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Religions and Worldviews
Buddhism
1. Origin of Buddhism
Buddhism as one of some religions has been come
out of Hinduism.
Siddharta Gautama was a spiritual teacher who
founded Buddhism. The time of his birth is uncertain,
historians date his lifetime from 563 BCE to 483 BCE.
Siddhartha was born in Lumbini and raised in the
small kingdom or principality of Kapilvastu, both of
which are in modern day Nepal. Gautama was the
family name. Various sources hold that the Buddha's
mother died at his birth, a few days or seven days
later. The infant was given the name Siddhartha,
meaning "he who achieves his aim".
Siddhartha, destined to a luxurious life as a prince. All
negative and bad things were kept away from him. As
Siddharta reached the age of 16, his father arranged
his marriage to Yaśodharā. According to the Buddha figure in the monastery
traditional account, in time, she gave birth to a son, Po Lin, Hong Kong, China
Rahula. Siddhartha spent 29 years as a Prince in
Kapilavastu. Although his father made certain that Siddhartha was provided with
everything he could want or need, Siddhartha felt that material wealth was not the
ultimate goal of life. At the age of 29, Siddhartha left his palace in order to meet his
subjects.
Despite his father's effort to remove the sick, aged and suffering from the public view,
Siddhartha was said to have seen an old man. Disturbed by this, when told that all
people would eventually grow old, the prince went on further trips where he
encountered, variously, a diseased man, a decaying corpse, and an ascetic1. Deeply
depressed by these sights, he sought to overcome old age, illness, and death by
living the life of an ascetic.
All this made Siddharta feel his luxurious and royal life senseless. He abandoned
royal life to take up his spiritual quest (journey) to become free from suffering by
living the life of an ascetic begger, a highly respected spiritual practice at the time in
ancient India. On his way looking for the source of human suffering Siddharta learnt
to know a lot of ways and many forms of self-denial, including severe undereating.
One day, after almost starving to death, Gautama accepted a little milk and rice from
a village girl named Sujata. After this experience, he concluded that ascetic practices,
such as fasting, holding one's breath, and exposure to pain, brought little spiritual
benefit. He viewed them as being against his original aim due to their reliance on
self-hatred and mortification (shame). He abandoned asceticism, concentrating
instead on anapanasati meditation (awareness of breathing).
1
Is a person who dedicates his or her life to a pursuit of contemplative ideals and practices extreme
self-denial or self-mortification for religious reasons
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Buddha discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way, a path of moderation
between the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification. After discovering the
Middle Way, he sat under a sacred fig tree, also known as the Bodhi tree, in the town
of Bodh Gaya, India and vowed not to rise before achieving Nirvana. At age 35, after
many days of meditation, he attained his goal of becoming a Buddha (the Awakened
One). During meditation he reached expiration/ illumination. This procedure of
awakening in Sanskrit means Nirvana.2
After his spiritual awakening he attracted a band of followers and established a
monastic (simple) order. He spent the rest of his life teaching the Dharma3, travelling
throughout the north-eastern part of the Indian subcontinent. He died at the age of 80
in Kushinagar, India from food poisoning. Monks who converted into his ways
continued the tradition of his teachings after his death.
2. Diffusion of Buddhism
Buddhists generally classify themselves as either Theravada or Mahayana. This
classification is also used by some scholars. An alternative scheme used by some
scholars divides Buddhism into the following three traditions: Theravada (which has a
widespread following in Southeast Asia), Mahayana and Vajrayana (is an extension
of Mahayana Buddhism since it differs in its practices, rather than its philosophy) of
which Tibetan Buddhism is a sub school.
Not all traditions of Buddhism share the same philosophical outlook, or treat the
same concepts as central. Mahayana Buddhism shows a great deal of doctrinal
differences and development over time, and even more variation in terms of practice.
While there is much agreement on general principles, there is disagreement over
which texts are hold more authority.
Rough timeline of the development of the different schools/traditions:
Timeline: Development and Diffusion of Buddhist traditions (ca. 450 BCE – ca. 1300 AD)
450 BCE
India
Early
Sangha
250 BCE
700 AD 800 AD
Early Buddhist schools Mahayana
Greco-Buddhism
Central Asia
1200 AD
Vajrayana
Tibetan Buddhism
Silk Road Buddhism
Shingon
Ch'an, Tendai, Pure Land,
Zen, Nichiren
East Asia
450 BCE
2
500 AD
Theravada
Buddhism
Sri Lanka &
Southeast Asia
Legend:
100 AD
250 BCE
= Theravada
tradition
100 CE
500 CE
= Mahayana
traditions
700 CE
800 CE
1200 CE
= Vajrayana
traditions
According to the religious tradition of one of his teachings to his students the Buddha says the following about
Nirvana: “There is a place where there is neither earth nor fire, nor weather, nor wind, where the sphere of infinity
of space and of awareness end to exist. Where there is nothing, neither the sphere of differentiation nor the
sphere of non- differentiation, neither this world nor the ulterior world. Where both sun and moon don’t exist
anymore… I announce you a not-coming and not going, freedom of reincarnation; a not still standing and not
ongoing. No reason to wish for life. This is the end of suffering”
3
Dharma is the teachings of the Buddha which lead to enlightenment.
