Microscopy
When you have completed this exercise, you will
be able to:
1. Identify the parts of a microscope.
2. Match the parts of a microscope with their functions
and uses.
3. Calculate the total magnification achieved when different objective and ocular lenses are used.
4. Demonstrate and explain proper procedures for microscope use.
5. Explain the meaning of “parfocal.”
6. Describe and draw types of microorganisms observed
in pond water, a hay infusion culture, and a pure culture
of Amoeba proteus.
7. Compare the biological diversity of natural and altered
environments.
8. Predict differences to be expected when comparing natural and altered environments.
T
he microscope is a very important tool in environmental science and all of biology. It makes microorganisms visible, opening up a vast new world to the
student. In this class, you will have the opportunity to
observe microorganisms from water and soil samples.
The diversity of microorganisms present in these samples
amazes many students.
Microscopes are expensive tools that should last for
many years with proper care and maintenance. Everyone
who uses a microscope helps determine how long it will be
of service. Be sure that you use your microscope properly so
that it may be used by many future students.
Parts of the Microscope
Three parts comprise the physical backbone of the microscope: the base, the arm, and the stage. The microscope sits
upon its base; the arm connects the base to the stage and to
other parts of the microscope. To safely carry the microscope, hold one hand at the arm and one beneath the base.
Be sure that all cords are tucked in so that you do not trip.
The stage is the site of the action; the microscope slide is
placed on it to be observed.
2
Note whether your microscope uses stage clips to hold
the slide in place or is equipped with a mechanical stage.
With stage clips, the microscope slide is slid beneath the
clips so that the slide is held in place. With this type of stage,
you must move the slide around with your hands. This can
be tricky, especially at high magnifications; therefore, a
mechanical stage is preferable. With a mechanical stage, the
slide is placed on the stage and slid into place as the clamps
are held open and then released to hold the slide in place.
Two knobs beneath the stage move the slide around the
stage. One knob moves the slide horizontally; the other
moves it vertically. It is much easier to control small movements using the mechanical stage.
Light comes into the microscope from a light source. In
modern microscopes, the light is part of the microscope and
is fixed in the base. Filters may be set on top of the light to
change its color or other attributes. Some microscopes have
controls to adjust the brightness of the light. These work like
the dimmer switches you may have in your home. If you do
not find this feature on your microscope, the diaphragm
located above the light can provide a similar effect. The
diaphragm opens and closes the aperture through which
the light shines by producing a larger or smaller hole as the
diaphragm control lever is moved from side to side. The
smaller hole lets through very little light and allows you to
observe slight shadows around rather clear specimens. This
can make these specimens visible without staining.
Microscopes magnify the images of specimens by using
lenses. Three types of lenses are found in most compound
microscopes: the condenser lens, the objective lens, and the
ocular lens. The condenser lens is found beneath the stage
aperture where it focuses the light on the specimen. Some
condensers are fixed and cannot be adjusted. Others, with
adjustable condensers, allow the user to focus the light away
from the specimen. This, like the use of low light, provides
contrast to rather clear specimens, making them more visible. After coming through the condenser, the light strikes the
specimen. An image is projected up to the lens above the
slide. This lens is the objective lens. Note that your microscope has from two to four objective lenses, all mounted on
a revolving nosepiece that brings each lens into viewing
position in turn. These objective lenses differ in magnifying
power, the number of times the image is magnified by the
5
lens (for example, 10×). The magnifying power is labeled on
each lens, and the colors for the labels are standardized as
well:
Common Name
Scanning lens
Low power
High (“dry”) power
High-power oil immersion
Magnifying
Power
Label
Color
4×
10×
43×
100×
Black
Green
Yellow
Red
The third type of lens found in a compound microscope is
the ocular lens, or eyepiece. This lens receives the magnified image produced by the objective lens in viewing position. Often, unseen mirrors reflect the image to the ocular
lens. The ocular lens magnifies the image again, usually tenfold. The total magnification of the image is the product of
the magnification of the objective lens times the magnification of the ocular lens. The compound microscope is so
named because of the “compounded” magnification of the
lenses it uses.
