Chapter 5
Spices
Introduction
Spices and condiments relate to the natural, aromatic plant components or mixture
thereof, used for flavouring, seasoning and imparting aroma or flavour to food. The term
applies equally to spices in the whole, broken or ground form.
Ancient peoples such as the Egyptian, the Arab and the Roman made extensive uses of
spices, not only to add flavor to foods and beverages, but as medicines, disinfectants,
incenses, stimulants and even as aphrodisiac agents. Some of them possess antioxidant
properties, work as preservative in pickles and chutneys and have anti-microbial and
antibiotic activates. Spices intensify salivary flow and the secretion amylase. Saliva rich
in ptyalin facilitates starch digestion in stomach, rendering the carbohydrates rich meal
more digestive. Spices cleanse oral cavity from food adhesion and bacteria.
Internationally, there are about 70 plant species that have been grown for spices, the
majority of which are in Asia. Therefore Asia is known as the ‘Land of Spices’ as it is the
place of origin, production, consumption and export of most spices. 13 are considered
major spices produced in Asia. Black pepper, Cardamom, Cinnamon, Cassia, Chilli
pepper, Cloves, Coriander, Cumin, Garlic Ginger, Nutmeg, Turmeric and Vanilla.
Economic importance
Spices are traded in different forms such as whole, essential oils, powered form or variety
of mixtures. It is a good source of income for the farmers.
Nutritional importance
Spices influence our health as they enrich our diet by supplying minerals, vitamins and
other components. Iron is supplied by cumin, coriander, fenugreek,turmeric, blackpepper,
tamarind etc. Calcium is available from cumin, coriander, pepper, clove, turmeric, and
asafetida. Although spices are not very good sources of vitamins but coriander, pepper,
chilli, cumin are sources of Vitamin A chilli and garlic are suppliers of Vitamin C.
Turmeric is consumed with boiled milk by woman during postnatal period as a nutritious
drink.
Medicinal use
The ancient Aryans considered spices as a powerful remedy for various disorders in
human beings. Even today, Unani, Homeopathy and Ayurvedic system of medicines most
of the spices are used as ingredients in medicinal drug preparations.
Other uses
Nutmeg, vanilla, clove, pepper, cumin, celery etc and their oils are used in perfumery or
in soap making. Turmeric is used for dyeing. Turmeric, clove, fenugreek, nutmeg are
used for manufacture of vanishing cream, toothpaste, hair tonic etc. Dry ginger and
ginger powder is used for manufacturing of brandy, wine and beer.
New developments and emerging Opportunities
There is some positive developments world over promoting the growth of spice industry:

Increase awareness about naturality of spices and its substitution for synthetic
coloruing anf flavouring agents.

Increasing demand on spicy and ethnic food items of countries like India ,
China

Emergence of ‘nature food’, yogic food’, ‘orgaic food’ and emphasis on ‘back
to nature’.

Increaing demand for spicy and ethnic food items of countries like India,
China , Mexico etc.

Multinational food cahin is changing the taste of the world through their spicy
menus.

Consumers in developed countries are accepting health claims for spices and
herbs in countries of origin.

