macro
CHAPTER NINE
Introduction to
Economic Fluctuations
macroeconomics
fifth edition
N. Gregory Mankiw
PowerPoint® Slides
by Ron Cronovich
© 2002 Worth Publishers, all rights reserved
Chapter objectives
 difference between short run & long run
 introduction to aggregate demand
 aggregate supply in the short run & long
run
 see how model of aggregate supply and
demand can be used to analyze short-run
and long-run effects of “shocks”
CHAPTER 9
Introduction to Economic Fluctuations
slide 1
Real GDP Growth in the United States
10
Percent change
from 4 quarters
8
earlier
Average growth
rate = 3.5%
6
4
2
0
-2
-4
1960
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1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
Introduction to Economic Fluctuations
1995
2000
slide 2
Time horizons
 Classical theory: Long run:
Prices are flexible, respond to changes in
supply or demand
 Real Business Cycle: Short run:
Many prices are “sticky” at some
predetermined level
The economy behaves much
differently when prices are sticky.
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Introduction to Economic Fluctuations
slide 3
In Classical Macroeconomic Theory,
(what we studied in chapters 3-8)
 Output is determined by the supply side:
– supplies of capital, labor
– technology
 Complete price flexibility is a crucial
assumption,
so classical theory applies in the long run.
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Introduction to Economic Fluctuations
slide 4
When prices are sticky
…output and employment also depend on
aggregate demand for goods & services,
which is affected by
 changes in C or I – affected by interest
rates
 fiscal policy (G and T ) – affects
disposable income
 Changes in NX
 monetary policy (M ) – affects interest
rates
CHAPTER 9
Introduction to Economic Fluctuations
slide 5
The model of
aggregate demand and supply
 the paradigm that most mainstream
economists & policymakers use to think
about economic fluctuations and policies
to stabilize the economy
 shows how the price level and aggregate
output are determined
 shows how the economy’s behavior is
different in the short run and long run
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Introduction to Economic Fluctuations
slide 6
The downward-sloping AD curve
An increase in the
price level causes
a fall in
purchasing
power,
causing a
decrease in the
demand for goods
& services.
CHAPTER 9
P
The aggregate demand curve shows
the relationship between the price
level and the quantity of output
demanded.
AD
Introduction to Economic Fluctuations
Y
slide 7
Shifting the AD curve
An increase in
the money
supply shifts
the AD curve
to the right.
An increase in
C, I, G or NX
shifts the AD
curve to the
right as well.
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P
AD2
AD1
Y
Introduction to Economic Fluctuations
slide 8
Aggregate Supply in the Long Run
 Recall from chapter 3:
In the long run, output is determined by
factor supplies and technology
Y
F (K , L )
Y is the full-employment or natural or
potential level of output, the level of output
at which the economy’s resources are fully
employed.
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Introduction to Economic Fluctuations
slide 9
Aggregate Supply in the Long Run
 Recall from chapter 3:
In the long run, output is determined by
factor supplies and technology
Y
F (K , L )
 Full-employment output does not depend
on the price level,
so the long run aggregate supply (LRAS)
curve is vertical:
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Introduction to Economic Fluctuations
slide 10
The long-run aggregate supply curve
P
LRAS
The LRAS curve
is vertical at the
full-employment
(potential) level
of output.
Y
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Introduction to Economic Fluctuations
Y
slide 11
Long-run effects of an increase in M
P
LRAS
P2
In the long run,
this increases
the price level…
An increase
in M shifts
the AD curve
to the right.
P1
AD2
AD1
…but leaves
output the same.
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Y
Introduction to Economic Fluctuations
Y
slide 12
Short-run effects of an increase in M
In the short run
when prices are
sticky (fixed),…
P
…an increase
in aggregate
demand…
SRAS
AD2
AD1
P
…causes
output, and
employment to
rise.
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Y1
Y2
Introduction to Economic Fluctuations
Y
slide 13
The SR & LR effects of M > 0
A = initial
equilibrium
B = new shortrun eq’m
after Fed
increases M
C = long-run
equilibrium
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P
LRAS
C
P2
P
B
A
Y
Y2
Introduction to Economic Fluctuations
SRAS
AD2
AD1
Y
slide 14
Shocks in Macro
 shocks: exogenous changes in aggregate
supply or demand
 Shocks temporarily push the economy away
from its current level (e.g. full-employment).
 An example of a demand shock:
financial distress
drop in C and I
 An example of a supply shock:
oil prices increase
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drop in F(K,L)
Introduction to Economic Fluctuations
slide 15
The effects of a negative demand shock
The shock shifts
AD left, causing
output and
employment to fall
in the short run
Over time, prices
fall and the
economy moves
down its demand
curve toward fullemployment.