Your microscope may have one or two ocular lenses.
With one ocular lens, your microscope is called monocular.
To look into it, you use your dominant eye. Keep your other
eye open and ignore what it is seeing. This is not as difficult
as it sounds, but it does take practice. If your microscope has
two ocular lenses, it is binocular. The image observed is not
three-dimensional, but both eyes receive the image. Less
eyestrain occurs when the binocular microscope is used, but
the eyepieces must be adjusted for each individual user. This
may be why monocular microscopes are most often found in
classrooms.
The image is focused by using the coarse and fine
focus knobs. These controls move either the stage or the
objective’s nosepiece up and down to bring the image into
focus. The coarse focus adjustment is done first, and the fine
focus adjustment merely perfects the focus by making only
small adjustments.
Viewing Tips
Another feature of modern microscopes is that the lenses are
mounted to be parfocal. That is, when you have achieved a
coarse focus with the lowest power objective lens in place,
you can switch to the next higher magnification lens and still
maintain the coarse focus. This leaves a space above the
slide and below the lens, the “working distance.” Note that
the working distance declines as the magnifying power increases. With the highest power objective in place, there is
little room for movement of slides, so be careful to never
allow the lens to touch the slide. It is best to always return
the lowest power objective to the viewing position before
removing or adding a slide. This allows you to manipulate
the slides with the greatest working distance.
When you look through the microscope, you will
observe a circle of light and, if a slide is in place, your specimen. This area is known as your microscopic field. Note
that as you increase the magnification, the area of the specimen viewed in the microscopic field is smaller. This is
6 • Part 1 • Basic Laboratory Skills
logical because when the magnification increases, you can
only observe a smaller portion of your slide.
By the way . . .
The primary reason a student is unable to see a specimen clearly
is a dirty lens. If your view is fuzzy, clean the lenses with special
lint-free lens tissue or lens paper. Do not use a substitute or your
lens will be permanently scratched and ruined. Quite often,
simple cleaning can effect a remarkable improvement in the
quality of the image observed. If simple cleaning using a lens
tissue does not improve the image, tell your instructor. There are
special cleaning fluids that may be helpful, or perhaps a more
serious problem is present.
Microscope lenses differ in resolving power, the ability of a lens to separate two small, nearby objects into two
distinct images. A high-quality lens will have greater
resolving power than a lesser quality lens. Most student
microscopes will resolve two small objects 0.5 µm apart.
If the objects are closer together, they will appear as
one. Higher quality microscopes can resolve even smaller
distances.
The oil immersion lens provides the highest magnification (and the highest resolution as well). A drop of special,
optically pure immersion oil is placed on the slide before
viewing, and the oil immersion objective is turned into place
and immersed in the oil to view the slide. The use of oil
decreases image distortion. You will probably not use this
type of lens in this class, but if you do, be sure to remove all
the oil when you are done. Residual oil left on a lens can
seep into the housing of the lens and ruin it.
Quality lenses are very expensive, and the replacement
cost for one lens may exceed the cost of an entire new, lesser
quality microscope! The utmost care must be used to ensure
that lenses are not damaged.
Stereomicroscopes
Stereomicroscopes, also called dissecting microscopes, have
two ocular lenses and two objective lenses. This allows
stereoscopic vision so that when the stereoscope is used, a
three-dimensional image is seen. Thicker specimens, such
as live, whole small organisms, may be observed by using
the stereomicroscope.
Modifications of the procedures used for the light
microscope apply when using the stereomicroscope. The
specimen is placed in the viewing area. The eyepieces are
adjusted to the user’s eye width. Finally, the light is adjusted
to best illuminate the specimen. Some stereomicroscopes
provide “zoom” features that allow you to adjust the magnification to best display your image.
Activity 1: Using the Light
Microscope
Materials
Compound microscopes
Prepared letter “e” slides
Procedure
1. Carry the microscope upright with both hands, holding
onto the base and the arm.
