabulary
Key Concepts
• velocity-time graph (p. 58)
• acceleration (p.59)
• average acceleration
•
•
A velocity-time graph can be used to find the velocity and acceleration of
an object.
The average acceleration of an object is the slope of its velocity-time graph.
(p. 59)
v
v v
f
i
a t t
t
• instantaneous
acceleration (p. 59)
f
•
•
•
i
Average acceleration vectors on a motion diagram indicate the size and
direction of the average acceleration during a time interval.
When the acceleration and velocity are in the same direction, the object
speeds up; when they are in opposite directions, the object slows down.
Velocity-time graphs and motion diagrams can be used to determine the sign
of an object’s acceleration.
3.2 Motion with Constant Acceleration
Key Concepts
•
If an object’s average acceleration during a time interval is known, the
change in velocity during that time can be found.
vf vi at
•
•
The area under an object’s velocity-time graph is its displacement.
In motion with constant acceleration, there are relationships among the
position, velocity, acceleration, and time.
1
2
df di vitf atf 2
•
The velocity of an object with constant acceleration can be found using the
following equation.
vf 2 vi2 2a(df di)
3.3 Free Fall
Vocabulary
Key Concepts
• free fall (p. 72)
• acceleration due to
gravity (p. 72)
•
•
The acceleration due to gravity on Earth, g, is 9.80 m/s2 downward. The
sign associated with g in equations depends upon the choice of the
coordinate system.
Equations for motion with constant acceleration can be used to solve
problems involving objects in free fall.
physicspp.com/vocabulary_puzzlemaker
79
Concept Mapping
53. Complete the following concept map using the
following symbols or terms: d, velocity, m/s2, v, m,
acceleration.
61. What quantity is represented by the area under a
velocity-time graph? (3.2)
62. Write a summary of the equations for position,
velocity, and time for an object experiencing motion
with uniform acceleration. (3.2)
Quantities of motion
63. Explain why an aluminum ball and a steel ball of
similar size and shape, dropped from the same
height, reach the ground at the same time. (3.3)
position
64. Give some examples of falling objects for which air
a
resistance cannot be ignored. (3.3)
65. Give some examples of falling objects for which air
m/s
resistance can be ignored. (3.3)
Mastering Concepts
Applying Concepts
54. How are velocity and acceleration related? (3.1)
55. Give an example of each of the following. (3.1)
66. Does a car that is slowing down always have a
a. an object that is slowing down, but has a positive
acceleration
b. an object that is speeding up, but has a negative
acceleration
56. Figure 3-16 shows the velocity-time graph for an
automobile on a test track. Describe how the
velocity changes with time. (3.1)
negative acceleration? Explain.
67. Croquet A croquet ball, after being hit by a mallet,
slows down and stops. Do the velocity and
acceleration of the ball have the same signs?
68. If an object has zero acceleration, does it mean its
velocity is zero? Give an example.
69. If an object has zero velocity at some instant, is its
acceleration zero? Give an example.
70. If you were given a table of velocities of an object at
25
various times, how would you find out whether the
acceleration was constant?
20
15
71. The three notches in the graph in Figure 3-16 occur
5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Time (s)
■
Figure 3-16
57. What does the slope of the tangent to the curve on
a velocity-time graph measure? (3.1)
58. Can a car traveling on an interstate highway have a
negative velocity and a positive acceleration at the
same time? Explain. Can the car’s velocity change
signs while it is traveling with constant acceleration?
Explain. (3.1)
59. Can the velocity of an object change when its
acceleration is constant? If so, give an example.
If not, explain. (3.1)
60. If an object’s velocity-time graph is a straight line
parallel to the t-axis, what can you conclude about
the object’s acceleration? (3.1)
80
where the driver changed gears. Describe the
changes in velocity and acceleration of the car while
in first gear. Is the acceleration just before a gear
change larger or smaller than the acceleration just
after the change? Explain your answer.
72. Use the graph in Figure 3-16 and determine the
time interval during which the acceleration is largest
and the time interval during which the acceleration
is smallest.
73. Explain how you would walk to produce each of the
position-time graphs in Figure 3-17.
Displacement
10
Displacement
Velocity (m/s)
30
Time
Chapter 3 Accelerated Motion For more problems, go to Additional Problems, Appendix B.
