WOMEN MANAGERS AND ENTREPRENEURS IN THE PHILIPPINES:
A COMPARISON WITH ‘WESTERN’ THEORIES1
Bet H. Roffey
School of Commerce
The Flinders University of South Australia
GPO Box 2100
Adelaide South Australia 5001
Telephone: +61 8 82012195
Facsimile: +61 8 82012644
Email: Bet.Roffey@flinders.edu.au
SCHOOL OF COMMERCE RESEARCH PAPER SERIES: 00-7
ISSN: 1441-3906
1
The author is indebted to De La Salle University, Manila, the Women for Women Foundation (Phils) Inc,
leading businesses in Metro Manila, and all research participants in the Philippines for their hospitality and
support during the conduct of this study. The author, of course, takes full responsibility for the opinions and
interpretations expressed in this paper.
Women Managers and Entrepreneurs in the Philippines: A Comparison with ‘Western’ Theories
WOMEN MANAGERS AND ENTREPRENEURS IN THE PHILIPPINES:
A COMPARISON WITH ‘WESTERN’ THEORIES2
ABSTRACT
Women hold significant leadership positions in national and local government, universities,
business corporations and family business enterprises in the Philippines. ‘Western’ models
developed primarily from studies of male managers, however, still dominate management
and business leadership theory and practice in most countries. This paper evaluates the
appropriateness of such models for Filipina business leaders.
Executives, corporate managers, and entrepreneurs in a wide range of industry sectors
participated in a recent study of women business leaders in Metro Manila. In comparing the
results with widely-quoted management writers, this paper identifies both universal
management and leadership characteristics, and emic components which indicate the deeper
meaning of effective management and business leadership within the Philippines context.
Finally, the paper explores implications for managing in a global economy.
INTRODUCTION
Philippines business operations are competing in an increasingly global environment, and
women managers and entrepreneurs make substantial contributions in many industry sectors.
To date, however, business strategic management and leadership theories have been
developed primarily from studies on male populations. While research on Asian business
leadership has increased in recent years, the most extensive research on women business
leaders has been conducted in Western countries (International Labour Organization, 1997).
Studies on specific groups of Filipina entrepreneurs include those by Alvarez and Alvarez
(1972), Alvaro (1989), Edralin (1992), the University of the Philippines Center for Women’s
Studies/SGV (1992), the University of the Philippines Institute for Small-Scale Industries
(1991), Vicente-Wiley (1979) and Vinuya (1991). In conducting major surveys across five
ASEAN countries, Hoffarth (1989, 1990; 1992) and Licuanan (1992a; 1992b; 1992c) have
2
The author is indebted to De La Salle University, Manila, the Women for Women Foundation (Phils) Inc,
leading businesses in Metro Manila, and all research participants in the Philippines for their hospitality and
support during the conduct of this study. The author, of course, takes full responsibility for the opinions and
interpretations expressed in this paper.
Women Managers and Entrepreneurs in the Philippines: A Comparison with ‘Western’ Theories
1
produced the most comprehensive published findings of the background characteristics of
women managers and entrepreneurs in Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and
Thailand. These studies were designed primarily to identify characteristics associated with
successful women managers, to identify role models for potential women managers, and
develop and implement training programs for women (Hoffarth, 1989; 1990; 1992; Licuanan,
1992a; 1992b; 1992c). Research literature searches and reviews, however, did not identify
any consistent data on industry peer criteria for effective strategic managers and strategic
leaders in the Philippines, peer identification of women managers and entrepreneurs who fit
such criteria, or the attributes, behaviours and organisational contexts of effective Filipina
strategic managers and strategic leaders.
Extensive literature searches were conducted
through electronic databases, and manual searches of University library holdings in the
Philippines, the UK, the US, and Australia3.
The study, informed by grounded theory research methods, included the following objectives:

to elicit industry peer criteria for identifying effective strategic leaders and strategic
managers in the Philippines;

to identify Filipina managers and entrepreneurs who fit such criteria;

to investigate the attributes, behaviours and organisational contexts of effective Filipina
strategic leaders and strategic managers; and

to develop a theory of effective strategic leadership and strategic management that
incorporates the context in which Filipina managers and entrepreneurs operate.
‘WESTERN’ MODELS: DEFINITIONS AND RESEARCH
Western leadership and management models indicate that the purposes of strategic leadership
are to develop a vision of their firm’s future, promote the firm’s vision and mission, take a
clear stand consistent with the organisation’s mission and philosophy, stimulate change and
influence others by excitement and inspiration, and motivate employees to keep moving in
the right direction to achieve the firm’s goals (Bass, 1981; Boyatzis, 1993; Drucker, 1994;
Kanter, 1983; Kotter, 1990). Strategic managers are usually described as responsible for
3
Materials from libraries at the Asian Institute of Management, Ateneo de Manila University, De La Salle
University and the University of the Philippines in Metro Manila, Columbia University, New York and the
University of California (Berkeley) were directly accessed during fieldwork research, and from Australian
university libraries throughout the study.
Women Managers and Entrepreneurs in the Philippines: A Comparison with ‘Western’ Theories
2
developing and implementing business plans to ensure their firm’s long-range survival
(Ansoff and McDonnell, 1990; David, 1993; Kotter, 1990).
The concept of entrepreneurship is a further consideration in public and private sector
business leadership, regardless of organisational size, ownership structure or country location
(Kao, 1991). While ‘entrepreneur’ frequently describes owner/managers of small or medium
enterprises who were instrumental in startup and expansion of their own businesses, the term
intrapreneurs has been used to describe entrepreneurial managers and leaders within existing
large organisations (Pinchot, 1985).