2. Plug in the microscope, being sure the cord is placed
safely.
3. Turn on the light.
4. Place a letter “e” slide on the stage and slide it into
place. Use your stage clips or mechanical stage to hold
the slide in place, with the letter “e” centered over the
circle of light above the condenser.
5. Look through the ocular lens.
6. With the lowest magnification objective lens in place
above your slide, use the coarse focus knob to bring the
letter “e” into focus; adjust the focus further by using
the fine focus knob. If your microscope is binocular, use
the following steps to adjust the two lenses to your eyes:
a. Pull or push the lenses apart or together to fit the
width of your eye spacing.
b. Determine which of the ocular lenses has an
adjustable focus. Look only through the unadjustable one and focus carefully using the fine focus
adjustment.
c. Now adjust the focus on the adjustable ocular lens so
that both of your eyes see a clear image. Your microscope is now adjusted to your eyes. If you share a
microscope with a partner, you may need to make
these adjustments often.
7. Re-center the letter “e” in your field. Draw what you
see in the circle below.
8. Note the orientation of the letter as it appears with your
naked eye. Is it the same as through your microscope?
Why do you think it appears this way? Hint: What can
be found between the objective and ocular lenses?
9. To increase the magnification of the image, rotate the
next higher power objective lens into place. If the image
of the letter “e” disappears, switch back to the lower
power lens and re-center the image. Then try switching
to the higher powered objective again. Once you see the
letter “e” or a portion of it, draw what you see in the circle below. Why do you think the image has changed
more than just getting bigger?
10. To increase the magnification further, re-center the
image, switch objective lenses, and refocus with the
fine focus knob. Add a drop of oil before switching to
the high-power oil immersion lens. Note: If a slide, coverslip, or specimen is too thick for the oil immersion
lens to be turned into place, do not try to force it. You
will only succeed in breaking the slide and probably
scratching either or both the oil immersion objective
and condenser lenses.
11. When you are finished observing a slide, switch to the
lowest magnification objective lens. Use the coarse
focus knob to raise the objectives (or lower the stage,
depending on your microscope). Remove the slide,
wipe off any immersion oil (if used), and return the
slide to its proper storage place.
12. When you are done using the microscope, clean the
lenses with lens tissue if necessary. Then securely wrap
the cord around the base. Do not wrap it too tightly
because this may damage the cord and cause an electrical short to develop. Using both hands, carry the microscope to the storage cabinet and put it in its proper place.
Activity 2: Preparing Wet Mounts
and Observing Specimens
Ecological dogma states that undisturbed natural environments have greater biological diversity (more different
species of organisms in a given space or volume) than disturbed environments that have been altered by humans.
Keep this dogma in mind as you observe these samples. You
will observe three samples: pond water, a hay infusion culture, and a pure culture of Amoeba proteus. You will prepare
a wet mount of each, draw pictures of what you observe, and
critically compare the three specimens.
The pond water is the most natural of the three samples.
The hay infusion culture was prepared by adding water to hay
and allowing it to sit (“culture”) for a few days. This specimen
can be more or less “natural,” depending upon the source and
type of hay. (Ask your instructor how this particular culture
was prepared.) The pure culture of A. proteus is the most
unnatural sample of the three. It was prepared in the laboratory
of a biological supply company. We call it a pure culture
because it contains only one species of organism. Special techniques are required to maintain it as a pure culture because in
the real world there are always organisms ready and able to
contaminate the culture. In fact, it is probable that your class
will contaminate the A. proteus pure culture by the end of this
lab by introducing organisms from students’ hands or from the
other cultures. If another class used the culture before yours,
perhaps it already contains more than one species.
Materials
Microscope slides
Coverslips
Eyedroppers or Pasteur pipettes
Pond water
Hay infusion culture
Pure culture of Amoeba proteus
Exercise 2 • Microscopy • 7
Procedure
1. Obtain a clean microscope slide, a coverslip, and an
eyedropper from the supply area.