C
A
D
E
B
F
G
H
Time
■
Figure 3-17
74. Draw a velocity-time graph for each of the graphs in
■
Displacement
Displacement
Time
80. Find the uniform acceleration that causes a car’s
velocity to change from 32 m/s to 96 m/s in an
8.0-s period.
Displacement
Figure 3-18.
Time
81. A car with a velocity of 22 m/s is accelerated
uniformly at the rate of 1.6 m/s2 for 6.8 s. What is
its final velocity?
82. Refer to Figure 3-19 to find the acceleration of the
Time
Figure 3-18
moving object at each of the following times.
a. during the first 5.0 s of travel
b. between 5.0 s and 10.0 s
c. between 10.0 s and 15.0 s
d. between 20.0 s and 25.0 s
reaches its maximum height. A second object falling
from rest takes 7.0 s to reach the ground. Compare
the displacements of the two objects during this
time interval.
76. The Moon The value of g on the Moon is one-sixth
of its value on Earth.
a. Would a ball that is dropped by an astronaut hit
the surface of the Moon with a greater, equal, or
lesser speed than that of a ball dropped from
the same height to Earth?
b. Would it take the ball more, less, or equal time
to fall?
77. Jupiter The planet Jupiter has about three times
the gravitational acceleration of Earth. Suppose a
ball is thrown vertically upward with the same
initial velocity on Earth and on Jupiter. Neglect the
effects of Jupiter’s atmospheric resistance and
assume that gravity is the only force on the ball.
a. How does the maximum height reached by the
ball on Jupiter compare to the maximum height
reached on Earth?
b. If the ball on Jupiter were thrown with an initial
velocity that is three times greater, how would
this affect your answer to part a?
78. Rock A is dropped from a cliff and rock B is thrown
upward from the same position.
a. When they reach the ground at the bottom of the
cliff, which rock has a greater velocity?
b. Which has a greater acceleration?
c. Which arrives first?
Mastering Problems
3.1 Acceleration
79. A car is driven for 2.0 h at 40.0 km/h, then for
another 2.0 h at 60.0 km/h in the same direction.
a. What is the car’s average velocity?
b. What is the car’s average velocity if it is driven
1.0102 km at each of the two speeds?
physicspp.com/chapter_test
Velocity (m/s)
75. An object shot straight up rises for 7.0 s before it
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
Time (s)
■
Figure 3-19
83. Plot a velocity-time graph using the information in
Table 3-4, and answer the following questions.
a. During what time interval is the object speeding
up? Slowing down?
b. At what time does the object reverse direction?
c. How does the average acceleration of the object
in the interval between 0.0 s and 2.0 s differ
from the average acceleration in the interval
between 7.0 s and 12.0 s?
Table 3-4
Velocity v. Time
Time (s)
Velocity (m/s)
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
8.00
9.00
10.0
11.0
12.0
4.00
8.00
12.0
14.0
16.0
16.0
14.0
12.0
8.00
4.00
0.00
4.00
8.00
Chapter 3 Assessment
81
84. Determine the final velocity of a proton that has
an initial velocity of 2.35105 m/s and then is
accelerated uniformly in an electric field at the rate
of 1.101012 m/s2 for 1.50107 s.
85. Sports Cars Marco is looking for a used sports car.
He wants to buy the one with the greatest
acceleration. Car A can go from 0 m/s to 17.9 m/s
in 4.0 s; car B can accelerate from 0 m/s to 22.4 m/s
in 3.5 s; and car C can go from 0 to 26.8 m/s in
6.0 s. Rank the three cars from greatest acceleration
to least, specifically indicating any ties.
86. Supersonic Jet A supersonic jet flying at 145 m/s
experiences uniform acceleration at the rate of
23.1 m/s2 for 20.0 s.
a. What is its final velocity?
b. The speed of sound in air is 331 m/s. What is the
plane’s speed in terms of the speed of sound?
3.2 Motion with Constant Acceleration
87. Refer to Figure 3-19 to find the distance traveled
during the following time intervals.
a. t 0.0 s and t 5.0 s
b. t 5.0 s and t 10.0 s
c. t 10.0 s and t 15.0 s
d. t 0.0 s and t 25.0 s
88. A dragster starting from rest accelerates at 49 m/s2.
How fast is it going when it has traveled 325 m?