Arrival of a ‘hot trend’i.e. an increased consumption of hot spices like pepper,
chilli, ginger etc.
Production technology
Cardamom
Introduction
India is the largest producer of large-cardamom in the world with 54% share in world
production followed by Nepal (33%) and Bhutan (13%).. This paper gives a brief
description of efforts made to obtain basic drying parameters of large-cardamom (which
is a pre-requisite for dryer design) under different operating conditions.
Botanical aspects
Cardamom is a perennial herbaceous plant belonging to the family Zingiberaceae. It has a
tall pseudostem formed by the encircling of the leaf-sheaths, wrapped one over another.
Depending on the variety, a normal full-grown plant may attain a height of two to four
metres. The real stem of the shallow-rooted plant is a rhizome which is subterranean. Leaves
are distichous, linear and lanceolate, with short petioles. Flowers are borne on panicles and
they arise directly from the base of the pseudo-stem. The panicles are erect, prostrate: semierect or flexous depending upon the varieties. Panicles emerge from January onwards, and
flowering continues from April to August or even later. Fruits mature in about three to four
months after flowering. They are small, trilocular capsules, each containing about 15 to 20
seeds.
Cardamom is reported to be self sterile so it is necessary to plant a mixture of clones to
enable cross fertilization. Flowers are bisexual and require cross pollination. Incase of
Ellataria cardamom out of many flower visitors, honeybees (Indian hive bee (Apis cerana)
and Rock bee (Apis dorsata and stringless bee- Trigona iridipennis L.) are the most
common contributing over 98% of the total visitors ( 95%, 2.8% and 2.2 % respectively).An
increase 217-480 % in yield has been reported. Four bee hives per hectare are sufficient for
effective pollination.
Studies have shown that in case of large cardamom wild
Cardamoms are broadly grouped into two categories:
A.
Small Cardamoms or the Lesser or True Cardamom
B.
Large Cardamom or Greater Indian Cardamom or Nepal Cardamom
Greater Indian Cardamom (Large Cardamom)
Lesser or True Cardamom
or Nepal Cardamom
(Cardamomum ellataria) Mation
(Cardamomum subulatum) Roxburgh
This species is mostly cultivated in the
According to the wealth of India, this species is
natural canopy of evergreen forests, at
cultivated in swampy places along the sides of
altitude ranges between 600-1500 metres,
mountain streams in Nepal, Bengal, Sikkim
with a warm humid atmosphere, evenly
and Assam (eastern Himalayas) and forms one
distributed rainfall and a humus-rich
of the important cash crops of the eastern
loamy soils which together provide the
region of India. These plants are usually grown
ideal habitat for its successful cultivation.
along small streams and along the hilly slopes,
Cardamoms are the dried capsules of a
usually at an elevation of 765 to 1675 metres
medium sized herbaceous perennial, 2 to
above sea level. The plants mature during the
5 metres tall and native of Western Ghat
third year of their growth, when flowers and
in South India. The floral stalks emerge
fruits are produced. Harvesting is done usually
in January. Flowers appear in April.
during August to October each year. The fruits
Flowering, continues up to July-August.
are almost the size of nutmeg and are a cheap
Fruits
and efficient substitute for true cardamoms.
September and continue up to December-
The dark red-brown globose capsules (2.5 cm
January. Fruits are trilocular capsules
long) contain several seeds in each cell, held
containing about 10-15 seeds in each
together by a viscid sugary pulp. The seeds
capsule.
start
maturing
in
August-
possess properties similar to those of true
cardamom.
As can be seen from the groups of cardamom explain above, the cardamom grown in
Bhutan is the Greater Indian Cardamom (Large Cardamom) or Nepal Cardamom
(Cardamomum subulatum Roxburgh). In the following explanation, information is adapted
for the cultivation of large cardamom, which is relevant for our situation.
Climate
The crop grows well under the shade of forest trees in the sub Himalayan mountains at
altitudes ranging from 1000 to 2000 m above mean sea level with rainfall of 3000 to 3500
mm distributed in about 200 days a year. The crop is at present grown in some relatively
drier shadow areas also where the productivity is much low. Cultivars suited to higher
altitudes can tolerate lower temperatures and those suited to lower altitudes to marginally
higher temperature regimes. Deep and well-drained soils with loamy texture are best
suited. Large cardamom soil is generally rich in organic matter and nitrogen, medium in
available phosphorous and medium to high in available potash. A pH range of 6-7 is most
favourable for the availability and effectiveness of most of the nutrients. Usually cardamom
growing soils are acidic with 4.5 - 6.0 pH and the use of lime is recommended in such areas
to increase the pH.
Even though the crop can be grown in undulating and steep terrains, land with moderate
slope is preferred.
Cultivars
There are mainly five popular cultivars viz. Ramsey, Sawney, Golsey, Varlangey and
Seremna. Bebo, Boklok Tali, Jaker, Belak are the other cultivars found in Arunachal
Pradesh
Common cultivars presently used by the farmers are:
Ramsey
This cultivar is well suited to high altitudes above 1200 and above msl and can be
cultivated even in steep slopes. The variety is identified by the maroonish colour of the
tiller and narrow leaves. Plants are 1.5 to 2.0 m tall, robust with large number of tillers.
Flowering starts in May and crop is ready for harvest by October-November. Capsules
are smaller in size ( bit pointed on the calyx end) with 25-40 seeds. It is susceptible to
viral diseases like Chirke & Foorkey
Sawney
It is a widely adaptable cultivar, which is most suited to medium and high altitude areas
of 1350 m a msl and above. Plants are 1.5 to 2.0 m tall, robust in nature, leaves are ovate
and broad and the colour of tiller is similar to Ramsey. Capsules are bigger and bold with
35-50 seeds. Flowering starts from March to May and harvest begins in SeptemberOctober and may extend upto November in high altitude areas. The cultivar is susceptible
to both Chirke and Foorkey diseases.
Dzongu Golsey
This cultivar is suitable below 1500 masl and is very specific in Dzongu areas of North
Sikkim and the plant height is 1.0 to 1.5m and not as robust like other cultivars. Unlike
Ramsey and Sawney, the tillers are green in colour and the leaves are narrow and erect.
Capsules are big and bold and contain about 50-70 seeds. Flowering starts in March and
harvesting is done in September-October. It is relatively toleJant to Chirke but
susceptible to Foorkey and leaf streak diseases.
Seremna
The cultivar is grown in a small pocket of the Hee-gaon west Sikkim, at low altitude and
is know for its high potential. Plants are 1.5 to 2 m tall, tillers are green and leaves are
mostly drooping, hence named as ‘Seremna’. On an average 2-3 spikes in each
productive tillers with about 10m capsules in each spike and 65-70 seeds per capsules is
recorded.
Varlangey
This cultivar is found to grow in high altitude areas. Its yield performance is
exceptionally high at high altitudes (above 1200 masl). Plants height is 1.5-2.5m, robust
type and resembles Ramsey with narrow leaves having wavy margins. The spike and
productive tiller ratio is relatively high in this cultivar. Size of the capsule is bold with
50-70 numbers of bold seeds. Flowering starts during June-July at high altitudes.
Consequently harvesting is delayed upto the end of November in high altitudes.
Propagation
Propagation of large cardamom is done through seed and suckers. The propagation
through seeds enables production of large numbers of seedlings. Virus diseases are not
transmitted through seeds and therefore seedlings are free from viral diseases, if adequate
care is taken to isolate and protect the nursery from fresh infection. Plants raised from
seeds need not necessarily be high yielder even if they are collected from very productive
plants due to cross-pollination. The major pollination is by wild bees even though
honeybees also play a role in pollination. Plants suckers and rhizomes on the other hand
ensure true to type and high productivity if they are collected form high yielding plants.
A. Propagation through seeds
Seeds are collected from high yielding and well-maintained plantations free from viral
diseases. Well-matured capsules from bottom and middle portion of spikes are selected
for extraction of seeds. After dehusking, the seeds are mixed with sand and rubbed with
hand and then washed with water to remove the mucilage completely. The seeds are
mixed with wood ash, dried in shade and sown in primary nursery. The seeds may be
shown immediately after extraction and drying for maximum germination. Normally the
germination percentage is only 20-30%.
Primary Nursery
Seed are generally shown in september to October. Select a site which is open, welldrained and near a source of water. Dig the land 30 cm deep and prepare beds of
6mx1mx30cm. Spread a thin layer of jungle soil over the nursery. 80-100 gm of seeds is
sown in lines 10 cm apart and cover them with another layer of thin fine soil. Mulch with
dry grass and water everyday in the morning and evening. Remove the mulch on the
commencement of germination and protect the seedlings by providing shade. Ensure
regular weeding and plant protection.
Secondary Nursery
Nursery beds of 6 m x 1 m x 3 0 cm are prepared. Mix well-decomposed cattle manure and
wood ash with top layer of soil. This will help the seedlings to establish well and grow