Effective entrepreneurs develop a vision of future
possibilities, and inspire others to help transform that vision into reality (Mintzberg and
Waters, 1982; Van Der Heidjen, 1993). Intrapreneurial executives or corporate entrepreneurs
tend to be strongly growth-oriented, innovative, high risk-takers who constantly seek new
opportunities for business development, and are willing to adapt corporate strategies to meet
emerging opportunities (Drucker, 1985; Kanter, 1983; Mintzberg, 1988; Tan, 1995).
Given the importance of entrepreneurship in Philippines business (Tan, 1995), the results are
first presented from an ‘entrepreneurial’ perspective. Research participants’ emphasis on
effective business leaders’ ‘competence’ next warranted comparison with Boyatzis’ (1982)
competency model. The interest in ‘transformational leadership’ (Bass, 1981; 1985; Bass and
Avolio, 1993; Bass and Stogdill, 1990) and suggestions that ‘charismatic’ leaders possess
universal characteristics (Bass and Avolio, 1993; House and Shamir, 1993), warranted the
inclusion of these frameworks as the third theoretical comparison. As Senge’s (1990a;
1990b) ‘learning organisation’ and ‘strategic thinking’ frameworks informed his critique of
charismatic leadership models, and the ‘strategic intent’ approach has been seen as more
appropriate than ‘strategic fit’ models for businesses in rapidly changing environments
(Hamel and Prahalad, 1989; 1994), Senge’s heuristic model and the ‘strategic intent’
paradigm (Hamel and Prahalad, 1989) formed the fourth and fifth comparative frameworks
respectively. A comparison with Kotter’s (1988; 1990) leadership and management research
appears in Roffey (1999).
RESEARCH DESIGN
The qualitative research methods, including multiple case analysis, were derived from
grounded theory principles (Glaser, 1992; Glaser and Strauss, 1967; Strauss, 1987; Strauss
and Corbin, 1990; 1994). Women managers and entrepreneurs in a range of industries in the
Philippines first completed a mail survey. The open-ended questionnaire was designed to
Women Managers and Entrepreneurs in the Philippines: A Comparison with ‘Western’ Theories
3
elicit key constructs that are perceived to be important in the opinion of business people in
the Philippines, rather than imposing constructs derived largely from research on North
American, European or Japanese companies (e.g. Kotter, 1988; 1990; Kanter, 1983; Misumi,
1985). The questionnaire generated qualitative information on respondents’ description of
effective strategic leadership and strategic management characteristics, identified women
nominated by respondents as meeting those criteria, and provided information on potential
additional research participants.
Modified nominal ‘snowball’ or ‘chain’ sampling
procedures (Lin, 1976; Kidder and Judd, 1986) were used, in which each recipient of the
questionnaire was asked to nominate at least one other person who fits the requirements of
the study (i.e. women corporate manager or entrepreneur based in Metro Manila). Snowball
sampling can generate ‘up to 90 per cent of all cases of a phenomenon of interest’ (Lin, 1976:
163), particularly where a formal or informal network operates between people in the
research population. As networks play an important role in business in the Philippines
(Gonzalez, 1987; Hoffarth, 1989; Soriano, 1973; 1991), snowball sampling generated
additional potential respondents who were sent a questionnaire in subsequent mailings.
Women entrepreneurs and managers whom industry peers considered to be both effective
strategic leaders and strategic managers were then interviewed.
The semi-structured
interview protocol was adapted, with permission, from Kotter’s leadership and management
research. The author subsequently interviewed work colleagues and other organisational
members, participated in organisational activities, and analysed pertinent documents. Field
observation methods included formal interviews and informal conversations with peers,
subordinates and superiors, attendance at committee meetings and training sessions,
participation in work-related social activities, and conducting professional activities as a
business educator and strategic planner.
Followup communications with research
participants ensured accuracy of qualitative data coding and categorisation, and provided
additional background information.
Women entrepreneurs, managers and executives in industries based in Metro Manila
comprised the research population. The author first visited Manila in 1994, to consult with
Filipina executives and entrepreneurs regarding the research scope and design. In November,
1994, a sample of Filipina managers completed pilot questionnaires. A revised questionnaire
was mailed to 222 Filipina managers and entrepreneurs in 1995, and provided the foundation
for further purposive sampling of women identified as effective business leaders in their
industries. Table 1 summarises the characteristics of questionnaire respondents according to
Women Managers and Entrepreneurs in the Philippines: A Comparison with ‘Western’ Theories
4
industry and organisation size, using the Philippines National Census and Statistics Office
classifications.
TABLE 1
SURVEY RESPONSE DISTRIBUTION:
INDUSTRY SECTOR BY ENTERPRISE SIZE
Industry Sector
Small
Medium
Large
(<20
employees)
(20-99
employees)
>100
employees
1.
Agriculture
1
2.
Manufacture
1
3.
Retail trade
4.
Construction
5.
Mining
6.
Finance,
Real
Estate, Insurance,
Businesses
2
7.
Community,
Social, Personal
5
8.
Utilities
9.