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P
P
LRAS
B
P2
A
SRAS
C
AD1
AD2
Y2
Y
Introduction to Economic Fluctuations
Y
slide 16
Supply shocks
A supply shock alters production costs,
affects the prices that firms charge.
(also called price shocks)
Examples of adverse supply shocks:
 Bad weather reduces crop yields, pushing up
food prices.
 Workers unionize, negotiate wage increases.
 New environmental regulations require firms to
reduce emissions. Firms charge higher prices to
help cover the costs of compliance.
(Favorable supply shocks lower costs and prices.)
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Introduction to Economic Fluctuations
slide 17
CASE STUDY:
The 1970s oil shocks
 Early 1970s: OPEC coordinates a reduction
in the supply of oil.
 Oil prices rose
11% in 1973
68% in 1974
16% in 1975
 Such sharp oil price increases are supply
shocks because they significantly impact
production costs and prices.
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Introduction to Economic Fluctuations
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CASE STUDY:
The 1970s oil shocks
The oil price shock
shifts SRAS up,
causing output and
employment to fall.
In absence of
further price
shocks, prices will
fall over time and
economy moves
back toward full
employment.
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P
P2
LRAS
B
SRAS2
A
P1
SRAS1
AD
Y2
Y
Introduction to Economic Fluctuations
Y
slide 19
CASE STUDY:
The 1970s oil shocks
70%
12%
Predicted effects of
the oil price shock:
• inflation
• output
• unemployment
60%
…and then a
gradual recovery.
10%
50%
10%
40%
8%
30%
20%
6%
0%
1973
4%
1974
1975
1976
1977
Change in oil prices (left scale)
Inflation rate-CPI (right scale)
Unemployment rate (right scale)
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Introduction to Economic Fluctuations
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CASE STUDY:
The 1970s oil shocks
60%
14%
50%
Late 1970s:
As economy
was recovering,
oil prices shot up
again, causing
another huge
supply shock!!!
12%
40%
10%
30%
8%
20%
6%
10%
0%
1977
1978
1979
1980
4%
1981
Change in oil prices (left scale)
Inflation rate-CPI (right scale)
Unemployment rate (right scale)
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Introduction to Economic Fluctuations
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CASE STUDY:
The 1980s oil shocks
40%
1980s:
A favorable
supply shock-a significant fall
in oil prices.
As the model
would predict,
inflation and
unemployment
fell:
10%
30%
8%
20%
10%
6%
0%
-10%
4%
-20%
-30%
2%
-40%
-50%
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
0%
1987
Change in oil prices (left scale)
Inflation rate-CPI (right scale)
Unemployment rate (right scale)
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Introduction to Economic Fluctuations
slide 22
Stabilization policy
 def: policy actions aimed at reducing the
severity of short-run economic fluctuations.
 Example: Using monetary policy to
combat the effects of adverse supply
shocks:
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Introduction to Economic Fluctuations
slide 23
Stabilizing output with
monetary policy
The adverse
supply shock
moves the
economy to
point B.
P
P2
LRAS
B
SRAS2
A
P1
SRAS1
AD1
Y2
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Y
Introduction to Economic Fluctuations
Y
slide 24
Stabilizing output with
monetary policy
P
But the Fed
accommodates
the shock by
raising agg.
demand.
P2
results:
P is permanently
higher, but Y
remains at its fullemployment level.
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LRAS
B
SRAS2
C
A
P1
AD1
Y2
Y
Introduction to Economic Fluctuations
AD2
Y
slide 25
Chapter summary
1. Long run: prices are flexible, output and
employment are always at their natural
rates, and the classical theory applies.
Short run: prices are sticky, shocks can
push output and employment away from
their natural rates.
2. Aggregate demand and supply:
a framework to analyze economic
fluctuations
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Introduction to Economic Fluctuations
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Chapter summary
3. The aggregate demand curve slopes
downward.
4. The long-run aggregate supply curve is
vertical, because output depends on
technology and factor supplies, but not
prices.
5. The short-run aggregate supply curve is
horizontal, because prices are sticky at
predetermined levels.
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Introduction to Economic Fluctuations
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Chapter summary
6. Shocks to aggregate demand and supply
cause fluctuations in GDP and employment
in the short run.
7. The central bank and he government can
attempt to stabilize the economy with
monetary and fiscal policies.
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Introduction to Economic Fluctuations
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