89. A car moves at 12 m/s and coasts up a hill with a
uniform acceleration of 1.6 m/s2.
a. What is its displacement after 6.0 s?
b. What is its displacement after 9.0 s?
90. Race Car A race car can be slowed with a constant
acceleration of 11 m/s2.
a. If the car is going 55 m/s, how many meters will
it travel before it stops?
b. How many meters will it take to stop a car going
twice as fast?
91. A car is traveling 20.0 m/s when the driver sees a
child standing on the road. She takes 0.80 s to react,
then steps on the brakes and slows at 7.0 m/s2.
How far does the car go before it stops?
92. Airplane Determine the displacement of a plane
that experiences uniform acceleration from 66 m/s
to 88 m/s in 12 s.
93. How far does a plane fly in 15 s while its velocity is
95. Road Barrier The driver of a car going 90.0 km/h
suddenly sees the lights of a barrier 40.0 m ahead.
It takes the driver 0.75 s to apply the brakes, and the
average acceleration during braking is 10.0 m/s2.
a. Determine whether the car hits the barrier.
b. What is the maximum speed at which the car
could be moving and not hit the barrier 40.0 m
ahead? Assume that the acceleration doesn’t
change.
3.3 Free Fall
96. A student drops a penny from the top of a tower
and decides that she will establish a coordinate
system in which the direction of the penny’s
motion is positive. What is the sign of the
acceleration of the penny?
97. Suppose an astronaut drops a feather from 1.2 m
above the surface of the Moon. If the acceleration
due to gravity on the Moon is 1.62 m/s2
downward, how long does it take the feather to
hit the Moon’s surface?
98. A stone that starts at rest is in free fall for 8.0 s.
a. Calculate the stone’s velocity after 8.0 s.
b. What is the stone’s displacement during this time?
99. A bag is dropped from a hovering helicopter. The
bag has fallen for 2.0 s. What is the bag’s velocity?
How far has the bag fallen?
100. You throw a ball downward from a window at a
speed of 2.0 m/s. How fast will it be moving when
it hits the sidewalk 2.5 m below?
101. If you throw the ball in the previous problem up
instead of down, how fast will it be moving when
it hits the sidewalk?
102. Beanbag You throw a beanbag in the air and
catch it 2.2 s later.
a. How high did it go?
b. What was its initial velocity?
Mixed Review
103. A spaceship far from any star or planet experiences
uniform acceleration from 65.0 m/s to 162.0 m/s
in 10.0 s. How far does it move?
104. Figure 3-20 is a strobe photo of a horizontally
moving ball. What information about the photo
would you need and what measurements would
you make to estimate the acceleration?
changing from 145 m/s to 75 m/s at a uniform rate
of acceleration?
94. Police Car A speeding car is traveling at a constant
speed of 30.0 m/s when it passes a stopped police car.
The police car accelerates at 7.0 m/s2. How fast will it
be going when it catches up with the speeding car?
82
Chapter 3 Accelerated Motion For more problems, go to Additional Problems, Appendix B.
Skip Peticolas/Fundamental Photographs
■
Figure 3-20
105. Bicycle A bicycle accelerates from 0.0 m/s to
4.0 m/s in 4.0 s. What distance does it travel?
106. A weather balloon is floating at a constant height
above Earth when it releases a pack of instruments.
a. If the pack hits the ground with a velocity of
73.5 m/s, how far did the pack fall?
b. How long did it take for the pack to fall?
107. Baseball A baseball pitcher throws a fastball at a
speed of 44 m/s. The acceleration occurs as the
pitcher holds the ball in his hand and moves it
through an almost straight-line distance of 3.5 m.
Calculate the acceleration, assuming that it is
constant and uniform. Compare this acceleration
to the acceleration due to gravity.
108. The total distance a steel ball rolls down an incline
at various times is given in Table 3-5.
a. Draw a position-time graph of the motion of
the ball. When setting up the axes, use five
divisions for each 10 m of travel on the d-axis.
Use five divisions for 1 s of time on the t-axis.
b. Calculate the distance the ball has rolled at the
end of 2.2 s.