Transport,
Communication
TOTAL
Not
stated
1
1
5
7
1
1
1
2
1
1
4
16
22
4
6
15
1
1
2
11
TOTAL
11
1
2
2
6
32
2
56
The questionnaire data constituted only the first segment of the triangulated data set. The
overall response rate of 25.2% was lower than desirable for mail surveys (Cooper and Emory,
1995), but compared reasonably with other mail surveys of business leaders in the region
compared reasonably with other mail surveys of business leaders in developing economies
(see Salehi-Sangari and Lemar, 1993; Syrett, 1995; Yin, 1995). Surveys in developing
economies can produce lower response rates than similar studies in industrialised countries
(Salehi-Sangari and Lemar, 1993). Filipina managers and entrepreneurs of large and medium
sized organisations were over-represented in the survey population, in comparison with the
number of small, family businesses in the Philippines (Eviota, 1992; Hoffarth, 1990;
Licuanan, 1992a; Samonte, 1990). The results can not therefore be generalised to Filipinas
managing small-scale ventures such as sari-sari stores, footpath vending and market stalls,
and the participants in the informal economy (see Austin, 1990).
Questionnaire respondents nominated 35 women whom they considered to have
characteristics of both effective strategic managers and strategic leaders. The responses to
Women Managers and Entrepreneurs in the Philippines: A Comparison with ‘Western’ Theories
5
the initial questionnaire identified a disproportionately high number of effective Filipina
strategic leaders and strategic managers in large and medium sized organisations in
comparison with those in small enterprises. The author subsequently conducted interviews
and field observations in Manila-based organisations, and collected pertinent organisational
documents. All industry sectors except agriculture were represented in the final sample of 21
participating organisations.
Completed in 1998, the research included cross-case analysis of data from organisations
within the same industry, between industries, and between large, medium and small
enterprises. The cross-site qualitative data analysis methodologies expounded by Miles and
Huberman (1984; 1994) were also adapted, by examining data from multiple theoretical
perspectives and differing cultural orientations.
Data processing and analysis
Grounded theory research methods were modified for use in this research, and data analysis
enhanced by using an appropriate qualitative data analysis (QDA) computer program.
Whereas quantitative coding requires the researcher to situate data in predetermined codes
deduced from an a priori theoretical position, qualitative coding procedures are more
appropriate for grounded theory research in which categories are created from interpretation
of the data during the research process itself.
Generative questions (hypotheses, concepts, relationships) were developed at the beginning
of the study, and during data analysis. As concepts were coded, the researcher developed
theory, which increased in conceptual density as additional linkages were tested. The validity
of the concepts and their linkages during each phase of the data collecting and coding were
tested, through comparison of primary data from different sources, feedback from research
participants and verification from secondary data sources. Memos of theoretical ideas were
recorded during the research process, and continually modified as new data were collected
and analysed. Regular memo and code inspection and sorting during the research process
was done to increase the conceptual density of the theoretical memos. Categories, dimensions
and linkages were refined and modified during the research process, to ensure that the final
core categories provide the ‘best’ reflection of the data.
Data from all sources were analysed using the qualitative data analysis program QSR
NUD*IST (Non numerical Unstructured Data Indexing Searching and Theory-building)
(QSR, 1994; 1995; 1997). Advantages of using computers to analyse qualitative research
Women Managers and Entrepreneurs in the Philippines: A Comparison with ‘Western’ Theories
6
data include increased efficiency, flexibility, adaptability, data interpretation reliability and
validity, and ease of data triangulation.
Computers can assist in testing and verifying
relationships between ideas and concepts, and increase the explanatory power of qualitative
research by allowing researchers to investigate systematically the links between the data and
emergent concepts, interpretations, classifications and categories (Kelle, 1997; Miles and
Huberman, 1994).
QSR NUD*IST (Non numerical Unstructured Data Indexing Searching and Theory-building)
Revision 3.0 (QSR, 1994; 1995) was chosen initially because of its strengths in qualitative
data coding, categorising and theory-building from multiple data sources. While subsequent
conversion to QSR NUD*IST 4 (QSR, 1997) enhanced data interrogation and theory
development procedures, the software was primarily a tool for systematically organising,
indexing and exploring qualitative data in codes and categories relevant to the key research
domains of effective strategic leadership and strategic management. Questionnaire, interview
and observational data were stored as word processing documents, and introduced in text file
form to the QSR NUD*IST qualitative data analysis program for subsequent coding,
retrieval, testing of linkages between categories and theory building.
Theoretical assumptions and procedures used in the study are discussed further in Parker and
Roffey (1997).
RESULTS
Professional skills and industry knowledge were perceived to be essential requirements for
effective leadership, regardless of gender or industry sector. All ‘effective’ Filipina business
leaders consistently encouraged professional training and skills development in their
employees, to increase organisational and national competitiveness. There was a sense of
urgency and personal commitment in the emphasis on training and development, and
empowering employees to develop initiative and produce high-quality goods and services.
Effective business leaders demonstrated their commitment to high performance standards and
individual initiative through their personal example. They emphasised and rewarded pride in
performance, organisational loyalty and individual self-confidence. The following section
focuses on comparisons of the findings with dominant ‘Western’ leadership and management
models.
The nature of ‘entrepreneurship’ in Filipina business leadership is first discussed. The
findings are then examined from within competency perspectives, transformational and
Women Managers and Entrepreneurs in the Philippines: A Comparison with ‘Western’ Theories
7
charismatic leadership frameworks, Senge’s ‘learning organisation’ leadership, and the
‘strategic intent’ paradigm.
Entrepreneurial Women
Filipina entrepreneurial executives in finance institutions, commercial banking, transport, and
owners/managers of family enterprises were strongly growth-oriented, innovative and
moderately high risk-takers.
They scanned the business environment for new business
development opportunities, and were willing to adapt business strategies to meet emerging
opportunities.
