Bruner - Learning Theory in Education | Simply Psychology
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Home › Perspectives › Cognitive › Jerome Bruner
Bruner
by Saul McLeod
published 2008, updated 2012
The outcome of cognitive development is thinking. The intelligent mind creates from experience "generic
coding systems that permit one to go beyond the data to new and possibly fruitful predictions" (Bruner,
1957, p. 234).
Thus, children as they grow must acquire a way of representing the "recurrent regularities" in their
environment.
So, to Bruner, important outcomes of learning include not just the concepts, categories, and problemsolving procedures invented previously by the culture, but also the ability to "invent" these things for
oneself.
Cognitive growth involves an interaction between basic human capabilities and "culturally invented
technologies that serve as amplifiers of these capabilities." These culturally invented technologies include
not just obvious things such as computers and television, but also more abstract notions such as the way a
culture categorizes phenomena, and language itself. Bruner would likely agree with Vygotsky that
language serves to mediate between environmental stimuli and the individual's response.
The aim of education should be to create autonomous learners (i.e., learning to learn).
In his research on the cognitive development of children (1966), Jerome Bruner proposed three modes of
representation:
Enactive representation (action-based)
Iconic representation (image-based)
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Symbolic representation (language-based)
Bruner's Three Modes of Representation
Modes of representation are the way in which information or knowledge are stored and encoded in
memory.
Rather than neat age related stages (like Piaget), the modes of representation are integrated and only
loosely sequential as they "translate" into each other.
Enactive
(0 - 1 years)
This appears first. It involves encoding action based information and storing it in our memory. For
example, in the form of movement as a muscle memory, a baby might remember the action of shaking a
rattle.
The child represents past events through motor responses, i.e. an infant will “shake a rattle” which has just
been removed or dropped, as if the movements themselves are expected to produce the accustomed sound.
And this is not just limited to children.
Many adults can perform a variety of motor tasks (typing, sewing a shirt, operating a lawn mower) that
they would find difficult to describe in iconic (picture) or symbolic (word) form.
Iconic
(1 - 6 years)
This is where information is stored visually in the form of images (a mental picture in the mind’s eye).
For some, this is conscious; others say they don’t experience it. This may explain why, when we are
learning a new subject, it is often helpful to have diagrams or illustrations to accompany verbal
information.
Symbolic
(7 years onwards)
This develops last. This is where information is stored in the form of a code or symbol, such as language.
This is the most adaptable form of representation, for actions & images have a fixed relation to that which
they represent. Dog is a symbolic representation of a single class.
Symbols are flexible in that they can be manipulated, ordered, classified etc., so the user isn’t constrained
by actions or images. In the symbolic stage, knowledge is stored primarily as words, mathematical
symbols, or in other symbol systems.
Bruner's constructivist theory suggests it is effective when faced with new material to follow a
progression from enactive to iconic to symbolic representation; this holds true even for adult learners. A
true instructional designer, Bruner's work also suggests that a learner even of a very young age is capable
of learning any material so long as the instruction is organized appropriately, in sharp contrast to the
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beliefs of Piaget and other stage theorists.
The Importance of Language
Language is important for the increased ability to deal with abstract concepts. Bruner argues that language
can code stimuli and free an individual from the constraints of dealing only with appearances, to provide a
more complex yet flexible cognition.
The use of words can aid the development of the concepts they represent and can remove the constraints
of the “here & now” concept. Basically, he sees the infant as an intelligent & active problem solver from
birth, with intellectual abilities basically similar to those of the mature adult.
Educational Implications
For Bruner (1961), the purpose of education is not to impart knowledge, but instead to facilitate a child's
thinking and problem solving skills which can then be transferred to a range of situations. Specifically,
education should also develop symbolic thinking in children.
In 1960 Bruner's text, The Process of Education was published. The main premise of Bruner's text was
that students are active learners who construct their own knowledge.
Bruner (1960) opposed Piaget's notion of readiness. He argued that schools waste time trying to match
the complexity of subject material to a child's cognitive stage of development. This means students are
held back by teachers as certain topics are deemed to difficult to understand and must be taught when the
teacher believes the child has reached the appropriate state of cognitive maturity.
Bruner (1960) adopts a different view and believes a child (of any age) is capable of understanding
complex information: "'We begin with the hypothesis that any subject can be taught effectively in some
intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development'. (p. 33)"
Bruner (1960) explained how this was possible through the concept of the spiral curriculum. This
involved information being structured so that complex ideas can be taught at a simplified level first, and
then re-visited at more complex levels later on. Therefore, subjects would be taught at levels of gradually
increasing difficultly (hence the spiral analogy). Ideally teaching his way should lead to children being
able to solve problems by themselves.
Bruner (1961) proposes that learners’ construct their own knowledge and do this by organizing and
categorizing information using a coding system. Bruner believed that the most effect way to develop a
coding system is to discover it rather than being told it by the teacher. The concept of discovery learning
implies that students construct their own knowledge for themselves (also known as a constructivist
approach).
The role of the teacher should not be to teach information by rote learning, but instead to facilitate the
learning process. This means that a good teacher will design lessons that help student discover the
relationship between bits of information. To do this a teacher must give students the information they
need, but without organizing for them. The use of the spiral curriculum can aid the process of discovery
learning.
Bruner and Vygotsky
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Both Bruner and Vygotsky emphasise a child's environment, especially the social environment, more than
Piaget did. Both agree that adults should play an active role in assisting the child's learning.