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Theravada Buddhism
Theravada literally, "the Teaching of the Elders", or "the Ancient Teaching" is the
oldest surviving Buddhist school. It was founded in India. The Theravāda school is
ultimately derived from the Vibhajjavāda (or 'doctrine of analysis') grouping which
continued from the older Sthavira (or 'teaching of the Elders') group. This was at the
time of the Third Buddhist Council around 250 BCE, during the reign of Emperor
Asoka in India. Vibhajjavadins saw
themselves as the continuation of
orthodox Sthaviras and after the Third
Council continued to refer to their
school as the Sthaviras/Theras ('The
Elders').
It is relatively conservative, and
generally closest to early Buddhism,
and for many centuries has been the
predominant religion of Sri Lanka
(about 70% of the population) and most
of
continental
Southeast
Asia
Buddhist monks in Burma, one of the most
(Cambodia, Laos, Burma, Thailand). It
predominantly Theravada Buddhist country in the
is also practiced by minorities in parts
world
of southwest China (by the Shan and
Tai ethnic groups), Vietnam (by the Khmer Krom), Bangladesh (by the ethnic groups
of Baruas, Chakma, and Magh), Malaysia and Indonesia, whilst recently gaining
popularity in Singapore and Australia.
Mahayana Buddhism
Mahayana literally the 'Great Vehicle' was founded in India. Although the Mahayana
movement traces its origin to Gautama Buddha, scholars believe that it originated in
India in the 1st century BCE or 100 AD. Since the fifth century AD Mahayanic
inscriptions started to appear in epigraphic records in India (records of inscriptions).
In the course of its history, Mahayana spread throughout East Asia. The main
countries in which it is practiced today are China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam and
worldwide amongst Tibetan Buddhist practitioners as a result of the Himalayan
Diaspora following the Chinese invasion of Tibet.
The main schools of Mahayana Buddhism today are Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren
Buddhism, Shingon, Tibetan Buddhism and Tendai. The latter three schools have
both Mahayana and Vajrayana practice traditions.
Mahayana can be described as a loosely bound bundle (collection) of many
teachings, which was able to contain the a range of contrasting ideas found between
those different teachings that it is made of.
Mahayana is a large religious and philosophical structure. It constitutes an inclusive
faith characterized by the adoption of new Mahayana sutras in as well as the earlier
Agama texts, and a shift in the basic purpose and concepts of Buddhism. Mahayana
sees itself as going further and more profoundly into the Buddha's Dharma.
Mahayana Buddhist schools de-emphasize the ideal of the release from Suffering
and the attainment of Nirvana, found in the Early Buddhist Schools. The fundamental
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principles of Mahayana doctrine were based around the possibility of universal
liberation (freedom) from suffering for all beings (hence "great vehicle") and the
existence of Buddhas and Bodhisattva embodying Buddha-nature. Some Mahayana
schools simplify the expression of faith by allowing salvation to be obtained in an
alternative way: through the grace of the Buddha Amitabha by having faith and
devoting oneself to chanting to Amitabha. This devotional lifestyle of Buddhism has
greatly contributed to the success of Mahayana in East Asia, where spiritual
elements traditionally relied upon chanting of a Buddha's name, of mantras or
dharanis; reading of Mahayana sutras and mysticism.
Most Mahayana schools believe in a pantheon of quasi-divine Bodhisattvas that
devote themselves to personal excellence, ultimate knowledge, and the salvation of
humanity and all other sentient beings (animals, ghosts, demigods, etc.).
Vajrayana Buddhism
The Vajrayana is often viewed as the third major Yana (or "vehicle") of Buddhism,
alongside the Theravada and Mahayana. According to this view, there were three
"turnings of the wheel of dharma". In the first turning Shakyamuni Buddha taught the
dharma as the Four Noble Truths at Varanasi which led to the so-called Hinayana
schools, of which only the Theravada remains today. In the second turning the
Perfection of Wisdom sutras were taught at Vulture's Peak and led to the Mahayana
schools. The teachings which formed the third turning of the wheel of dharma were
taught at Shravasti and expounded that all beings have Buddha-nature. This third
turning is described as having led to the Vajrayana.