2. Obtain a drop of pond water from the bottom of the vessel. (It is best to collect the sample from the bottom of
the container because you will find the most organisms
there. Since aquatic microorganisms are affected by
gravity, many are found at the bottom.)
3. Place the drop on the center of a microscope slide (Figure 2.1a). Sometimes it is useful to add a drop of stain
to make the microorganisms more visible.
4. Place a coverslip with one edge at one side of the drop.
Draw the touching edge toward the drop until it spreads
out by capillary action as shown in Figure 2.1b.
5. Slowly release the coverslip as you place it the rest of
the way down onto the slide (Figure 2.1c). Try not to
produce bubbles; however, note that bubbles are round
and refractive when you look at them with your naked
eye. They are similarly round and refractive when
viewed through the microscope. Organisms are not as
perfectly round, do not have refractive edges, and are
not perfectly clear in their interior. If you observe round
clear objects with refractive edges through the microscope, you are observing air bubbles in your wet mount;
these are considered artifacts.
6. Draw the microorganisms you observe in the pond
water and record your observations about this sample in
Table 2.1 in your lab report. Record the total number of
different microorganisms observed. Notice the relative
abundance of microorganisms in your specimen and
estimate the number of microorganisms seen per lowpower field.
7. Make a wet mount of hay infusion water, collecting
your sample from the bottom of the container. Draw the
microorganisms you observe and record your observations about this sample in Table 2.1 in your lab report.
Record the total number of different microorganisms
observed. Notice the relative abundance of microorganisms in your specimen and estimate the number of
microorganisms seen per low-power field.
8. Make a wet mount of the Amoeba proteus pure culture,
collecting your sample from the bottom of the con-
8 • Part 1 • Basic Laboratory Skills
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 2.1 The steps in placing a coverslip on a
slide.
tainer. Draw the microorganism(s) you observe and
record your observations about this sample in Table 2.1
in your lab report. Record the total number of different
microorganisms observed. Notice the relative abundance of microorganisms in your specimen and estimate the number of microorganisms seen per lowpower field.
Lab Report
Your lab report may be written in standard lab report format
(see Appendix A). Alternatively, your instructor may require
that you use the lab report form on the following pages.
Name __________________________
Lab Report 2
Microscopy
1. Label the parts of the microscope shown in Figure 2.2 by placing the appropriate letters in the spaces below:
_____arm
_____base
_____binocular lenses
_____coarse focus knob
_____condenser
_____diaphragm control lever
_____fine focus knob
_____light source
_____mechanical stage knobs
_____nosepiece
_____objective lenses
_____stage
h
i
a
b
j
c
d
k
l
e
f
g
Figure 2.2 A compound microscope.
Exercise 2 • Microscopy • 9
2. If your microscope’s ocular lens has a magnification of 10× and your microscope’s objective lens has a magnification of
43×, what is the total magnification?
3. How should you carry the microscope? Why?
4. What should you use to clean the microscope lenses? Why are other materials not used?
5. Which objective lens should be in place when you begin and finish using the microscope?
6. Describe and draw the microorganisms you observed in each sample in the spaces provided in Table 2.1.
7. Compare the biological diversity of the three samples. Which one would you expect to be the most diverse? Which one
was?
8. Predict the differences in organism diversity that you would expect to find when comparing the microorganisms in soil
from an agricultural field (e.g., a cornfield) to soil from a natural environment. Use the results of this exercise as your
guide. Explain your reasoning.
10 • Part 1 • Basic Laboratory Skills
Table 2.1 Results of Observations
Sample
Drawings of Microorganisms Observed
Pond water
Total number of different microorganisms observed ____
Estimate of microorganisms per low-power field ____
Hay infusion
Total number of different microorganisms observed ____
Estimate of microorganisms per low-power field ____
Amoeba proteus pure culture
Total number of different microorganisms observed ____
Estimate of microorganisms per low-power field ____
Exercise 2 • Microscopy • 11