These observations were largely consistent with Western descriptions of
entrepreneurial and ‘intrapreneurial’ attributes and behaviour (Drucker, 1985; Kanter, 1983;
Mintzberg, 1988; Pinchot, 1985). Nevertheless, the country’s developing economic status,
research participants’ sensitivity to international perceptions of business risk in the
Philippines, the adverse consequences of over-expansion in some enterprises during the
1980s, and changing political/business networks influenced Filipina entrepreneurship
strategies and behaviours.
The Filipina intrapreneurs in medium and large organisations, which were not family
enterprises, possessed the competence and persistence necessary to persuade their peers and
subordinates of the value of innovative strategies, and overcome obstacles to implementation.
Filipina entrepreneurs in small media and environmental technology organisations, as well as
intrapreneurs in medium and large organisations set challenging but achievable goals for staff
and employees. They were all strongly action-oriented, and showed evidence of adapting
their behaviour in response to mistakes. All these observations were consistent with previous
literature on entrepreneurship. Some of the Philippines business and political dynamics
during the 1970s and 1980s, industry deregulation and increased global competitiveness, had
created a strong imperative for effective Filipina entrepreneurs to focus on business finance
and marketing details, and to develop results-oriented, product or service quality operations
management procedures and reward systems.
Although the dynamics intrinsic to these
entrepreneurial behaviours resemble those outlined in entrepreneurship writings in the 1980s
(Drucker, 1985; Kanter, 1983; Pinchot, 1985), the economic and political contexts of Filipino
entrepreneurship differ substantively from those in developed Western economies.
A Competency Perspective
Research participants emphasised the importance of managerial competence for effective
strategic leadership.
Filipina business leaders demonstrated leadership characteristics
Women Managers and Entrepreneurs in the Philippines: A Comparison with ‘Western’ Theories
8
consistent in part with Boyatzis’ (1982) competency model, in terms of the entrepreneurial
requirement of management positions, goal and management competencies, and leadership
competencies.
Boyatzis’ ‘goal and action management’ cluster includes competencies associated with
‘efficiency orientation’, ‘proactivity’, ‘diagnostic use of concepts’, and ‘concern with
impact’.
This results-oriented cluster includes elements of total quality management,
continuous improvement and innovation.
The ‘efficiency orientation’ includes a ‘concern for doing something better’. Managers with
an efficiency orientation set challenging but realistic goals, write or describe plans, and
organise resources. They emphasise efficiency in resource use, and ‘speak of relative returns
on investment or relative results from allocation of resources’ (Boyatzis, 1982: 60).
‘Proactive’ managers have a ‘disposition toward taking action to accomplish something’, and
‘view events in life as opportunities for taking action and see themselves as the agent who
must precipitate such action’ (Boyatzis, 1982: 71). They ‘initiate action, communication,
proposals, meetings or directives to accomplish a task….seek information from a wide
variety of sources…. [and] actively search the environment for “needs” that can be translated
into product ideas’ (Boyatzis, 1982: 72).
Managers who demonstrate ‘diagnostic use of concepts’ ‘usually have a model, theory, or
framework with which to interpret or explain events’. They ‘recognise patterns and interpret
aspects of the situation by applying information from the specific event to an organisational
model that they have…. If they don’t have a mental “road map”, they will create one’
(Boyatzis, 1982: 80).
‘Concern with impact’ is particularly pertinent at executive/senior management level
(Boyatzis, 1982: 93). Executive competency criteria include persuasive skills, ability to
influence other, and maintaining product/company prestige.
Boyatzis’ ‘leadership cluster’ applies to executive and middle management positions only,
and includes ‘self-confidence’ evident in self-presentation skills, oral presentation and
communication skills, and ‘conceptualisation’ or identification of patterns through concept
formation and analysis of patterns or themes. Sequential thinking and logical organisation of
thoughts and activities is considered a core competency for middle management, while
effective executives are characterised by both external and internal focus and orientation, and
demonstrate self-confidence as well as concern with impact. Table 2 summarises data with
Women Managers and Entrepreneurs in the Philippines: A Comparison with ‘Western’ Theories
9
reference to Filipina business leader/organisation ‘fit’ with Boyatzis’ framework of
competency clusters.
TABLE 2
EFFECTIVE FILIPINA BUSINESS LEADERS:
‘FIT’ WITH BOYATZIS’ (1982) COMPETENCY MODEL
CLASSIFIED BY ORGANISATION TYPE
COMPETENCY
EFFECTIVE FILIPINA BUSINESS LEADERS
Entrepreneurial requirement of management
jobs:
Real
estate,
education,
finance,
banking,
manufacturing,
retail,
construction,
transport,
environmental management, corporate foundation,
petroleum, media.
‘to make things happen towards a goal or
consistent with a plan’ (Boyatzis, 1982: 60)
Management cluster
Efficiency orientation
Real estate, construction, education, finance, banking,
transport,
environmental
management,
utility,
petroleum
Proactivity
Education, finance, banking, manufacturing, transport,
environmental management, corporate foundation,
utility, real estate, petroleum, media
Diagnostic use of concepts
Education, finance, banking, transport, environmental
management, corporate foundation, petroleum
Concern with impact
Education,
finance,
banking,
manufacturing,
construction, environmental management, corporate
foundation, petroleum, transport, media
Leadership cluster
Conceptualism
Education, finance, banking, petroleum, environmental
management, corporate foundation, transport
Sequential thinking, logical organisation of
thoughts and activities
Banking, finance, education, utility, real estate,
transport
External/internal focus
Education,
finance,
banking,
manufacturing,
construction, environmental management, corporate
foundation, real estate, petroleum, transport, media
Leadership Beyond Competency?