vigorously. During June-July the primary seedlings are transplanted to the secondary
nursery at a spacing of 25-30cm. Shade should be provided before transplanting. Mulch
with dry leaves. Regular watering during dry months, weeding, application of fertilisers,
control of pests and diseases and mulching are essential operations for the maintenance of
the secondary nursery. One month before uprooting, the overhead shade should be removed
to encourage better tillering.
B. Sucker multiplication nursery
As mentioned earlier suckers should be generated only in sucker multiplication nursery
where adequate precautions are taken to ensure that virus disease are not transmitted through
suckers produced. The site for such nursery should be located at least 500 m away from
large cardamom plantations. They are established under the shade of forest trees or under
constructed shade with 50% by using black agro shade nets. Trenches of 30 x 30 cm are
prepared at convenient lengths with interspaces of 30 cm. Well decomposed cattle manure
or composts mixed with the soil and the trenches are filled to the brim before planting the
suckers from high yielding disease free plantations with one grown up shoot with an
emerging bud are planted at 30 cm apart in the trenches. The time for planting is May-June.
After planting base is mulched with dried forest leaves. The multiplication rate in this
method is about 1:8 in a year time. The grown up tillers are split into units of one tiller with
and emerging bud and planted in the main field during June-July.
C. Micro-propagation
For rapid multiplication of elite/high yielding clones, vegetative buds from disease free high
yielding mother plants are collected and plantlets are produced though tissue culture
technique. These plantlets are hardened either in poly bags or in secondary nurseries and
once sufficient growth is attained it can be planted in main field during June-July.
Planting
Large cardamom grows well in froest loamy soils with gentle to medium slopes. Water
logged condition is detrimental to the growth of the plants. It performs well under shade.
About 30 important tree species are used to provide shade to the cardamom plants. Alnus
nepalensis, a deciduous, nitrogen fixing and fast growing tree, is the species most
commonly preferred shade tree. In addition to providing shade, it is also used for
fuelwood. The old trees are cut and young plants coming up are allowed to grow in cyclic
order. The quick decomposing leaf litter of A. nepalensis also fertilises the cardamom
plants. The nitrogen added to the soil in this way has been found to be as high as 249
kg/ha.
The impact of stand age (5, 10, 15, 20, 30 and 40 years) on the performance of mixtures
of N2-fixing (Alnus nepalensis) and non-N2-fixing (large cardamom) plants was studied
Net primary productivity was lowest (7 t ha–1 per year) in the 40-year-old stand and was
more than three times higher (22 t ha–1 per year) in the 15-year-old stand. Agronomic
yield of large cardamom peaked between 15 and 20 years of age. Cardamom productivity
doubled from the 5 to the 15 year old stand, and then decreased with plantation age to
reach a minimum in the 40-year-old stand. Performance of cardamom in association of
N2-fixing Alnus remained beneficial until 20 years of age. The Alnus–cardamom
plantation system will be sustainable by adopting a rotational cycle of 15 to 20 years.
Other species of shade trees are used are Bomchusing ( Dzo.) Mecaranga denticulate(
decomposes very fast) Ambakay ( Nep.) Jambosa farmosa Walp, Sokeyshing ( Dzo)
Castronopsis indica, Puyum ( Dzo.)Schima wallichi, Siris (Nep.) Albizzia lebbek etc.
For starting a new cardamom plantation, the undergrowth of the bushes is cleared. For
open areas, shade trees have to be raised before planting the cardamom seedlings.
Land preparation
Planting is done in June-July when there is enough moisture in the soil.The land selected for
planting is cleared of all under growth, weeds etc. for new planting or if it is replanting, old
plants may be removed. Pits of size 30 x 30 x 30 cm are prepared on contour at a spacing of
1.5 x 1.5 m after the onset of rains. Wider spacing of 1.8 x 1.8 m are recommended for
robust cultivars like sawney, varlangey and Ramsey. The pits are left for weathering for a
fortnight and then filled with top soil mixed with cowdung or compost @1-3 kg/pit.
Seedlings/suckers are planted in the centre of the pits. Care should be taken not to plant the
seedling /rhizome very deep in the pit. After planting the seedling is staked and the base of
the plant mulched.
Manures and fertilizers
For a sustained production the soil fertility should be maintained to its optimum. Well
decomposed cattle manure/compost or organic products, non-edible cakes may be applied
@ 2 kg/plant at least once in two years in April-may. If all the crop residues are recycled in
the plantation, application of inorganic fertilizers may not be necessary. In plantations with
high productivity, fertilizers @ 20:30:40 kg NPK per hectare may be applied in two split
doses with full P and half of N and K in April and half dose of N& K in September.
Mulching the base of plants after application of second dose helps plants in the intake of
nutrients.
Weeding
Weed control in the plantations is important
for the maximum utilisation of the available
moisture and nutrients by the plant. Three
rounds of weeding are required for effective
control of weed growth in the initial two to
Cardamom flowers exposed for pollination
three years. Weeding can be either hand weeding or sickle weeding depending upon the
intensity of weed growth. In Bhutan weed slashing is done in June July is locally known as
Phulghor whereby weeds around clumps are slashed down to expose the flowers to
pollinating agents and to enhance better radiation to plantation. The second operation is
locallty known as Ngahalghor whereby slashing of weeds is done before harvest ( AugustSeptember) to enhance picking during harvesting.
Soil moisture conservation
This crop is mainly grown in highly steep terrain. The topography and climatic condition
permits soil erosion to considerable extent.Intensive operations, which loosen and expose
soil will increase soil erosion and therefore minimum tillage operations should be followed.
As far as possible contour terraces may be made well before taking up planting operations.
This helps in reducing soil erosion and soil moisture conservation. Though contour terrace
making is expensive and requires high initial investment, the long-term benefit will be more
to compensate the initial expenditure.
Irrigation
In some of the large cardamom plantations water sources are available which can exploit to
irrigate the crop by gravity flow, either through pipes, sprinklers or flood irrigation through
open channels. It is observed that productivity is higher in plantations where irrigation is
provided. For sustainable and better yield, the plants may be watered during dry months.
Depending on availability of water sources hose or sprinkler or flood irrigation through
channels can be adopted. Hose irrigation can be done @40-50 litre per plant at fortnightly
intervals. In case of sprinkler, irrigation equivalent to 35-45 mm or rain at fortnightly
interval is recommended.
Pests
Although there are many species of insects and pests, large cardamom is free from major
attack of any major pests except for the sporadic incidence of leaf eating caterpillars. Aphids
are found in most of the areas which transmits virus diseases viz.Chirke (Mosaic disease)
and Foorkey (stunted).
Leaf eating caterpillar
Initially the caterpillar of the moth, Artona chorista feeds on the leaf lamina from under
surface of the leaf and finally defoliate the leaves completely leaving only midribs. Their
incidence is noticed in May- July and Oct-march. Even though effective chemical control
measures are available such as Endosulfan 35EC 2 0.05% the use of insecticide is not
advisable and hence not recommended. At present these insects are kept under control by
natural enemies. Once the insecticides are used to manage any sporadic incidence, the
natural enemies will disappear which may lead to outbreak of pests in epidemic form. It is
therefore recommended that the plantation ay be inspected during May-July and Oct- March
and the infected leaves along with caterpillars are collected and destroyed by burning.
Diseases
The major threat to large cardamom is the widespread occurrence of viral diseases viz:
chirkey and Foorkey. The diseases are seen throughout the large cardamom growing tracts
of Sikkim and Darjeeling district of West Bengal and in Bhutan.they cause considerable
crop loss. Spread of Chirkey is faster than Foorkey.
Chirke virus disease
The main symptom is the presence of brown stripes on leaves, which later from a
characteristic mosaic pattern. The disease affects the productivity by interfering with
photosynthetic efficiency. Virus is transmitted by banana aphid (Pentalonia nigronervisa),
through infected suckers and mechanically by ‘elaichi churri’ used for harvesting. Flowering
and fruiting are also affected adversely.
Foorkey
Numerous small tillers appear at the base of the affected plants, which become stunted and
fail to give any yield. The leaf tips dry up and flowering spikes are leaf like and bear no fruit
and field looks like a burnt out field. Within 1-3 years of infection, plants starts producing
sterile shoots, which subsequently dry up and whole clump dies. An insect Micromyzus
kalimpongensis is the vector which carries the virus and activity is highest in spring.
Flowering and fruiting are also adversely affected.

