Detailed Contents
Preface xv
1
Introduction to the Study of Memory
The Science of Memory 3
The History of Memory Research 4
Hermann Ebbinghaus 5
Mary Calkins 9
Behaviorism 10
Frederic Bartlett 11
Endel Tulving 11
Cognitive Psychology 12
Cognitive Neuroscience 13
Methods of Studying Memory 15
Memory Measures 17
Recall 17
Recognition 18
Implicit Memory Tests 18
Source Judgments 19
Metamemory Judgments 20
Neuropsychology 20
Animal Models 21
Neuroimaging 21
Memory Improvement 24
Themes for the Book 25
Summary 26
Key Terms 27
Review Questions 27
Online Resources 27
2
Memory and the Brain
Old Questions, New Answers
Brain and Memory 31
Neurons 33
Neurotransmitters 37
29
30
1
Learning at the Cellular Level 38
Structures of the Human Brain 39
Subcortical Structures 41
Cortical Areas of the Brain Associated With Memory 43
Interim Summary 46
Neuroimaging 46
EEG (Electroencephalography) 46
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) 48
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) 49
Neuropsychology: Memory Deficits and Amnesia 51
Chemical Enhancement of Memory 52
Olfaction, Memory, and the Brain 53
Memory, Music, and the Brain 54
Summary 55
Key Terms 56
Review Questions 56
Online Resources 57
3
Working Memory
59
What Is Working Memory? 60
Some Terminological Clarifications 60
Working Memory Capacity 61
Pronunciation Time 64
The Duration of Information in Working Memory 66
The Serial Position Curve and Its Implication for Working Memory
Interim Summary 74
The Working Memory Model of Baddeley 74
Working Memory Systems 77
The Phonological Loop 77
Visuospatial Sketchpad 79
The Episodic Buffer 80
The Central Executive 80
Working Memory and the Brain 81
Applications of Working Memory 82
Reading Fluency 82
Verbal Fluency 83
ADHD 83
Alzheimer’s Disease 83
Cell Phones and Working Memory 83
Summary 84
Key Terms 84
Review Questions 85
Online Resources 85
70
4
Episodic Memory
87
Evidence for the Distinction 91
Behavioral Evidence 91
Neuropsychological Evidence 92
Evidence From Neuroimaging 93
Memory Processes: Encoding, Representation, and Retrieval
Encoding in Episodic Memory 94
Levels of Processing 94
Applications of Levels of Processing 99
The Self-Reference Effect 99
Survival Processing 100
The Generation Effect 101
Organization 103
Distinctiveness 104
Interim Summary 105
Retrieval From Episodic Memory 105
Encoding Specificity 108
Inhibition in Episodic Memory 114
Retrieval-Induced Inhibition 115
Part-Set Cueing 117
Directed Forgetting 118
Prospective Memory 118
Summary 120
Key Terms 121
Review Questions 121
Online Resources 122
5
Semantic Memory and Lexical Memory
123
Semantic Memory 124
Associative Structures in Semantic Memory 124
Semantic Priming and Lexical Decision Tasks 126
Sentence Verification Tasks 127
Concepts and Categories 128
Categories Are Fuzzy 129
Family Resemblance 131
Prototype Theory 132
Alternates to Prototype Theory 133
Schemas and Scripts 135
Reconstruction of Events 138
Semantic Memory for Music 140
Interim Summary 140
Lexical Memory 140
93
What Is Language? 141
Lexical Memory 144
Bilingual Lexicon 147
How Are Languages Learned by Young Children?
Second-Language Learning in Adulthood 150
Summary 152
Key Terms 152
Review Questions 153
Online Resources 154
6
Visual Memory
148
155
Visual Memory: Recognition and Recall 157
Representation and Imagery 158
Shepard and Metzler’s (1971) Mental Rotation Experiment 160
Neuroimaging and the Analog View 165
Interim Summary 167
Other Topics in Visual Memory 168
Photographic Memory: Reality or Fantasy? 168
Cognitive Maps 169
Memory for Faces 170
Verbal Facilitation and Overshadowing as It Pertains to Face Memory 171
Cross-Race Bias 175
The Neuroscience of Face Memory 175
Application of Visual Imagery to Mnemonics 177
Method of Loci 177
Keyword Technique 179
Pegword Technique 182
Interactive Versus Bizarre Imagery 183
Summary 184
Key Terms 185
Review Questions 185
Online Resources 186
7
Autobiographical Memory
187
Conway’s Theory of Representation in Autobiographical Memory
Event-Specific Memories 190
General Events 190
Lifetime Periods 193
The Working Self 193
Childhood Amnesia 194
Psychodynamic View 198
Age-Related Changes in Self-Concept 198
188
Neurological Transitions in Memory Systems 198
Influence of Language on Memory Development 199
Childhood Amnesia May Result From Multiple Causes 200
Flashbulb Memories 201
Accuracy of Flashbulb Memories 202
Theories of Flashbulb Memory Formation 205
Interim Summary 206
Diary Studies and Autobiographical Memory 206
The Cue-Word Technique for Eliciting Autobiographical
Memories and the Reminiscence Bump 209
Subjective Experience and Autobiographical Memory 213
Involuntary Memories 214
Borrowed Memories 214
Music and Autobiographical Memory 215
Sense of Smell and Autobiographical Memory 215
The Neuroscience of Autobiographical Memory 216
Neuropsychology of Autobiographical Memory 219