Not all business leaders who possess Boyatzis’ requisite ‘competencies’ choose to exercise
their leadership competencies consistently in their management positions. Using a role
enactment framework in a study of a ‘large, diversified financial services company and a
large international oil company’, Boyatzis (1993: 7) reported agreement between middle level
managers’ self-ratings and subordinate ratings on the extent to which managers enacted
leadership roles in contrast to management roles. The managerial roles included planning, a
competitive advantage orientation, producing predicable results, influence by consensus,
Women Managers and Entrepreneurs in the Philippines: A Comparison with ‘Western’ Theories
10
problem-solving speeches, dealing with controversial issues through seeking consensus, and
self-perception as an allocator of organizational resources. In contrast, business leaders focus
on the organisational mission and philosophy, based their own work on the organisation’s
purpose, see their main responsibility to stimulate change, influence others by ‘excitement’.
They use speeches to ‘motivate and inspire, deal with controversial issues by taking a stand
and communicating their stand clearly, and see themselves as ‘representative of the
organization’s mission/vision’ (Boyatzis, 1993: 6). In examining the conditions under which
executives who possess required leadership competencies exercise those competencies in
practice, Boyatzis identified an interaction between business leaders’ reported role enactment,
career growth preferences and organisational factors.
While the difference between Boyatzis’ sample and research method and those of the present
study preclude direct analysis of the ‘fit’ between frameworks, the results of the study
indicate that role enactments may have a cultural confound. In large finance and banking,
real estate and education organisations, the congruence between Filipina business leaders’
self-descriptions, and peers’, colleagues’ and subordinates’ perceptions, indicates that
Filipina business leaders are expected to enact Boyatzis’ ‘leader roles’ as well as ‘influence
others by consensus’, and ‘solicit views and seek consensus’ in dealing with controversial
issues (Boyatzis, 1993: 6). The ‘effective’ Filipina strategic leaders and strategic managers
harnessed cultural values of consultation and consensus in decision-making. After they had
sought opinions and comments, however, they took a stand, summarised the issues and their
decision, and acted decisively to implement decisions. They linked decisions on strategies,
issues and specific problems back to the organisation’s mission and vision. The ways in
which they enacted these leadership roles have been described in preceding chapters. The
dimensions and expressions of role enactment therefore appear culturally contingent.
Transformational and Charismatic Leadership
There are cultural and gendered considerations of both ‘transformational’ and ‘charismatic’
Filipina leadership that shape the meaning of these leadership models in the Philippines
business environment.
Both ‘charismatic’ leaders (House and Shamir, 1993) and ‘transformational’ leaders (Bass,
1985; Bass and Avolio, 1993) have strong visions for their organisations and successfully
inspire their followers to act in the interests of collective organisational interests rather than
their own individual needs. Bass and Avolio (1993) and House and Shamir (1993) have
Women Managers and Entrepreneurs in the Philippines: A Comparison with ‘Western’ Theories
11
suggested that charismatic leadership has common elements across cultures. There may be
cultural differences, however, in particular leader behaviour and decision-making styles, as
well as cultural differences in employee responses to specific charismatic attributes. While
Kanter (1977) is one of the few Western writers who have tackled the gender discourse in
transformational leadership, the challenges she presents to contemporary business leaders
need to be tempered by the political, economic and gender considerations in the Philippines.
‘Transformational’ leadership was apparent in heads of large accounting firms, banking,
power supply and private university executives, a medium transport firm and heads of smaller
service sector organisations. Transformational leadership characteristics were most evident
in women whose organisations were implementing strategic change. One executive’s clarity
of vision for the organisation, persistence, persuasive skills, consultation and consensusseeking strategies and attention to detail enhanced staff commitment to the organisation’s
vision and goals, thus transcending individual interests.
‘Hands-on’ involvement in
organisational transformation included planning and leading corporate strategy sessions,
developing and delivering training programs, close personal attention to organisational
performance and performance improvement incentives linked to individual and work group
achievements.
Across all industries, the consistent emphasis on staff training and
development to increase the organisation’s competitive advantage reflected Filipina business
leaders’ awareness of global competition, and the need to recruit, support and retain highly
qualified staff.
‘Transformational’ leaders in Philippines subsidiaries of multinational enterprises inspired
employees through their clarity of strategic vision, ability to communicate the organisation’s
vision, mission and values, knowledge of individual employee strengths and learning needs,
and consistent reinforcement of goal-directed achievements. While the senior executive of a
transport firm complied with international headquarters’ strategic directions, the ways in
which she led the Philippine subsidiary’s structural and quality improvement changes
included transformational leadership elements. Operating in a highly competitive industry
which requires efficiency, accuracy and a client service orientation, she developed an ethos of
continuous improvement. She empowered individual employees through targeted training
programs, performance-linked incentives, ritual celebrations of individual and group
achievements, and modelling persistence and organisational commitment.
Effective ‘transformational’ leaders subsumed ‘transactional’ qualities in communicating
organisational goals, helping employees identify and carry out task responsibilities,
Women Managers and Entrepreneurs in the Philippines: A Comparison with ‘Western’ Theories
12
monitoring, correcting and rewarding performance to achieve the organisation’s goals.
Effective ‘transactional’ leaders, however, did not consistently demonstrate the visionary and
empowering personal skills necessary to inspire employees to commit themselves to the
wider organisation’s interests and needs.