Disease Management

Regular visit of field at least once in 15 days during monsoon.

Roughing and destruction of affected plants

Regular sprays of systemic insecticide ( Rogor @0.1%) control insect vector.

Use of disease free, healthy planting material.
Clump rot disease
Caused by fungi Pythium and Rhizoctonia sp. Collar region of the plant turns pale, water
soaked, soft and can easily be pulled out. Rot extends to rhizome and discolour and
decompose it.
Disease management

Removal of affected plants

Spraying or drenching with Bordeaux mixture (1%), Blitox 50 (1%) or
Thiram (0.2%).
Harvesting and curing
Flowering starts from April to May and continuous up to June-July according to variety and
growing conditions. Fruits are ready for harvest in August (for Sawaney) and September
(for Ramsay and Golsay). The indication of harvest is when the seeds of topmost capsules
turns brown. As soons as the coulr appears and to enhance maturity, bearing tillers are cut to
a height of 30-45 cm and left for 10-15 days for full maturity. Fully ripe capsules split on
drying and do not have desired colour. Unripe capsules are uneven, shrivelled, and badly
coloured.
The spikes are harvested by using special knives known as ‘churri’. The harvested spikes
are heaped and capsules separated and dried.
Bhattithe fresh
For long-duration storage of cardamom and in order to bring out its aroma,
cardamom capsules (with 80–85% moisture) has to be dried immediately after harvesting
to bring down its moisture content to less than 10% (w.b.) through a curing (drying)
process. Still a primitive and inefficient
(operating efficiency level of about 5–
15%) smoking method using traditional
‘Bhatti’ where the capsules are dried by
direct heating. Under this system the
cardamom comes in direct contact with
smoke, which turns the capsules to dark
browner color with smoky smell. The walls
of the Bhatti are made of mud or stone with
Bhatti system
a large opening in the front for inserting fuel wood. Cardamom is spread on a platform made
of bamboo mat called ‘sarang’. It is an inefficient curing technique, which burns huge
quantity of wet wood with low thermal efficiency leading to poor quality of dried
cardamom. It also requires constant attention, yet it is difficult control the temperature.
Bhatti system is believed to lead to high consumption of fuel wood and is said to be labour
intensive.
Improved curing techniques are presently available for better
quality and appearance.( Refer handouts on : Study on the gasifier
system)
The cured capsule is rubbed on bamboo mat or wire mesh for
removal of calyx (tail).
Gasifier system
Quality comparison of large
cardamom:
Parameter/method
Traditional bhatti
Gasifier based
dryer
Moisture content
11.2
8.3
1.7
2.4
(%)
Volatile oil content
(%)
Colour/appearance
Smoky black
Natural reddish
shade
Packaging
The properly dried capsules are allowed to cool and then packed in polythene lined jute
bags. The bags may be stored on wooden platform to avoid absorption of moisture, which
may result in fungus growth damaging the stored produce.
References
1.
J.S. Pruthi (1976). Spices and Condiments. pp 53-63. National Book Trust, India
2.
Chophyll,K., Tshering T., Dorji, Dorji S., 2000. Journal of Renewal Natural
Resources. Ministry of Agriculture. Royal Government of Bhutan.
3.
Tiwari R.S., Agarwal A., 2004. Production Technology of Spices.International Book
Distributing Co.India.
Production technology of spices
Ginger
Botanical name: Zingiber officinale Rose
Family: Zingiberaceae
Place of origin: India or China/South East Asia Region.
Distribution
World: India, Southern China, Nepal, Bangladesh, Jamaica, Hawaii, Nigeria, Japan,
Australia, Fiji, Taiwan, Brazil, Philippines, Indonesia, West Indies, Guyana.
Bhutan: Samtse, Samdrup jongkhar, Chukha, Sarpang, Tsirang, Wangdue, Trongsa,
Trashigang Total vegetable market share by ginger is 9% and Samtse produces the
maximum ginger with 52% of the total production.
Uses
Ginger is used principally as an ingredient in various spice blends and in food processing
and beverage industries. It is a frequent constituent of curry powder and widely used for
manufacturing of ginger bread, biscuits, cakes, puddings, soups, pickles and soft drinks
like cordials, ginger cocktails, carbonated drinks etc. It is a great natural preservative and
meat tenderizer.
Ginger oil lacks the pungent principle and is primarily used a flavouring agent in
confectionary, preservation and for soft drinks. Dry ginger or ginger powder is used for
making ginger brandy, wine and beer in western countries. An oleoresin obtained by
solvent extraction from ground ginger is fully pungent and is used for flavouring soft
drinks and in medicine. It is carminative, stimulates gastro-intestinal tract and is a counter
irritant.
Some therapeutic benefits recorded in Ayurveda and other traditional medicines are
ginger tea for colds, coughs, flues and hangovers, ginger oil for spine and joint problems,
cotton soaked in ginger oil for common treatment of ear ache, ginger foot batch to
invigorate the whole body. It releases constipation and reduces cholesterol by antioxidant
potential.
Plant characteristics
Herbaceous perennial 30-100 cm tall mostly grown as annual. Adventitious and tubular
roots shoot up as leaf stem ( pseudo stem) which dies our annually but the plant
continuous to live through its rhizomes.
Rhizome
Thick and hard, laterally compressed, often palmately
branched, pale yellow within, covered with small
distichous scales with an encircling insertion, fine fibrous
roots in top layers of the soil.
Shoot
Leafy annual and erect, about 50 cm tall, 5 mm in diameter, formed of long leaf sheaths,
glabrous except for short hairs near the base of each leaf blade, bear about 8-12
distichous leaves.
Leaf
Lamina thin, sub-sessile, linear-lanceolate, darkisk green above, paler
beneath, 1-3 cm wide, 5-25 cm long, narrowed evenly to slender tip,
arranged at right angles to the stem.
Flowers
It is a crop with very rare flowering (0.5% to 67%) and in some cases do not flower at all.
Flower colour is yellow with dark purplish spots. Natural seed set in ginger has not been
reported so far.
Climate
Ginger requires tropical, subtropical, humid climate for its commercial production. It is
grown successfully at sea level to 1500 m above sea level. The optimum elevation is 300900 m. A well distributed annual rainfall of 1500-3000 mm during growing season and
dry spells before land preparation and harvesting is required for good growth and yield of
the crop. The favorable temperature range is 19-28oC and the temperature lower than 13
o
C induces dormancy and higher than 32 oC can cause sunburns. The optimum soil
temperature for sprouting is 25-26 oC and for growth 27.5 oC at increased day length
rhizome (10-16 hours) vegetative growth is enhanced while it is inhibited and rhizome
swelling promoted as the day length decreased( 16 to 10 hours).Cold climate during its
resting period does not affect the crop. It thrives well under partial shade hence can be
grown as an intercrop.
Soil
Grows in wide variety of soil but the ideal one is soil rich in humus, light, loose and
friable, well drained and at least 30 cm depth. Red laterite, clay loam and heavy laterite
containing not more than 30% sand or 20% clay are preferred as they give higher
yields.Crop performs best on medium loam with good supply of humus. Rhizome growth
is better in slightly acidic soils ( pH 6-6.5) than neutral soils. It is sensitive to
waterlogging, frost and salinity. It is tolerant to drought and wind.
Varieties
In Bhutan the local varieties not been officially identified. A popular variety of Assam
variety named Maran may be the source of the local varieties.
Propagation
Ginger is universally propagated from cuttings of rhizome known as bits. Bits are made
from mother rhizome having 3-5 cm length 15-20 g weight (15 gm is optimum) with at
least one good bud. Seed rate of 1500-2000 kg of rhizome are required per hectare. Since
the seed cost accounts for more than 50% of the total cost of production best quality
material should be used. Ginger sprouts of 4-6 cm height can be detached from the
mother rhizomes and utilized as planting material without adversely affecting the further
growth of the plant. Separated rhizomes can be used for spice purpose. This saves 6070% of seed cost. In some areas planting is done with whole rhizome and they are
unearthed when crop reaches 30-45 cm height. This gives around 60-70% seed cost back.
Planting
Before planting materials should be treated with fungicide (Indofil M-45 @0.25 % as a
safeguard against soft rot and to induce early sprouting. Rhizomes for seed are also
treated in hot water at 48 oC for 20 minutes before planting. Soaking seed rhizomes in
water for 24 hours, 10 days prior to planting results in good sprouting. To prevent fungal
entry from cut ends, bits are treated with 0.25% Benomil by dipping for 10 minutes.
At low elevations planting could be done in May – June. In eastern India planting is done
in March, first week of April has been found to be the best time of planting under Kerala
condition registering 200% increase in yield as compared to planting first week of June.
Therefore planting time in Bhutan could also be studied to get the optimum production.
In Samtse farmers have started planting in May instead of February as done earlier. This
practice lowers the cost of production as the weeding has to be done only once if planted
in May. Farmers carry out weeding as well as unearthing the rhizomes when it reaches
the height of 30-45 cm. In plains beds of 1 m width, 15 cm height and convenient length
length are prepared. Beds are separated with 30 cm drain for drainage. In hills ridges are
prepare along the contours. Rhizomes are planted on ridges 25 cm apart, 15-20 cm within
the ridges 5 cm deep.Sprouting takes 15-21 days, however it may prolong up to 2 months.