Bruner, like Vygotsky, emphasized the social nature of learning, citing that other people should help a
child develop skills through the process of scaffolding. The term scaffolding first appeared in the
literature when Wood, Bruner and Ross described how tutors' interacted with preschooler to help them
solve a block reconstruction problem (Wood et al., 1976).
The concept of scaffolding is very similar to Vygotsky's notion of the zone of proximal development, and
it not uncommon for the terms to be used interchangeably. Scaffolding involves helpful, structured
interaction between an adult and a child with the aim of helping the child achieve a specific goal.
"'[Scaffolding] refers to the steps taken to reduce the degrees of freedom in carrying out some task so that
the child can concentrate on the difficult skill she is in the process of acquiring'" (Bruner, 1978, p. 19).
Bruner and Piaget
Obviously there are similarities between Piaget and Bruner, but an important difference is that Bruner’s
modes are not related in terms of which presuppose the one that precedes it. Whilst sometimes one mode
may dominate in usage, they coexist. Bruner states that what determines the level of intellectual
development is the extent to which the child has been given appropriate instruction together with practice
or experience. So - the right way of presentation and the right explanation will enable a child to grasp a
concept usually only understood by an adult. His theory stresses the role of education and the adult.
Although Bruner proposes stages of cognitive development, he doesn’t see them as representing different
separate modes of thought at different points of development (like Piaget). Instead, he sees a gradual
development of cognitive skills and techniques into more integrated “adult” cognitive techniques.
Bruner views symbolic representation as crucial for cognitive development and since language is our
primary means of symbolizing the world, he attaches great importance to language in determining
cognitive development.
BRUNER AGREES WITH PIAGET
1. Children are PRE-ADAPTED to
learning
2. Children have a NATURAL
CURIOSITY
3. Children’s COGNITIVE
STRUCTURES develop over time
4. Children are ACTIVE participants in
the learning process
5. Cognitive development entails the
acquisition of SYMBOLS
BRUNER DISAGREES WITH PIAGET
1. Development is a CONTINUOUS PROCESS – not a series
of stages
2. The development of LANGUAGE is a cause not a
consequence of cognitive development
3. You can SPEED-UP cognitive development. You don’t have
to wait for the child to be ready
4. The involvement of ADULTS and MORE
KNOWLEDGEABLE PEERS makes a big difference
5. Symbolic thought does NOT REPLACE EARLIER MODES
OF REPRESENTATION
References
Bruner, J. S. (1957). Going beyond the information given. New York: Norton.
Bruner, J. S. (1960). The Process of education. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
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Bruner, J. S. (1961). The act of discovery. Harvard Educational Review, 31, 21-32.
Bruner, J. S. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction, Cambridge, Mass.: Belkapp Press.
Bruner, J. S. (1973). The relevance of education. New York: Norton.
Bruner, J. S. (1978). The role of dialogue in language acquisition. In A. Sinclair, R., J. Jarvelle, and W.
J.M. Levelt (eds.) The Child's Concept of Language. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Wood, D. J., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child
Psychiatry and Psychology, 17(2), 89-100.
How to cite this article:
McLeod, S. A. (2008). Bruner. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/bruner.html
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Comments (25)
Sort by: Date Rating Last Activity
Floyd Maponda · 151 weeks ago
+4
really useful an article. how about providing the Educational implications of this theory.why is the knowledge of this theory
relevant to teacher education?
Reply
tbjd · 137 weeks ago
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+1
I wish had read this useful article before I submitted my assignment, it would have help explain my position so much better.
will be using for the second stage. many thanks
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Bruner - Learning Theory in Education | Simply Psychology
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Reply
idk · 135 weeks ago
Report
-1
This artical is very useful as it explains the different stagesof cognitive development a child needs to go through in his point of
view and how it relates to education these days. Also showing the difference between Piaget's theory as he related it and split
the stages into sections.
Reply
laina shangano · 127 weeks ago
Report
+3
this article really helped me alot in unlocking some of the quections for my assignment, most especially when it comes to the
Bruners three modes,...thanks alot
Reply
nash nana · 115 weeks ago
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+1
this article is really helpful and of good use. it has got relevant information.i suggest that those doing teaching, should have
knowledge on these modes of representation. this article is simply lovely
Reply
john · 104 weeks ago
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-2
this is a very important information which i think broaden my perspectives to the theories of bruner regarding to education
Reply
mekfranklyn · 103 weeks ago
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+1
really nice article,I learned a lot.sure it ll help me more for my upcoming assignment.thanks guys!
Reply
morrisone randy · 101 weeks ago
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-1
i wish to have the educational applicability of Bruner's cognitive theory
Reply
shelton pukeni · 100 weeks ago
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0
gret information and helpful data.i liked the table showing similarities and differences btwn bruner and piaget.excellent .
Reply
margaret · 97 weeks ago
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0
Very useful for me as an introduction to all the theories these phychologists have come up with. Working with babies from
10mths and children up to the age of 7, I can agree and disagree; form an opinion and debate these theories, using my own
experiences, evaluations/studies of children in my care, against all that has been researched, written about and discussed at
length. Can't wait to write it all up!!
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Further Information
Lev Vygotsky
Zone of Proximal Development
Cognitive Approach
Jean Piaget
Jerome Bruner: The lesson of the story (Guardian Article)
Print Friendly
Article Content
Modes of Representation
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Importance of Language
Educational Implications
Bruner and Vygotsky
Bruner and Piaget
References
Related Articles
Lev Vygotsky
Zone of Proximal Development
Cognitive Approach
Jean Piaget
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