Moreover, while ‘inspirational’ leadership
behaviour through collaborating with and aligning employees to increase their commitment
to the organisation was evident in women who led medium and large manufacturing
organisations, their strategic leadership orientation was embedded in a synthesis of Filipino
kinship politics and entrepreneurial acumen rather than formal, systematic strategy processes.
The ‘Learning Organisation’; ‘Strategic Thinking’
Senge’s (1990b) critique of charismatic leadership models is based in his perception that ‘our
traditional view of leaders – as special people who set the direction, make the key decisions,
and energise the troops – is deeply rooted in an individualistic and non-systemic worldview.
Especially in the West, leaders are heroes – great men (and occasionally women) who rise to
the fore in times of crisis’ (Senge, 1990b: 9). Senge’s image of the ‘hero’ is grounded in a
military metaphor. Such an image is consistent with the origins of ‘strategic management’
techniques, which are based on traditional military strategies. These strategies, however, are
not uniquely Western: Sun Tzu’s ‘The Art of War’, an ancient Chinese military strategy
treatise, was popularised and adapted for Western business use. Female ‘heroes’ or business
leaders do not commonly appear in strategy writings embedded in military metaphors.
During the 1980s and early 1990s, case histories of a number of successful Filipina
entrepreneurs were written, for use in women’s management development programs
(Licuanan, 1992a; 1992b). The ways in which these women lead do not fit the military
strategy or charismatic models of business leadership. Along with several senior executives
in large services organisations, the entrepreneurs in this study showed more evidence of
‘stewardship’, ‘teacher’ and ‘designer’ roles than ‘military leader’ roles. The gendered and
cultural realities of the Filipina business leader as ‘steward’, ‘teacher’ or ‘designer’, however,
differ from their meaning in Senge’s framework.
In advocating the development of a ‘learning organisation’ characterised by ‘integrative
thinking and acting at all levels’ (Senge, 1990: 8) Senge conceptualises business leadership
roles as those of ‘designer’, ‘teacher’ and ‘steward’.
Traditional strategic management
models have ‘design’ components in strategy, structure and policy development, usually done
by senior management. In contrast, Senge’s ‘learning organisation’ creates a organisational
Women Managers and Entrepreneurs in the Philippines: A Comparison with ‘Western’ Theories
13
environment in which managers change their ‘mental models’ of the company. Designing
strategy, structure and policies therefore involved developing and supporting strategic
thinking in managers and decision-makers. Rather than being an authoritarian leader who
teaches employees one ‘correct’ view of reality, Senge’s ‘leader as teacher’ assists
organisational members ‘restructure their views of reality to see beyond the superficial
conditions and events into the underlying causes of problems – and therefore to see new
possibilities for shaping the future’ (Senge, 1990: 15). The stewardship role of a business
leader is ‘almost solely a matter of attitude’ which ‘operates on two levels: stewardship for
the people they lead and stewardship for the larger purpose or mission that underlies the
enterprise’ (Senge, 1990: 17).
The majority of business enterprises studied by Senge in developing his ‘learning
organisation’ model were large multinationals.
There was only a partial ‘fit’ between
Senge’s reconceptualised roles of the business leader as ‘designer’, ‘teacher’ and ‘steward’ in
a ‘learning organisation’ model, and the attitudes, mindsets and behaviours of Filipina
business leaders in the study. The collectivist structure and values of Filipino society, gender
role expectations and the kinship dynamics which affect managerial behaviour, provide a
distinctive context for the meaning of leader ‘stewardship’.
The ‘nurturing’ role expectations and reciprocal responsibilities in the Philippines
‘organisation as family’ contain business leader ‘stewardship’ characteristics. The meaning
of such characteristics, however, are embedded in the culture and gender domains. Effective
Filipina business leaders talked about their roles in developing the national economy as well
as their own organisation. In the Philippines context, ‘stewardship’ was two-dimensional. In
the ‘competitive strategy’ dimension, Filipina business leaders made intensive efforts to
upgrade the professional skills of their staff to increase the business competitive position and
product/service quality.
In a ‘national development’ dimension, influential executives
examined strategies for encouraging highly educated Filipinos working overseas to return
home.
These two dimensions combine to produce an single ‘strategic stewardship’
dimension. If successful in its implementation, this ‘strategic stewardship’ would achieve
three main purposes.
competitiveness.
Individual organisations would improve performance and
The country would benefit from an aggregate increase in skill base.
Finally, international perception of the Philippines as a sound investment proposition and
source of high-quality products would be enhanced.
This in turn would increase the
competitiveness of individual organisations.
Women Managers and Entrepreneurs in the Philippines: A Comparison with ‘Western’ Theories
14
A culturally specific meaning of business leader ‘stewardship’ involved delicadeza, which
differed from the context of Senge’s ‘learning organisation’. Delicadeza required Filipina
business leaders to exercise their moral and ethical obligations to their employees in ways
that would not necessarily involve fostering a ‘learning organisation’ mindset. In fact, its
historical and cultural origins mean that delicadeza can be antithetical to the encouragement
and reward of alternative views of reality within organisations.
Moreover, delicadeza
involves the perception of business leadership as ethical and above board as well as the
enactment of socially acceptable, moral and ethical behaviours, and is in conflict with
Filipino kinship politics. The meaning of leader ‘stewardship’ in the Philippines business
environment is therefore compounded by cultural dynamics. While the discourse around
historical patterns of business leadership in the Philippines, and ‘modern’ competitive,
innovative business practices, transcends gender considerations, Filipina business leader have
to meet the challenges of negotiating between the potentially competing imperatives of
delicadeza and kinship politics within the context of their specific business, community and
family situations.