For better land utilization some farmers in Samtse has started planting in alternate rows
along the side of the ridges (not on the top) This also facilitates unearthing.
Manures and fertilizers
Ginger is an exhaustive crop so requires reasonable amount of manure and fertilizers. An
average yield of 3900 kg of dry ginger/ha has been reported to remove 70:17: 117 Kg
NPK respectively. Well rotten cattle dung or compost at the arte of 25-30 tonnes/ha is
applied at the time of planting. The amount of inorganic fertilizers depends on the
fertility of soil and organic manure used. Generally, it ranges between 100-120 Kg of N,
75-80 kg P and 100-120 kg K per hectare. Half of N and entire quantity of K and P is
placed as basal, half of N after 45 days and balance of N and K after 90 days after
planting.
In ginger the total period of growth is categorized into three phases: active vegetative
growth (90-128 days after planting; slow vegetative growth (129-180 days after planting)
and phase approaching senescence (181 days onwards).Marked uptake of NPK is during
active growth.
Shade and mulching
Crop when grown in open condition there is lower leaf number, leaf area index,
chlorophyll content, growth rate and dry matter production, bulking rate and green ginger
yield when compared to 25 to 50% shade levels. Under 75% shade vegetative growth and
rhizome yield are reduced in comparison to 25-50%.Plants planted under 25% shade
performed better. Maize growing in alternate inter row space has been found beneficial in
comparison to sole cropping in terms of tillering and yield. Shade tolerance varies from
cultivar to cultivar.
Mulching is essential as it enhances sprouting, increase infiltration and organic matter,
conserves soil moisture and prevents weeds, evaporation and washing of soil due to
heavy rains. In addition, it enhances microbial activity and improves soil fertility. First
mulching is done at the time of planting with quick rotting green leaves at the rate of 1012 tons/ha or with dry leaves 5-6 tonnes/ha. It is repeated after 45-90 days after planting.
An increase in yield with mulching may be 50-100%.Under low shade mulching may be
reduced without affecting the yield.
Water management
Ginger is grown as a rainfed crop. In low rainfall areas watering immediately after
planting helps in early sprouting. Rhizomes from rain fed crops have more fiber than
irrigated ones or raised under lower elevations. Studies have shown that sprouting,
rhizome initiation (90 Days after planting DAP) and rhizome development (135 DAP) are
critical stages of irrigation.
After care
Earthing up helps in better aeration, suppression of weeds and covering of growing
rhizomes for better enlargement. Provides mechanical support to growing stem. Two
earthing up required one 45- 90 DAP and another after 135 DAP.
Crop rotation
Ginger is an exhaustive crop so crop rotation is necessary for balancing nutrient status of
soil and also to avoid soft rot. Commonly rotated with turmeric, onion, garlic, chillies,
other vegetables and maize and groundnut in irrigated conditions.
Intercropping
Ginger can be successfully grown as intercrop in coconut, arecanut, coffee, litchi and
orane plantations.In hilly areas this shade loving plant is mixed with tomato, chilies,
maize and amaranth. It is also intercropped with apple, pear, young citrus orchards and
forest plantations.
Weed management
When mulch is applied, weeds are suppressed. Two weeding are generally given to
ginger but it depends on weed intensity. During hoeing care should be taken not to
disturb, injured or expose the rhizomes.
Harvesting
The stage of harvesting depends upon the purpose for which crop is grown, price trend,
variety and agro-climatic conditions.
For tender rhizome sold as green ginger for preserve or making pickle, murabba, ginger
candy, soft drinks and immature crop is harvested from 5th month after planting when
there is minimum of crude fiber, maximum of volatile oil, oleoresin and starch.
For making dry ginger, maturity indices are: shriveling, yellowing, withering of leaves,
accompanied by drying and lodging of aerial stems (8-9 months after planting (MAP),
gives more fibrous and pungent rhizomes. Highest dry ginger recovery was recorded at
270 days and maximum percent of oil, oleoresin and fibre was recorded at 165 DAP.
Between 5.5-6 MAP fiber per day increases @0.12 %.As the physiological age of
rhizome increases, so does the diameter and strength of fibre. Fibre development is rapid
between 180-270 DAP. Fibrous ginger are not acceptable to confectioners due to its
reduced palatability. Oleoresin and oil contents rise up to 165 to 180 Dap beyond which
there is decline.
For seed ginger, rhizomes are left in field as such for 3-4 weeks more when the skin of
rhizome ripens, thickens and leaves and pseudo stem completely dry and fall down.
The clumps are lifted carefully with a spade or digging fork or on a large scale the field is
ploughed and the rhizomes are colleted. The rhizomes are then separated from the dried
up leaves, roots and adhering soil and washed thoroughly in water to remove the soil and
sun dried for a day.
Yield
Yield depends upon variety, agro-climatic conditions, care and management of crop.
Generally it is 12-15 tons/ha. Recovery of dry ginger varies from 20-22%.
Storing of rhizome
Rhizome is highly perishable and susceptible to soil borne fungi and insects, thus needs
to be stored appropriately. Poor storage causes rotting, dehydration and sprouting.
a) For green ginger: Green rhizomes harvested after 8-12 months are stored at 12-18 oC
and RH 60-80%. Various fungi, bacteria, nematode and insects have been found to be
associated with ginger rhizome causing rot and decay resulting in heavy post harvest loss.
Oil and oleoresin yield decrease with storage. The refrigerated storage up to four weeks
has no adverse effect on quality but storage at room temperature may generate the
problems like rhizome rot, sprouting, rooting and shriveling of rhizomes.
b) For seed ginger
Seed ginger has to be stored for about 3-4 months from harvesting to its further planting.
For seed purpose, fully mature, big, plump rhizomes, free from diseases are selected after
harvesting. The rhizomes are treated before storage. A drum of 200 litre capacity is filled
with 100 litres of water. Few litres of water is taken in a bucket, added with 250 g indofil
M-45, 100 gm Bavistin and 200 ml of Chloropyriphos and mixed, put in a drum in which
80 kg rhizomes are steeped for 30 minutes as prophylactic measure. Solution is drained
off and rhizomes are dried under shade and stored.
Rhizomes are best stored by pit method. In this method, a layer of sand or saw dust is
placed at the bottom of the pit. On this layer the rhizomes are filled in. About 15 cm of
uppermost portion of pit is kept unfilled with rhizome and covered with leaves for
aeration. Then once the pit is filled, the pit is covered with wooden plank leaving some
space between the seeds and the plank and plastered with thin layer of mud. For aeration
a hole is provided through the plank with the help of hollow bamboo.
In some areas rhizomes are loosely heaped over a layer of sand or paddy husk and
covered with dry leaves in a thatched. Whatever method is used seeds should be taken out
of pits at least 20-25 days before planting.
Some farmers in Samtse store rhizomes by piling in one cool place and plastering with
thin layer of mud.
Fresh ginger can be stored in 200 gauge thick polyether bags of 35 cm x 25 cm with 125
punch holes each with 4 mm diameter. The ginger is cleaned and dried and sealed with
stapler or rubber band. Bags should be kept in cool dry places with air circulation and be
inspected at fortnightly intervals. After around 4 months, the weight of 1 kg bag will
remain around 700 g.
Diseases
Rhizome rot or soft rot: Rhizome rot or soft rot is the most serious diseases of ginger. It is
a soil borne as well as rhizome borne and caused by Pythium species and Fusarium
solani and Ralstonia sp. Both pre and post-emergence rots are noticed. Young sprouts are
highly prone to infection. Disease is noticed during early phase of crop growth. The
affected plant tips turn yellow followed by complete yellowing and drying of leaves
which later droop and hang down. Basal portion of plant shows pale, translucent, crown
colour and becomes soft and watery. Shoots fall and cease to produce rhizomes. The
infection extends to the rhizome, inner tissues being reduced to a soft, black, putrefying
mass enclosed by a tough rind. Pseudo-stems show rotting and come off easily with a
gentle pull. The disease is favored by high moisture content of the soil. Affected plant
should be pulled out to prevent the spread of disease. Soil water may spread the disease.
Disease management
•
Proper drainage
•
Proper sanitation in field
•
Crop rotation
•
Raised beds
•
Healthy disease free rhizomes as seeds
•
Rhizome treatment with mancozeb/captan ( 0.2% each)
•
Application of Trichoderma mixed with neem cake @2 t/ha or 30-40 tons of
FYM with soil solarization. Solarization heat up the soil above ambient
temperature and kill disease causing organisms.
Bacterial wilt
A rhizome and soil borne diseases serious in north east India Sikkim and West Bengal
region as well as in Kerala and Bhutan. It is caused by Ralstonia solanacearum Biova.
The first symptoms of this disease is downward curling of leaves due to loss of turgidity
and leaves dry up within 3-4 days. Yellowing and wilting of lower leaves quickly spread
upwards. At advanced stage base of the plant becomes water soaked, readily breaking
away from the rhizome. Rhizome starts rotting and emit foul smell. Affected plants die
within 2-3 weeks. Generally noticed during July- September.
Disease management
•
Planting healthy disease free rhizomes
•
Proper sanitation
•
Long crop rotation( Rice found effective)
•
Seed treatment with 0.6% mercury or copper oxychloride solution for 20minutes.
•
Solarization of ginger seed rhizomes packed in polyethylene bags for 4 hours (9