Vajrayana Buddhism is also known as Tantric Buddhism,
Tantrayāna, Mantrayana, Mantranaya, Secret Mantra,
Esoteric Buddhism and the Diamond Vehicle. These terms
are not regarded as equivalent (they are not the same).
Vajrayana differs from Mahayana Buddhism in its practices,
rather than its philosophy. The Mahayana has two practice
paths: the Sutrayana method of perfecting good qualities and
the Vajrayāna method of taking the intended outcome of
Buddhahood as the path.
Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th
Dalai
Lama
is
the
spiritual leader of one of
four
school
of
the
Tibetan Buddhism (Gelug
school) forming part of
Vajrayana Buddhism.
The Vajrayana requires mystical experience in order to
experience Buddha-nature prior to full enlightenment. In
order to transmit these experiences, a body of esoteric
(Mysterious) knowledge has been gathered by Buddhist
tantric (newer) yogis and is passed via lineages of
transmission. In order to access this knowledge, the practitioner requires initiation
(induction) from a skilled spiritual teacher or guru.
3. Buddhist Concepts
3.1. Suffering
All Buddhist schools have in common the thinking that life means suffering.
According to Buddha every human existence is full of suffering and momentarily.
Suffering exists when the person is attached to the false idea that something or
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someone is eternal or permanent. Someone reaches salvation when he or she
recognizes that everything is temporary and without constant substance- including
the own person/ the own self.
To recognize this would mean to awake as Buddha has done it. That becomes
possible through good acts and training of the mind with meditation. Buddha
discourages the practice of extremes neither worldly well-being nor mortification.
According to the Pali Tipitaka4, the Four Noble Truths were the first teaching of
Gautama Buddha after attaining Nirvana. They are sometimes considered to contain
the essence of the Buddha's teachings and are presented in the manner of a medical
diagnosis and corrective prescription – a style common at that time:
1. Life as we know it ultimately is or leads to suffering (dukkha) in one way or
another.
2. Suffering is caused by craving or attachments to worldly pleasures of all kinds.
This is often expressed as a deluded clinging to a certain sense of existence,
to selfhood, or to the things or people that we consider the cause of happiness
or unhappiness.
3. Suffering ends when craving ends, when one is freed from desire. This is
achieved by getting rid of all delusion, thereby reaching a liberated (free) state
of Enlightenment (bodhi);
4. Reaching this liberated state is achieved by following the path laid out by the
Buddha.
3.2. Life and the world
Until Nirvana is reached, all creatures are in the cycle of suffering, called samsara.
Conscious beings in this cycle of conditioned existence and suffering produce the
causes and conditions for the next rebirth after death. After another rebirth they do
the same, and continue repeating this cycle. Buddhists strive to end this involuntary
cycle of suffering and rebirth by getting rid of its causes and conditions through
applying of the path laid out by the Buddha.
The energy which drives Samsara is called Karma (from Sanskrit: action, work).
Good, skillful and bad, unskillful actions produce "seeds" in the mind which come to
fruition either in this life or in a subsequent rebirth. Every time a person acts there is
some quality of intention at the base of the mind and it is that quality rather than the
outward appearance of the action that determines its effect.
In Theravada Buddhism there is no divine way to be saved or forgiveness from one's
Karma. Some Mahayana traditions hold different views, e.g. the texts of certain
Sutras (holy textes) claim that merely hearing or reciting these texts can erase great
binds of negative Karma.
As there are necessary many lifes to get to nirvana, the aim for laypersons is to reach
a better recarnation through good acts and to approach step by step to Nirvana.
Buddhists are not afraid of the death but of rebirths.
Buddhism rejects the idea of a permanent self or the concept of an unchanging,
eternal soul as it is known e.g. in Christianity or even Hinduism. As there ultimately is
4
The Pāli Canon is the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, as preserved in the Pali language.
It is the only completely surviving early Buddhist canon, and one of the first to be written down. It was transcribed from the more
ancient North Indian oral tradition, during the Fourth Buddhist Council in Sri Lanka in the 1st century BC.
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no such thing as a self (anatta), rebirth in following existences must rather be
understood as the continuation of a force, ever changing process of "Dependent
Arising" (Pratītyasamutpāda) determined by the laws of cause and effect (karma)
rather than that of one being, "jumping" from one existence to the next.
Each rebirth takes place within one of five realms, according to Theravadins, or six
according to other schools:
1. Naraka beings: those who live in one of many Narakas (Hells).
2. Animals: sharing some space with humans, but considered another type of
life.