Table 3-5
Distance v. Time
Time (s)
Distance (m)
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
0.0
2.0
8.0
18.0
32.0
50.0
109. Engineers are developing new types of guns that
might someday be used to launch satellites as if
they were bullets. One such gun can give a small
object a velocity of 3.5 km/s while moving it
through a distance of only 2.0 cm.
a. What acceleration does the gun give this object?
b. Over what time interval does the acceleration
take place?
111. The velocity of a car changes over an 8.0-s time
period, as shown in Table 3-6.
a. Plot the velocity-time graph of the motion.
b. Determine the displacement of the car during
the first 2.0 s.
c. What displacement does the car have during the
first 4.0 s?
d. What is the displacement of the car during the
entire 8.0 s?
e. Find the slope of the line between t 0.0 s and
t 4.0 s. What does this slope represent?
f. Find the slope of the line between t 5.0 s and
t 7.0 s. What does this slope indicate?
Table 3-6
Velocity v. Time
Time (s)
Velocity (m/s)
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
0.0
4.0
8.0
12.0
16.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
112. A truck is stopped at a stoplight. When the light
turns green, the truck accelerates at 2.5 m/s2. At
the same instant, a car passes the truck going 15
m/s. Where and when does the truck catch up with
the car?
113. Safety Barriers Highway safety engineers build
soft barriers, such as the one shown in Figure 3-21,
so that cars hitting them will slow down at a safe
rate. A person wearing a safety belt can withstand
an acceleration of 3.0102 m/s2. How thick
should barriers be to safely stop a car that hits a
barrier at 110 km/h?
110. Sleds Rocket-powered sleds are used to test the
responses of humans to acceleration. Starting from
rest, one sled can reach a speed of 444 m/s in 1.80 s
and can be brought to a stop again in 2.15 s.
a. Calculate the acceleration of the sled when
starting, and compare it to the magnitude of
the acceleration due to gravity, 9.80 m/s2.
b. Find the acceleration of the sled as it is braking
and compare it to the magnitude of the
acceleration due to gravity.
■
physicspp.com/chapter_test
Figure 3-21
Chapter 3 Assessment
83
Joel Bennett/Peter Arnold, Inc.
114. Karate The position-time and velocity-time
Velocity (m/s)
Fist
Displacement (cm)
graphs of George’s fist breaking a wooden board
during karate practice are shown in Figure 3-22.
a. Use the velocity-time graph to describe the
motion of George’s fist during the first 10 ms.
b. Estimate the slope of the velocity-time graph to
determine the acceleration of his fist when it
suddenly stops.
c. Express the acceleration as a multiple of the
gravitational acceleration, g 9.80 m/s2.
d. Determine the area under the velocity-time
curve to find the displacement of the fist in
the first 6 ms. Compare this with the positiontime graph.
10.0
5.0
0.0
5.0
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0
Time (ms)
■
Figure 3-22
118. Analyze and Conclude An express train, traveling
at 36.0 m/s, is accidentally sidetracked onto a local
train track. The express engineer spots a local train
exactly 1.00102 m ahead on the same track and
traveling in the same direction. The local engineer
is unaware of the situation. The express engineer
jams on the brakes and slows the express train at a
constant rate of 3.00 m/s2. If the speed of the local
train is 11.0 m/s, will the express train be able to
stop in time, or will there be a collision? To solve
this problem, take the position of the express train
when the engineer first sights the local train as a
point of origin. Next, keeping in mind that the
local train has exactly a 1.00102 m lead, calculate
how far each train is from the origin at the end of
the 12.0 s it would take the express train to stop
(accelerate at 3.00 m/s2 from 36 m/s to 0 m/s).
a. On the basis of your calculations, would you
conclude that a collision will occur?
b. The calculations that you made do not allow for
the possibility that a collision might take place
before the end of the 12 s required for the
express train to come to a halt. To check this,
take the position of the express train when the
engineer first sights the local train as the point
of origin and calculate the position of each
train at the end of each second after the
sighting. Make a table showing the distance of
each train from the origin at the end of each
second. Plot these positions on the same graph
and draw two lines. Use your graph to check
your answer to part a.
115. Cargo A helicopter is rising at 5.0 m/s when a bag
of its cargo is dropped. The bag falls for 2.0 s.
a. What is the bag’s velocity?
b. How far has the bag fallen?
c. How far below the helicopter is the bag?