am -1pm) inthe month of May before planting.
•
The heat generated inside the polyethene bag during solarization destroys rhizome
borne bacterial pathogen.
Leaf spot
Rhizome and soil borne fungi Phyllostica zingiberi appears on leaves in the form of
minute colourless specks on the leaf lamina which soon grow into oval to elongated,
irregular conspicuous spots with whitish centers and brown coloured margins with
extended yellow halos. The spots may cause extensive discolouration and drying of
leaves. From the distance, the disease appears as if the foliage is burnt. Results in heavy
reduction of rhizome yield due to destruction of chlorophyll and tissues. Occurs at any
stage but generally July- September. It spreads through rain splashes and is slow or
absent in gingers grown under shade and spreads rapidly in open
Disease management
Spay indofil M-45 (0.3%) or carbendazim (0.2%).
Pests
Shoot borer (Dichocrocis punctiferalis)
Serious pest of ginger (Sep-Oct very high populaton).Moth lays eggs creamy white (turns
pink later) eggs on the growing bud and petiole of leaf. Young larva bore through the
central shoot of the plant at the fourth and firth leaf end of pseudo-stem and feed on
internal tissues, resulting in unthread and dried shoots referred as dead hearts. Later it
advances to rhizome also. Borer is highly polyphagous and has been recorded on 22 host
plants.
Disease management
Spray malathion (0.1%) or monocrotophos( 0.5%) at 15 days interval.
Experts point out that the disease can be effectively treated by treating seed rhizome with
Mancozeb (0.25%) and Carbendazim (1%).
Leaf roller ( Udaspes folus). Rolls the leaves and feeds on them.
Spray carbaryl 0.1 %.
Storage pests
Storage pests which are reported to cause damage to rhizomes are: Coffee bean weevil (
Araccerus fasciculatum), drug store beetle (Stegabium peniceum) cigratte beetle (
Lasioderma serricorne) and storage moths ( Pyralis maniholatis) .
Coffee bean weevil and storage moths attack both fresh and dry ginger, while the two
deteriorate dry ginger. The coffee bean weevil attacks stored green buds and make it
dried. Storage moths live under the webs covering excreta and feed hiding inside.
Pest management
Fumigate rhizomes with aluminium phosphide tablets at the rate of 3-4 tablets per ton in
an air tight store for 2-3 days.
References
Tiwari R.S.,Agarwal A., 2004. Production technology of spices. International book
distributing co. Lucknow India.
Khader A., Rangaswami P., Irulappan I. Kumar N., 1997. Introduction to spices,
plantation crops, medicinal and aromatic plants. Oxford and IBH Publishing CO. Pvt
Ltd. New Delhi.India.
Production Technology of spices
Black pepper
Botanical name: (Piper nigrum L.)
Family: Piperaeceae
Place of origin: Western Ghats of India.
Distribution
World: Indonesia, Brazil, Malaysia, Thailand, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, Micronesia, Vietnam,
China, Madagascar and Mexico.
Bhutan: Not grown in commercial scale but is grown in southern belts in kitchen garden. It
has the potential to be one of the cash crops.
The Greek work ‘Pepri’ the latin ‘Piper’ and English ‘Pepper’all come from Sanskrit word
‘Pippali’ which was the name for the long pepper ( P. longum).If there is any commodity
bedsides petroleum that influenced and infused the course of world history, it is the berries
of this tropical vine, mostly aptly called ‘black gold’ or ‘king of species’. The flavour and
fragrance of this oriental spice has a magic spell in human civilization and culture since
ancient days. Volume of the international trade black pepper is the highest among all the
spices known.
World trade
Peppercorns are, by monetary value, the most widely traded spice in the world,
accounting for 20 percent of all spice imports in 2002. The price of pepper can be
volatile, and this figure fluctuates a great deal year-to-year; for example, pepper made up
39 percent of all spice imports in 1998. By weight, slightly more chilli peppers are traded
worldwide than peppercorns. Vietnam has recently become the world's largest producer
and exporter of pepper (85,000 tons in 2003). Other major producers include Indonesia
(67,000 tons), India (65,000 tons), Brazil (35,000 tons), Malaysia (22,000 tons), Sri
Lanka (12,750 tons), Thailand, and China. Vietnam dominates the export market, using
almost none of its production domestically. In 2003, Vietnam exported 82,000 tons of
pepper, Indonesia 57,000 tons, Brazil 37,940 tons, Malaysia 18,500 tons, and
India 17,200 tons.
Uses
Black pepper is used for a variety of purpose and it constitutes an important component of
culinary seasoning of universal use and an essential ingredient of numerous commercial
foodstuffs. A dash of pepper can be used effectively to adjust the flavour just before the end
of cooking. It is an important constituent of pickling spice, ketchups and many ground spice
formulae of seasoning, for poultry dressing, sausages, hamburgers seasoning. It is largely
used as meat packers and in canning, pickling, pickling, baking confectionary and
preparation of beverages.
Pepper is the main ingredient of all the traditional system of medicines such as Ayurvedic,
Homeopathic, Unani, African and Chinese systems. The ancient Aryans considered it as a
powerful remedy for various disorders of anatomical system and prescribed it as an effective
cure for dyspepsia, malaria, delirium tremors, haemorrhoids etc. The Egyptians used it for
embalming and Asians as an aphrodisiac.
It produces an increased flow of salts and is also beneficial to cough and cold. The use of
black pepper in asthma, pains, night blindness and as stimulant against cholera, antiseptic
against, malaria are all well documented.
It is used in perfumery particularly in bouquets of the oriental type to impart spicy notes.
In modern medicine, piperine is used in the preparation of cough syrup, carminative
mixtures, stimulant an ointments. Pepper is used against worms, urinary
infection ( powder + ghee), malaria, diabetes, piles and loss of hair.
Plant characteristics
Black pepper is a perennial woody trailing, evergreen climber to 10 m or more in height.
Under cultivation, when its height is restricted, the mature vine has a bushy columnar
appearance ( about 4 m high and 1.5 m in diameter).The height depends on the height of the
support it climbs. Stem swollen at the nodes.
Numerous adventitious roots known as clinging roots produced from the nodes.These Flower
help on
catkins
the plants attach themselves to the standards and climb up, exposing their fresh
leaves to maximum sunlight. Vines stem broadly classified into i) terminal
stem (extension growth) ii) stolons or runners iii) lateral fruiting branches (no
roots, fruiting branches)
Stems and branches bear alternate, shiny dark green ovate leaves The raceme
develops on the current years flush, opposite a leaf. Flowers are small white
and borne on hanging catkins or spikes. Mature spikes is 5-30cm, supporting
30-150 flowers. Peak pollen receptivity occurs 3-5 days after emergence,
Green fruits
extending up to 10 days.
Fruit is a small berry dull green when immature, turning yellowish and finally red
when mature.
Climate
Black pepper is a plant of humid tropics and requires a heavy well distributed
Ripening fruits
rainfall and high temperature. It grows successfully between 20° N and 20 °S of
equator and up to 1500 m above MSL but thrives best at 500 m or below. Being a tropical
crop, pepper requires 2000-3000 mm rainfall and high RH with little variation in day length
throughout the year. Rainfall of 700 mm received in 20 days during May-June proves
sufficient for triggering off flushing and flowering process in the plant. However, once the
process is set off there should be continuous shower until fruit ripening. Any dry spell even
for four days within this critical period of 16 weeks results in low yield. Crop may tolerate
temperature between 10-40 oC and ideal temperature is 23-32°C with an average of 28oC.
Soils
Crop grows well on soils ranging from heavy to light sandy clays rich in humus and friable
in nature, well drained but with good water holding capacity. Soils with high organic matter
and high base saturation with Ca and Mg enhances the productivity. Soil pH should be 4.5
to 6.0 and soils with pH above 7.5 inhibit growth. Water logged soils are not suitable for
cultivation. Best crop could be obtained in virgin forest soil.
Flat land is more suitable for pepper cultivation and when grown in sloppy land south facing
slopes should be avoided and eastern slopes preferred as far as possible to prevent vines
from heat of sun during summers. Filtered shade provide the desired microclimate for
healthy growth of vines.
Black pepper is a day neutral plant so vines exposed to direct solar radiation develop
physiological disorders even under favourable soil moisture conditions. Studies have shown
that vines exposed to sunlight turned yellow and developed necrotic patches during summer.
Fifty percent shade boosted the growth of cuttings in nursery. Shade regulation of live
standards is an important cultural practice during rainy or cloudy weather to allows
sufficient for crop growth.
Propagation
Black pepper is propagated vegetatively as well as through seeds. It
can be propagated through cuttings, grafting, layering and budding
but rooted cuttings are preferred for commercial cultivation.
Cuttings are raised mainly from runner shoots, though terminal shoots
can also be used. Middle one 1/3 portion of the shoot is found best
followed by top 1/3 portion as planting material. Cuttings from lateral
branches are seldom used since in addition to reduction in the number
of fruiting shoots the vines raised from them are generally short-lived
Cutting
and bushy in habit. However, rooted lateral branches are useful in raising pepper in pots.
Runner shoots of selected high yielding healthy vines are to be kept coiled