3. Preta: Sometimes sharing some space
with humans, but invisible to most people;
an important variety is the hungry ghost.
4. Human beings: one of the realms of rebirth
in which attaining Nirvana is possible.
5. Asuras: lowly deities, demons, titans,
antigods; not recognized by Theravada
(Mahavihara) tradition as a separate
realm.
6. Devas: gods, deities, spirits, angels
3.3. Salvation
The final death is the entering into Nirvana which
is the salvation. Nirvana (Sanskrit; Pali
"Nibbana") means "cessation", "extinction" (of
craving and ignorance and therefore suffering
and the cycle of involuntary rebirths Samsara),
"extinguished", "quieted", "calmed"; it's also
Wheel of life with six realms (second
circle), Vajrayana, Bhutan
known as "Awakening" or "Enlightenment" in the
West. Buddhists believe that anybody who has
achieved Nirvana is in fact a Buddha.
Buddhist monks and nuns have in comparison with laypeople more time to practice
Buddha’s teachings. That’s why for them it is possible to reach Nirvana after death or
even during this life. Mahayana Buddhism knows the idea of already awaked people
so called Bodhisattvas5. They renounce voluntarily entering into Nirvana and help in
this world other people to reach nirvana.
4. Buddhist Ethics
The Buddhist ethical system is characterized by simplicity, spending little and
compassion. In Buddhist ethics motives are what matter most. If an action has its
roots in greed, hatred and delusion, then it is unwholesome or bad; if in liberality,
compassionate love and wisdom, then it is good. But the consequences of actions
5
A bodhisattva means either "enlightened (bodhi) existence (sattva)" or "enlightenment-being”. Another translation is "WisdomBeing". The various divisions of Buddhism understand the word bodhisattva in different ways, but especially in Mahayana
Buddhism, it mainly refers to a being that compassionately refrains from entering nirvana in order to save others. The current
Dalai Lama from Vajrayana Tradition is considered of being an emanation of the bodhisattva called Avalokiteshvara.
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also matter, as do working towards the material and spiritual welfare of others.
Actions in this life and the building up of merit will affect future reincarnations. But sin,
guilt and worry about past offences play no part in the Buddhist conception of wrongdoing. The five core Buddhist values are: abstain from killing and hurting living
creatures; from stealing; from wrong indulgence in sensual pleasures; from lying; and
from taking intoxicants.
Śīla is usually translated into English as "virtuous behavior", "morality", "ethics" or
"precept"(instructions). It is an action
committed through the body, speech, or
mind, and involves an deliberate effort.
It refers to moral purity of thought, word,
and deed. The four conditions of śīla are
chastity,
calmness,
quiet,
and
extinguishment. Śīla refers to overall
principles of ethical behavior. There are
several levels of sila, which correspond to
"basic morality" (five precepts), "basic
morality with asceticism (simplicity)" (eight
precepts),
"novice
monkhood"
(ten
precepts) and "monkhood". Lay people
generally undertake to live by the five
precepts,
Tibetan lay Buddhist with prayer wheel, Nepal
which are common to all Buddhist schools. If they wish, they can choose to
undertake the eight precepts, which add basic asceticism.
The five precepts are training rules in order to live a better life in which one is happy,
without worries, and can meditate well.
1. To refrain from taking life (non-violence towards sentient life forms)
2. To refrain from taking that which is not given (not committing theft)
3. To refrain from sensual (including sexual) misconduct
4. To refrain from lying (speaking truth always)
5. To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness (specifically,
drugs and alcohol)
In the eight precepts, the third precept on sexual misconduct is made more strict, and
becomes a precept of celibacy. The three additional precepts are:
6. To refrain from eating at the wrong time (only eat from sunrise to noon)
7. To refrain from dancing and playing music, wearing jewelry and cosmetics,
attending shows and other performances
8. To refrain from using high or luxurious seats and bedding
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5. Literature
 Bechert, Heinz & Richard Gombrich (ed.) (1984). The World of Buddhism,
Thames & Hudson.
 Buswell, Robert E. (ed.) (2003). Encyclopedia of Buddhism. MacMillan
Reference Books. ISBN 978-0028657189.
 Harvey, Peter (1990). An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and
Practices. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-52-131333-3.
 Keown, Damien and Charles S Prebish (eds.) (2004). Encyclopedia of
Buddhism (London: Routledge). ISBN 978-0-415-31414-5.
 Thich Nhat Hanh, The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching, Broadway Books,
ISBN 0-7679-0369-2.
 http://www.aboutbuddhism.org/
 http://www.buddhanet.net/
 http://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/index.htm
 http://www.what-buddha-taught.net/