Determining the degree of ‘fit’ between Senge’s ‘leader as teacher’ and ‘leader as designer’
was more straightforward. Senge’s construction of the ‘learning organisation’ leader as
‘designer’ was consistent with leadership orientation and strategies evident in small and
medium entrepreneurs in (technology, media, manufacturing), and large ‘intrapreneurs’
(private education, finance institutions). Where Filipina business leaders were complianceoriented, there was no evidence of either the ‘designer’ role or a ‘learning organisation’
strategic orientation. Similarly, the ‘leader as teacher’ in fostering ‘empowering’ rather than
‘correct’ views of reality through authoritarian leadership, was only clearly apparent in
Filipina business leaders whose orientation was not compliance-driven. Women who set and
rewarded strategic goals and targets, even after consultation and provision of staff training,
only demonstrated ‘empowering’ teacher roles where they also demonstrated ‘strategic
stewardship’ and ‘designer’ attitudes and behaviours.
The Filipina businesswomen who most consistently embodied Senge’s business leader
characteristics also demonstrated strategic thinking in their leadership behaviour (Mintzberg,
1987). Not only did they practice traditional strategic management policy development and
implementation: their entrepreneurial attitudes and ‘visioning’ mindsets enabled them to
conceptualise likely future scenarios and alternative business models. Such strategic thinking
was most apparent in businesswomen who had been educated in US universities. Their
Women Managers and Entrepreneurs in the Philippines: A Comparison with ‘Western’ Theories
15
success in transmitting their strategic mindsets to colleagues in their organisations varied
according to leadership style and organisational history.
‘Strategic Intent’ and Filipina Business Leadership
The Philippines business environment is changing rapidly, as Filipino organisations are
operating in an increasingly competitive international business environment. As Hamel and
Prahalad (1989; 1994) have argued that corporate ‘strategic intent’ is more appropriate than
‘strategic fit’ models for businesses in rapidly changing environments, the nature and extent
of ‘strategic intent’ in Filipina business leadership was examined. Several contingencies
associated with ‘strategic intent’ were identified in this study, and emic components of
implementing strategic intent were apparent.
In their model of contemporary strategic leadership and strategic vision, Hamel and Prahalad
(1989) distinguish ‘strategic intent’ from ‘strategic fit’. They argue that ‘strategic intent’ may
be more appropriate for leaders of organisations in dynamic global operating environments,
as it permits more organisational flexibility than traditional strategic management models.
Traditional strategic management involves a search for the strategic fit between business
portfolios, market niches and products, customers and distribution channels. Sustainable
advantage is maintained by emphasising financial targets and containing strategy
implementation within resource parameters. Strategic intent, on the other hand, requires
entrepreneurial business leaders who seek new rules for business strategies. They lead by
focussing on strategic challenges rather than financial targets, and obtain resource leverage to
achieve goals rather than constraining goals within apparent resource constraints. They
develop portfolios of core competences in the organisations, and emphasise rapid learning
within the organisation (Hamel and Prahalad, 1989; Van Der Heidjen, 1993).
The research findings in this study indicate distinctive boundaries and contingencies which
moderate the applicability of Hamel’s and Prahalad’s framework to the Philippines context.
The degree of ‘strategic intent’ was contingent on level of industry competition,
organisational history, level of resource control, and strength of external strategic alliance
networks. The enterprise visions of Filipina business leaders in manufacturing and retail
enterprises were bound by the ‘strategic fit’ model rather than proactive strategic intent.
Organisations in these sectors had enjoyed some level of industry protectionism and
government support in the past, and were beginning to deal with increased competition.
Business leaders in the banking industry, who were operating under external regulatory
Women Managers and Entrepreneurs in the Philippines: A Comparison with ‘Western’ Theories
16
constraints, showed more evidence of traditional strategic fit. In the financial services sector,
however, the Filipina business leaders’ strategic visions contained more elements of strategic
intent. In the education sector, the senior woman executive of a large private university had
an entrepreneurial, strategic intent orientation as she helped the organisation redirect its
strategy.
The highly competitive transport sector included one entrepreneurial business
leader who exercised strategic intent in redefining the nature of the organisation’s core
business, and developing and implementing strategies to develop an industry leadership
position.
Business leaders who had extensive kinship group alliances were able to negotiate resources
to support strategic goals, and hence were in an advantageous position in exercising strategic
intent in implementing their organisational vision. This phenomenon was evident across
organisation size and industry, but was particularly noticeable in small media and community
sector organisations. The entrepreneurial nature of strategic intent is a core variable which in
the Philippines business context was supported by external palakasan dynamics, exploiting
external opportunities and implementing internal staff development strategies.
CONCLUSION
The results of this study indicate some convergence of the conceptual parameters of ‘strategic
leadership’ and ‘strategic management’ between ‘Western’ models and Philippines business
leadership. Interpretation of the ways in which Filipina executives and entrepreneurs develop
and implement their business strategies, and of their leadership and managerial styles,
however, are most meaningful when interpreted within the context of Philippines culture and
business dynamics.
The study provides support for the argument that functional role parameters of business
management are universal. All Filipina executives played planning, directing, leading and
controlling roles. Consistent with mainstream Western management theory and research (e.g.
Boyatzis, 1982; 1993; Kotter, 1988; Mintzberg, 1975; Quinn et al, 1988), Filipina business
leaders showed evidence of effective coordination, planning and allocation of resources.
They were adept at facilitating and problem-solving by either consensus or individual
decision-making), and had a results-oriented style of management. The enactment of these
roles, however, was bounded by culture and gender dynamics.