Summary 219
Key Terms 220
Review Questions 221
Online Resources 221
8
False Memory
223
Correspondence, Accuracy, and Amount 226
Source Monitoring 226
Methods of Studying False Memory 228
Deese-Roediger-McDermott Procedure (DRM) 228
False Memory Induction Procedure 230
Imagination Inflation 233
Altered Evidence 235
Hypnosis and Memory 236
Recovered Memory: The Reality of Repression 236
Mechanisms of Repression and Recovery 238
Active Suppression 242
Interim Summary 1 244
False Memories and Legal Psychology 244
Eyewitness Testimony 245
Effects of Wording on Memory of an Accident 246
The Misinformation Effect 247
Explanations for the Misinformation Effect 250
Interim Summary 2 252
The Cognitive Interview: More Information Without Suggestion
Chapter Summary 256
Key Terms 256
253
Review Questions 256
Online Resources 257
9
Metamemory
259
What Is Metamemory? 260
Theories of Metamemory 263
Direct-Access Theories 264
Indirect or Inferential Theories 264
Types of Judgments 265
Tip-of-the-Tongue States 265
Theoretical Mechanism 267
Brain Mechanisms 268
Feeling of Knowing 270
Cue Familiarity and the Feeling of Knowing 270
Brain Mechanisms of Feeling of Knowing 271
Neuropsychology and the Feeling of Knowing 271
Judgments of Learning 273
Factors That Influence Judgments of Learning 275
Brain Mechanisms for Judgments of Learning 276
Interim Summary 276
Control Processes in Metamemory 276
Allocation of Study Time 278
Labor-in-Vain Effect 279
Region of Proximal Earning 280
Control Processes at Retrieval 282
TOTs and Retrieval Time 282
A Note on Accuracy 283
Other Kinds of Metamemory 283
Retrospective Confidence 283
Metamemory in Nonhuman Animals 285
Summary 286
Key Terms 286
Review Questions 287
Online Resources 287
10
Memory Disorders
289
What Is Amnesia? 290
Case Studies of Amnesia 291
Patient HM 291
Clive Wearing 291
Anterograde Amnesia 292
Implicit Memory in the Amnesic Syndrome 294
Awareness in the Amnesic Syndrome 295
Simulated Anterograde Amnesia 297
Retrograde Amnesia 298
Electroconvulsive Therapy 301
Korsakoff’s Disease 301
Interim Summary 306
Frontal Lobe Amnesia 306
Behavioral Issues in Frontal Patients 307
Transient Global Amnesia 308
Short-Term Memory Amnesia 309
Reduplicative Paramnesia and Capgras Syndrome
Psychogenic Amnesia 312
Dissociative Amnesia 314
Dissociative Fugue 314
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder 314
Repression 315
Alzheimer’s Disease 315
Causes of Alzheimer’s Disease 317
Treatment of Alzheimer’s Disease 318
Memory Rehabilitation 318
Summary 319
Key Terms 320
Review Questions 320
Online Resources 321
11
Memory in Childhood
310
323
Memory in Infancy 323
Visual Recognition 324
Nonnutritive Sucking 325
Conjugate Reinforcement Technique 325
Imitation 326
Memory for Language in Infancy 327
Semantic Memory 327
Episodic Memory 327
Memory in Early Childhood 328
Why Does Memory Improve During Early Childhood? 328
Memory Efficiency 330
Episodic Memory 331
Memory Conversations and Episodic Memory 332
Interim Summary 334
Children’s Eyewitness Memory 335
Memory and Stress in Children’s Episodic Memory 337
Memory in Older Children 339
Metamemory in Children 341
Overconfidence in Judgments 345
Metamemory and the Strategic Use of Memory 346
A Guide to Developing Memory Skills in Children 346
Summary 347
Key Terms 348
Review Questions 348
Online Resources 349
12
Memory in Older Adults
351
Theories of Aging and Memory 354
Processing Speed 354
Inhibition Theory 356
Decline in the Strategic Use of Memory 357
Age-Related Changes in Working Memory 358
Semantic Memory and Lexical Memory 360
Episodic Memory 360
Recall Versus Recognition 361
Memory Accuracy 362
False Memory in Older Adults 363
Suggestibility 363
Misattribution of Source 364
Associative Meaning 365
Interim Summary 365
Metamemory in Older Adults 365
Judgments of Learning 367
TOTs and Aging 370
Use It or Lose It: Maintaining Memory Ability in Older Adults
Memory Rehabilitation Among Older Adults 372
Mnemonic Tips for Older Adults 373
The Neuroscience of Memory and Aging 374
Summary 374
Key Terms 375
Review Questions 375
Online Resources 376
13
Memory Improvement: A User’s Guide
377
1. Process for Meaning 379
Subjective Organization and Mnemonics 382
A Note About Imagery-Based Mnemonics 383
2. Make Use of Retrieval Cues 384
Retrieval Practice 385
Retrieval Cues and Autobiographical Memory 387
371
3. Use Metamemory: The Advantages of Self-Regulated Learning 388
Judgments of Learning as Mnemonic Improvement Tools 388
4. Distributed Practice and the Spacing Effect 391
Avoid Cramming: Massed Versus Distributed Practice 391
Myths and Methods to Avoid 394
Mnemonists 395
S 395
Rajan Mahadevan 397
Collaborative Memory 397
Summary 398
Key Terms 400
Review Questions 400
Online Resources 401
Glossary
403
References 419
Figure and Photo Credits 443
Author Index 449
Subject Index 461
About the Author 481