in the forks of 2 or 3 sticks fixed in the ground so that the shoots do not
come into contact with the soil and striking of roots. The cuttings with 2 or
3 nodes are planted with at least one node below the soil level on suitable
nursery beds under partial shade. They form roots and become ready for
Planting cuttings in
planting in June-July.
polypot
For direct planting lengthy cuttings with 2-7 nodes are taken but they result in poor
establishment.
Propagation through seeds
Black pepper can be raised from seeds. Seedlings take much longer time to come into
bearing, progeny will be highly variable and even plants may be dioecious. When
propagation by seeds is necessary, fully ripe berries are collected and soaked in water fro 23 days, pericarp is removed buy rubbing with a part of cow dung and dried in shade. Seeds
loose their viability in 20 days after harvesting. Treated seeds are shown in nursery beds or
boxes which germinate with 30 days and become ready fro transplanting in about 45 days.
Transplanting is done during monsoon. Seedlings take nearly 7-8 years for bearing but bear
fruits for a longer period.
Planting of standards/supports
Black pepper is a climbing vine, it requires support for its establishment and growth.
Standards are of two types viz: living and non-living. Live supports are more common in
India. Mangoes, Jackfruits etc can be used as standards at homestead.
An ideal support should be fast growing, producing less branches, tolerate periodical
pruning, have tap root system and should not compete with crop for resources and also
should not produce allelopathic chemicals. Standards should also be slender, have strong
trunk or rough surface, and have economic value after life span of black pepper.
Planting of the standards taken up on the on set of the monsoon. Some of the standards
are Erythrina indica, Leucana leucocephala, Garuga pinata, E. lithosperma, Grevillea
robusta, planted 3-4 years prior to planting of pepper. During establishment of standards
side branches are pruned to enable standards to grow erect after which periodical pruning
to allow sufficient light penetration is carried out.
Erythrina indica Leucana leucocephala
Grevillea robusta
Non living standards used include reinforced concrete posts, granite
pillars and teak poles which require high initial investment compared
to living standards. Poor growth and productivity are observed on
concrete poles. During summer concrete poles and stone pillars absorb
heat and become hot resulting in drying of clinging roots and poor
growth of vines under exposed situations.
Wooden (non-living standards)
Standards for mixed-cropping
Pepper can be planted with arecanut, coconut, jackfruit, mango, and subabul in
homestead gardens
Planting
With the onset of monsoon, pits of 50 X 50 X 50 cm are dug in the
northern side 1-2 ft away from the standard. The optimum spacing for
planting is in plains-3 X 3 m, in sloppy areas 2m plant to plant and 4m
row to row. A closer spacing of 2X2 m can be used when non-living
standards are used to trail the vines.
Fill the mixture of top soil and compost/FYM @ 5kgs/pit.
On set of the monsoon (June-July), plant 2-3 rooted cuttings about 30 cm away from the
standard.
Press the soil around the cuttings to form a small mound sloping outward and away from
the cuttings to prevent water stagnation around the plants. As the cuttings grow, the
shoots are tied with standards at an interval of 30 cm, regularly for proper upward growth
in order to get more leader shoots, to produce more laterals and to give columnar
appearance around the standards.
Mulching the basins of pepper vines during summer months is highly advantageous.
Sawdust, arecanut husk and dry leaves are suitable mulching materials. Removal of
unwanted terminal shoot growths and hanging shoots should be done as and when
necessary. Prune and train the standards in March - April every year to remove excessive
over-growth and to give them a proper shape.
Training and pruning
For training the vines are tied to the standards at the nodes so that adventitious roots get
anchorage to the support. The leaves are removed from the vines after attaining the height
of 1m and 10 days later they are brought down and ¾ of the basal portion is buried
around the standard. The base are covered with good top soil to induce good root system
and for production of more leader shoots. Three to four leader shoots are enough to
produce sufficient laterals or to form canopy around trunk of standard.
Regular pruning is required to maintain height and to produce lateral shoots. Usually the
vines are trimmed from the top to maintain height convenient for harvesting.
Manures and fertilizers
Black pepper is surface feeder and the use of manures and fertilizers are essential for
proper growth and development of crop and higher yield. Organic manures may be
applied at the rate of 4 kg/vine which can be increased to 10 kg/vine. General
recommendation of nutrient dosage per standard of pepper vines is as follows: 100g N,
40 P2O5 140 K2O g/vine/year.
Critical stages of nutrient requirement are during initiation of flower primordial and
flower emergence, berry formation and development.
Harvesting and yield
Pepper vine may commence bearing berries after in year of planting but it is not
advisable to allow the flower spike so early. Flowering in pepper starts during May-June
and crop takes another 6-9 months to mature. Though the first harvesting starts from third
year, first commercial harvest is allowed during sixth year of planting. Harvesting period
starts from December and continuous up to February. Duration of bearing life of pepper
vines vary from 30-35 years or more.
Stage of harvest depends upon usage of crop (white pepper, black pepper, oleoresin and
oil etc.) During the last harvest, the spikes whether ripe or not should be collected, to
ensure even and uniform bearing during next season. For preparation of black pepper,
berries are harvested when they are just mature, but before full ripening.
Harvesting is done by plucking the whole spike when one or two berries become bright
orange or red or when berries separate from the spikes upon rubbing between hands. The
spikes are kept as such for a day or so and thereafter berries are removed by rubbing,
scrubbing, or trampling and dried in sun. An ideal bunch will have no empty space
between and all berries are full sized. Improper filling is due to presence of underutilized
flowers, imperfect fertilization and pest attack.
If the spikes are harvested before attaining full maturity, 15-20% reduction in the weight
of processed material may result.
The average yield of black pepper (dried) is 18-20 q/ha. It mainly depends upon the age
and vigour of vine, soil, climate and management.
Single bamboo pole, which has notches for steps, bamboo ladder, tripod ladders and a
sort of platform ladder are used for harvesting.
Processing
Berries separated from spikes by rubbing, scrubbing or trampling and are dried in shade
for 7-10 days until it becomes crisp, black, shrunken and assume characteristic wrinkled
appearance of commercial spice. While drying berries are often turned over. To improve
colour and appearance and to reduce drying time, green pepper is soaked in hot water for
a minute before drying. It also minimizes microbial contamination and gives hygienic
product.
To give uniformly lustrous black colour to the finished product and to prevent
mouldiness, a heat treatment as described here under is recommended. Collect suitable
quantity of separated berries in a perforated basket/vessel or clean gunny bag. Dip the
berries with container in boiling water for one minute, take out, drain and spread on a
clean surface for sun drying. White pepper is produced by collecting fully matured
berries (yellow or orange in colour), retting them in clean water for 5-7 days, removing
the outer skin completely and drying the seed after thorough washing and cleaning.
Processed products
Green pepper
It is obtained from unripe but fully developed pepper berries which are artificially dried or
preserved in wet form in brine, vinegar or citric acid. Here enzyme responsible for browning
reaction is first deactivated by blanching and sulphur dioxide treatment and then berries are
dehydrated. Bottle green berries should be preserved without spoilage in 20% brine
containing sulphur dioxide (100 ppm) and citric acid ( 2%) or in brine 2% with citric acid (
2%) or in acetic acid ( 2-4 %) alone. Better colour retention has been reported in brine and
citric acid and without blanching.
White pepper
White pepper is the white inner corn obtained by removing the
outer skin (pericarp) of the fully mature red berries either before
or after drying. It is preferred over black pepper in light coloured
preparations (sauces, cream, soups etc) where dark coloured
participles are undesirable. It imparts pungency and modifies
Black and white peppercorn
natural flavour. For white pepper, berries are harvested when ripe and rand prepared by
retting or steaming or boiling and running water treatment.
Diseases
One of the important factors contributing to low productivity of black peppers in our country
is the severe incidence of diseases. Out of 17 diseases, foot rot and slow decline are the
serious diseases of this crop. Stunted disease too is on the increase because of its possible
spread through vegetative propagation.
Foot rot ( Quick wilt)
Foot rot caused by Phytophthora capsici is the mostly serious disease occurring during late
June to September, when there is continuous rainfall accompanied by low temperature, high
humidity and saturated soil moisture condition. This disease is characterised by yellowing of
leaves, which drop rapidly within 7-12 days leaving the branches bare, and vines die. The
collapse is due to the destruction of collar portion and infection of feeder roots. All parts of
the plants at various stages of growth are susceptible to this disease.
Disease management

