Procrastination
Procrastination:
Causes and Effects
Sara Bellum
Composition I
Cecelia Munzenmaier
Hamilton College
August 3, 2007
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Procrastination
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Procrastination: Causes and Effects
It’s 10P.M. and the research paper is due the next morning. Surrounded by printouts, Sam
types frantically. Two weeks ago, it seemed that there was plenty of time to get the paper done.
Last week, a sick child made it hard to study. Now it’s crunch time. Looking at the clock, Sam
wonders, “Why do I keep doing this to myself? Why haven’t I learned not to put things off until
the last minute?” Researchers have found that procrastination like Sam’s is common (“DePaul,”
2007). However, they disagree about what causes people to put things off and whether
procrastination can have positive effects.
What is procrastination?
The word procrastination comes from two Latin terms meaning to put forward until
tomorrow. Standard dictionary definitions all include the idea of postponement or delay. Steel
(2007a), a psychologist who has reviewed hundreds of studies on the subject, notes that
procrastination is rarely judged to be a positive thing. His own definition stresses its negative
consequences: to procrastinate is “to voluntarily delay an intended course of action despite
expecting to be worse-off for the delay” (2007a).
Another expert, Dr. Joseph R. Ferrari (2005), distinguishes between people who tend to
put things off and those he describes as “chronic” or “real” procrastinators: “Remember, 80% of
us procrastinate, but 20% are procrastinators. ...[T]he 20% who are real procrastinators, where
this is their lifestyle, ... need therapy.” Ferrari (2000) categorizes procrastinators into three types,
based on the reason they put things off: (a) arousal types get a thrill from beating a deadline, (b)
avoiders put off doing things that might make others think badly of them, and (c) decisional
procrastinators postpone making a decision until they have enough information to avoid making
a wrong choice.
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What causes procrastination?
If procrastinators are not all alike, the causes of procrastination may vary too. Several
studies found that chronic procrastinators tend to have low self-esteem and focus on the past
more than the future (Specter & Ferrari, 2000). In some cases, procrastination may be a response
to an authoritative parenting style (Marano, 2003) or a rebellion against external demands
(Ferrari, 2005). Some researchers have found that procrastinators tend to be perfectionists
(Specter & Ferrari, 2000). However, Steel (2007b) does not believe that perfectionism causes
procrastination. In his view, only one theory is supported by research: the Discounted
Expectancy Theory. To illustrate, he uses the example of a student who puts off writing a paper.
When the deadline is far off, the rewards for socializing now are greater than those for finishing
a task not due until later. As the deadline looms, the rewards for finishing the paper become
more important. This theory, according to Steel, gives the most complete explanation of
procrastination, because it includes smaller “piece[s] of the puzzle” like rebellion and avoiding
unpleasant tasks.
What are the effects of procrastination?
Most researchers believe that procrastination has mostly bad effects. Several studies,
including one by Tice and Baumeister (1997), found that procrastinators got lower grades and
had higher levels of stress and illness. Businesses are becoming increasingly aware of the
productivity costs of procrastination (“DePaul,” 2007). However, some argue that procrastination
can have benefits. Chu and Choi (2005) say that not all procrastinators are lazy and
undisciplined. While “passive procrastinators” are more stressed and less efficient, “active
procrastinators” can adapt quickly to fast-changing environments. They “prefer to work under
pressure” and “if something unexpectedly comes up, they will switch gears and engage in new
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tasks they perceive as more urgent.” Schraw, Wadkins, and Olafson (2007) found that many
college students use procrastination as a way to manage their time. They quote a student who felt
that “I just don’t have time not to procrastinate. If I did everything the way it could be done, I
wouldn’t have a life” (p. 21).
Although some researchers, such as Tice and Bannister (1997), have conceded that
procrastinators may be right when they say they work best under pressure, most studies have
focused on the negative effects of procrastination. Recent research (Chu & Choi, 2005; Schraw,
Wadkins, & Olafson, 2007) suggests that the standard wisdom about procrastination and its
causes and effects may be too simplistic. Strategic delay can be used to manage rapidly changing
conditions and meet demanding deadlines.
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References
Chu, A. H., & Choi, J. N. (2005, June 1). Rethinking procrastination: Positive effects of “active”
procrastination on attitudes and performance. Journal of Social Psychology. Retrieved
from HighBeam database.
DePaul University study shows prevalence of chronic procrastination regardless of gender or
national origin [press release]. (2007, July 16). Retrieved August 3, 2007, from
http://sherman.depaul.edu/media/webapp/mrNews2.asp?NID=1639&ln=t
Ferrari, J. (2000, Special Issue). Procrastination and attention: Factor analysis of attention deficit,
boredomness, intelligence, self-esteem, and task delay frequencies. Journal of Social
Behavior & Personality, 15(5), 185-196. Retrieved from Academic Search Elite database.
Ferrari, J. (2005, December 7). There’s always tomorrow [live chat with E. Hoover]. Transcript
available at Chronicle of Higher Education Web site:
http://chronicle.com/colloquy/2005/12/procrastination/
Marano, H. E. (2003, August 23). Procrastination: Ten things to know. Retrieved from
http://psychologytoday.com/rss/pto-20030823-000001.html
Schraw, G., Wadkins, T., & Olafson, L. (2007). Doing the things we do: A grounded theory of
academic procrastination. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(1), 12–25.
Specter, M., & Ferrari, J. (2000, Special Issue). Time orientations of procrastinators: Focusing on
the past, present, or future? Journal of Social Behavior & Personality, 15(5), 197-202.
Retrieved from Academic Search Elite database.
Steel, P. (2007a). Definition of procrastination. Retrieved from Procrastination Central Web site:
http://webapps2.ucalgary.ca/~steel/Procrastinus/definition.php
Procrastination
Steel, P. (2007b). Theories of procrastination. Retrieved from Procrastination Central Web site:
http://webapps2.ucalgary.ca/~steel/Procrastinus/theories.php
Tice, D., & Baumeister, R. (1997, November). Longitudinal study of procrastination,
performance, stress, and health: The costs and benefits of dawdling. Psychological
Science, 8(6), 454-458. Retrieved from Academic Search Elite database.
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