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Persuasive – to
persuade/convince by
refuting/proving a
point
◦ Uses facts & opinions
◦ Uses emotional
arguments
◦ Often written in 1st
person
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Deductive Reasoning
◦ General to specific
◦ “Tops-down” - starts at the top with a very broad
spectrum of information and that is worked way down
to a specific conclusion

Inductive Reasoning
◦ Specific to General
◦ “Bottoms-Up” – begins with specific observations and
measures, then detects patterns and regularities,
formulates some tentative hypotheses to explore, and
ends up developing general conclusions
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Introduction
Concession/Refutation – Yes…/but…
Confirmation
Conclusion
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Introduction
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Catch the reader’s interest
Present the issue/topic with an anecdote
Provide relevant background information
Define pertinent terms
State your claim in a thesis statement

Yes…but… - first recognizes and then argues at greater
length against opposing viewpoints, perhaps by finding
weaknesses within the opposing reasons, facts, testimony, or
logical development using a variation of “yes…but…” part of
the argument
◦ Validates or acknowledges opposing views; however, the
writer must demonstrate that his/her claims are more valid
◦ Writers may choose to concede/refute in the introduction or
throughout the entire body paragraph(s) as they introduce
each new premise
◦ Concession ideas often appear as subordinated thoughts in
dependent clause

Confirmation - the most important and the
longest section of the argument, because it
provides the reasons and the evidence for the
writer’s claim
◦ The body of the essay that shows the logical
development of the argument
◦ Include logical reasons/evidence and emotional
appeals to human needs or virtues
◦ Consciously incorporate other modes of discourse
to develop the argument’s logic

Conclusion
Wrap up the argument
Restate the claim
Provide a new appeal to needs or values
Enrich with additional commentary
Voice a call to action – a final plea for readers to act
or to change their thinking
◦ Refrain from repeating information
◦
◦
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For
Against
Choose a
concession
Chose 1 or 2
arguments
Add
refutation
Thesis statement goes here.
Thesis statement goes
here.
Lead: rhetorical question, image, quote or example
Lead
Thesis Statement
Thesis Statement
Argument: Details and examples
Argument
Concession/Refutation
Conclusion
Concession/Refutation: Details and examples
Conclusion
Two Reasons: This is the
easiest pattern to use
because it gives
students a
straightforward way to
organize their ideas,
points, arguments, or
steps. Write one reason,
… right after the other,
and sequentially support
each with evidence. This
approach is favored by
testing agencies and
traditionalists.
Two Reasons
Nestorian Order
Introduction
Proposition
Introduction
Proposition
1st reason developed
2nd reason developed
Minor reasons
2nd reason developed
1st reason developed
Strawman and One Reason
Concession
Introduction
Proposition
Introduction
Proposition
Main opposing argument
Refute the opposition
Opposing argument
Positive argument
Concession
Positive argument
Two Reasons
Strawman and One Reason:
In examining the strawman
pattern, students find they
can raise an opposing point,
argument, or idea and then
systematically invalidate it.
After deflating the
opponent, students go on
to present their ideas….
Lawyers use strawman
because their goal is to
knock down the opposing
argument, thereby
discrediting the opposing
view and winning the case.
Nestorian Order
Introduction
Proposition
Introduction
Proposition
1st reason developed
2nd reason developed
Minor reasons
2nd reason developed
1st reason developed
Strawman and One Reason
Concession
Introduction
Proposition
Introduction
Proposition
Main opposing argument
Refute the opposition
Opposing argument
Positive argument
Concession
Positive argument
Two Reasons
Nestorian Order
Introduction
Proposition
Introduction
Proposition
1st reason developed
2nd reason developed
Minor reasons
2nd reason developed
1st reason developed
Strawman and One Reason
Concession
Introduction
Proposition
Introduction
Proposition
Main opposing argument
Refute the opposition
Opposing argument
Positive argument
Concession
Positive argument
Nestorian Order: Ministers favor
this organizational pattern because
of their purpose. They want to
start with a punch and then end
with a bang. They want to leave
their congregations with a poignant
concept for the week.
In testing situations, Nestorian
Order is a winning pattern.
Students begin with their second
best idea, one they usually know
well and can support. They follow
this with other ideas, …, which they
usually know less well or in lesser
depth, but they conclude with their
best point…. By saving their best
for last, graders are left with a
strong impression instead of
ramblings or dwindling rhetoric.
Two Reasons
Nestorian Order
Introduction
Proposition
Introduction
Proposition
1st reason developed
2nd reason developed
Minor reasons
2nd reason developed
1st reason developed
Strawman and One Reason
Concession
Introduction
Proposition
Introduction
Proposition
Main opposing argument
Refute the opposition
Opposing argument
Positive argument
Concession
Positive argument
Concession: When considering
concession, the rhetoric of
politicians, students learn to use
this pattern when there is opposing
data to their argument, that cannot
be refuted. In using this pattern,
students concede the existence of
an opposing viewpoint, argument,
or idea but then proceed to
elaborate on their data. In
scholarship or research, to ignore
the opposing information reduces
the credibility of the writer.
Students learn writers must at least
acknowledge the opposing
viewpoint – even if they cannot
counter it – to make their views
viable.
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Emotional Appeals – appeals that tug at the
reader’s emotions or values
◦ Propaganda – writing or images that seek to
persuade through emotional appeal rather than
through logical proof; written or visual texts that
describe or depict using highly connotative words
or images – favorable or unfavorable – without
justification
◦ Bandwagon – contrived peer pressure where no one
wants to be left behind
◦ Slogans – easy-to-remember, oversimplified
catchword/phrase loaded with emotion

Logical Fallacy – error in reasoning that weakens an
argument, diminishing the credibility of the author
1. Ad Hominem – literally meaning, “against the man,” the target
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
person’s characteristics are attacked, instead of the argument
itself
Ad Populum – “to the crowd,” a misconception that a
widespread occurrence of something is assumed to make an
idea true or right
Begging the Question – taking for granted something that really
needs explaining
Either/Or Reasoning – the tendency to see an issue as having
only two sides
Hasty Generalization – drawing a hasty/premature conclusion
on the basis of only one or two cases
Syllogism – the fallacy exists when the comparison can’t be
supported

Logical Fallacy – error in reasoning that weakens an
argument, diminishing the credibility of the author
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Glittering Generalities – falsely attractive, empty words that make
us approve or accept something without examining real evidence
Scapegoat – a person/thing blamed for the misfortune of others;
the fallacy is that some people will try to oversimplify a
complicated issue by pointing to a single cause
Circular Reasoning – trying to prove one idea with another idea
that is too similar to the first idea; such an error in logic moves
backward in its attempt to move forward
Non Sequiter – “it does not follow,” an inference or conclusion
that does not follow established premises or evidence
Pedantry – displaying narrow-minded and trivial scholarship;
arbitrary adherence to rules
Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc – “after this, therefore because of
this,” assuming that an incident that precedes another is the cause
of the second incident