Selection of disease free, robust, nursery stock.

Good drainage system , shade regulation, pruning of runner soots at vine
base and green cover to avoid disease spread.

Use pre and post monsoon sprays of Bordeux mixture ( 1.0%) and drenching
with Copper oxycholoride ( 0.2 %).
Slow wilt or slow decline
Its etiology is not clear and a complex group including a plant parasitic nematode
(Radophillis similes), a root knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) together with some
fungal diseases is the probable cause of this disease. Other factors like physiological
dysfunction, nutrient deficiency in soil or adverse soil conditions are the suspected causes of
this disease. The disease is characterised by gradual appearance of wilting symptoms in
pepper vines. Feed roots shows necrotic lesions causing the root rot and gall formation.
Disease management

Apply Phorate @30 g/vine as pre and post monsoon treatments to vines.

Practices for management of foot rot are also useful for this disease.
Pests
Pepper flea beetle or Pollu beetle ( Longitarsus nigripennis)
This is the most serious pest causing 30-40 % crop loss. The incidence of pests is higher in
plains and altitudes below 300 m. The adult beetle and grub feed and damage tender parts of
plant. Infested berries turn yellow and then black and crumble when pressed. Beetle makes
small hollow circular holes in the rind of the berry. The grubs burrow into the kernel and
destroy the content. The adult is small with yellowish brown head and thorax and black
wings.
Management

Spray neem oil (400 ml/l water)

Spray of endulsulfan (0.05%) during June-July and September-October is
effective.

Reguation of shade by rpuing excessive growth of standards.
References
Tiwari R.S., and Agarwal A.,2004. Production Technology of Spices. Army printing press.
Lucknow.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_pepper