Writing in Physics
119. Research and describe Galileo’s contributions to
physics.
120. Research the maximum acceleration a human
Thinking Critically
116. Apply CBLs Design a lab to measure the distance
an accelerated object moves over time. Use equal
time intervals so that you can plot velocity over
time as well as distance. A pulley at the edge of
a table with a mass attached is a good way to
achieve uniform acceleration. Suggested materials
include a motion detector, CBL, lab cart, string,
pulley, C-clamp, and masses. Generate distancetime and velocity-time graphs using different
masses on the pulley. How does the change in
mass affect your graphs?
117. Analyze and Conclude Which has the greater
acceleration: a car that increases its speed from
50 km/h to 60 km/h, or a bike that goes from
0 km/h to 10 km/h in the same time? Explain.
84
body can withstand without blacking out. Discuss
how this impacts the design of three common
entertainment or transportation devices.
Cumulative Review
121. Solve the following problems. Express your
answers in scientific notation. (Chapter 1)
a. 6.2104 m 5.7103 m
b. 8.7108 km 3.4107 m
c. (9.21105 cm)(1.83108 cm)
d. (2.63106 m)/(4.08106 s)
122. The equation below describes the motion of an
object. Create the corresponding position-time
graph and motion diagram. Then write a physics
problem that could be solved using that equation.
Be creative. d (35.0 m/s) t 5.0 m (Chapter 2)
Chapter 3 Accelerated Motion For more problems, go to Additional Problems, Appendix B.
Multiple Choice
Use the following information to answer the first
two questions.
A ball rolls down a hill with a constant acceleration
of 2.0 m/s2. The ball starts at rest and travels for
4.0 s before it stops.
8. The graph shows the motion of a farmer’s truck.
What is the truck’s total displacement? Assume
that north is the positive direction.
150 m south
125 m north
300 m north
600 m south
1. How far did the ball travel before it stopped?
16 m
20 m
2. What was the ball’s velocity just before it
stopped?
2.0 m/s
8.0 m/s
12 m/s
16 m/s
3. A driver of a car enters a new 110-km/h speed
zone on the highway. The driver begins to
accelerate immediately and reaches 110 km/h
after driving 500 m. If the original speed was
80 km/h, what was the driver’s rate of acceleration?
0.44 m/s2
0.60 m/s2
25.0
Velocity (m/s)
8.0 m
12 m
5. A rock climber’s shoe loosens a rock, and her
climbing buddy at the bottom of the cliff notices
that the rock takes 3.20 s to fall to the ground.
How high up the cliff is the rock climber?
15.0 m
31.0 m
Time (s)
5.00
15.0
25.0
35.0
45.0
15.0
by calculating the slope of the tangent on
a distance-time graph
by calculating the area under the graph
on a distance-time graph
by calculating the area under the graph
on a velocity-time graph
by calculating the slope of the tangent on
a velocity-time graph
Extended Answer
10. Graph the following data, and then show
calculations for acceleration and displacement
after 12.0 s on the graph.
Time (s)
50.0 m
1.00102 m
0.00
6. A car traveling at 91.0 km/h approaches the
turnoff for a restaurant 30.0 m ahead. If the
driver slams on the brakes with an acceleration of
6.40 m/s2, what will be her stopping distance?
14.0 m
29.0 m
5.00
9. How can the instantaneous acceleration of an
object with varying acceleration be calculated?
8.4 m/s2
9.80 m/s2
8.7 s
17 s
5.00
0.00
25.0
4. A flowerpot falls off the balcony of a penthouse
suite 85 m above the street. How long does it
take to hit the ground?
4.2 s
8.3 s
15.0
Velocity (m/s)
8.10
6.00
36.9
9.00
51.3
12.00
65.7
50.0 m
100.0 m
7. What is the correct formula manipulation to find
acceleration when using the equation vf2 vi2 2ad?
(vf2 vi2)/d
(vf2 vi2)/2d
(vf vi)2/2d
(vf2 vi2)/2d
physicspp.com/standardized_test
Tables
If a test question involves a table, skim the table
before reading the question. Read the title, column
heads, and row heads. Then read the question and
interpret the information in the table.
Chapter 3 Standardized Test Practice
85