Similarly, the ‘visionary’ and long-term orientation required of ‘strategic leaders’ appears to
transcend cultural boundaries, but the ways in which Filipina executives and managers
Women Managers and Entrepreneurs in the Philippines: A Comparison with ‘Western’ Theories
17
communicate their strategic vision, generate support for their strategies, and implement their
long-run strategies have distinctive characteristics within the culture and gender discourses.
The extent of conceptual ‘fit’ between mainstream Western business leadership models was
contingent on cultural and organisational contexts in which the research participants operated.
Moreover, the gender discourse generated specific considerations which are not readily
apparent in mainstream strategic management and strategic leadership models. In critiquing
‘leadership’ discussions in Western management literature, Mintzberg similarly argued that
‘the excess attention to the role of leading has probably been matched by the inadequate
attention to the role of linking … managers have been shown to be external linkers as much
as they are internal leaders’ (Mintzberg, 1996: 30, emphasis in the original). The requirement
of effective managers to develop ‘vast arrays of contacts and intricate coalitions of supporters
beyond their own units, whether within the rest of the organization or outside, in the world at
large’ (Mintzberg, 1996: 30) is arguably universal.
This study shows, however, that
networking structures and strategies for effective business leadership must be interpreted
within the culture and gender contexts.
The globalisation of business in an increasingly competitive and rapidly changing
environment has challenged businesses to rethink the ways in which they do business. Adler
(1994a) contends that organisational structures and employment policies have created
opportunities for expatriate and host country women in transnational companies, which may
not be available in more traditionally structured domestic organisations in both countries.
Women are increasing their professional roles in international business management as well
as in domestic labour markets (Adler, 1994b; Adler and Izraeli; 1994). However, globalised
industry structures, cost-competitive strategies and the continued sexual division of labour in
countries such as the Philippines (Eviota, 1992) pose significant challenges for women’s
career development and participation rates in skilled occupations in these countries.
Women’s entrepreneurial leadership opportunities in small business enterprises may improve
if competitive business outsourcing strategies rely on skilled entrepreneurial management and
quality control. In practice, however, outsourcing in developing economies has provided an
inexpensive labour force in which women are disproportionately represented. The impact of
transnational and multinational enterprises on small-scale domestic industries in the
Philippines and other developing economies requires further investigation. The dynamics
described in this paper provide a stimulus for further critical investigation of the
consequences of rapidly increasing industry globalisation.
Women Managers and Entrepreneurs in the Philippines: A Comparison with ‘Western’ Theories
18
REFERENCES
Adler, N.J. and Izraeli, D. (eds). (1994a). Competitive Frontiers: Women Managers in a
Global Economy. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
Adler, N.J. (1994b). ‘Women managers in a global economy’, Training and Development,
48, 4: 30-36.
Alvarez, J.B.C. and Alvarez, P.M. (1972). ‘The Filipino family-owned business: a
matriarchal model’, Philippine Studies, 20: 547-561.
Alvaro, B.G. (1989). ‘The women entrepreneurs of Pampanga: their problems and prospects’,
Small Business Research Journal, 1, 2: 19-35.
Ansoff, I. and McDonnell, E. (1990). Implanting Strategic Management. Hertfordshire, UK:
Prentice Hall International (UK).
Austin, J.F. (1990). Managing in Developing Countries: Strategic Analysis and Operating
Techniques. New York, NY: Free Press.
Bass, B.M. (1981). Stogdill’s Handbook of Leadership. New York, NY: Free Press.
Bass, B.M. (1985). Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations. New York, NY: Free
Press.
Bass, B.M. and Avolio, B.J. (1993). ‘Transformational leadership: a response to critiques’,
Leadership Theory and Research. San Diego, CA: Academic Press: 49-80.
Bass, B.M. and Stogdill, R. (1990). Bass and Stogdill’s Handbook of Leadership: Theories,
Research and Management Applications (3rd edition). New York, NY: Free Press.
Boyatzis, R. (1982). The Competent Manager. New York, NY: Wiley.
Boyatzis, R. (1993). ‘Beyond competence: the choice to be a leader”, Human Resources
Management Review, 3, 1: 1-14.
Cooper, D.R. and Emory, C.W. (1995). Business Research Methods (5th edition). Sydney:
Irwin.
David, F. (1993). Strategic Management (4th edition). New York, NY: Macmillan.
Denzin, N. and Lincoln, Y. (eds). (1994). Handbook of Qualitative Research. Newbury Park,
CA: Sage.
Drucker, P.F. (1985). Innovation and Entrepreneurship. New York, NY: Harper and Row.
Women Managers and Entrepreneurs in the Philippines: A Comparison with ‘Western’ Theories
19
Edralin, D.M. (1992). ‘The internal and external factors affecting business strategy
formulation of small-scale ceramics and food-processing entrepreneurs in Metro
Manila’, Manila, Phils: De La Salle University Press, Business and Economics
Review, 2, 4: 81-109.
Eviota, E.U. (1992). The Political Economy of Gender: Women and the Sexual Division of
Labour in the Philippines. London, UK: Zed Books.
Glaser, B and Strauss, A. (1967). The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies For
Qualitative Research. NY: Aldine.
Glaser, B. (1992). Basics of Grounded Theory Analysis. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press.
Gonzalez, R.L. (1987). Corporate Culture Modification: A Guide for Managers. Metro
Manila, Phils: National Book Store.
Hamel, G.H. and Prahalad, C.K. (1989). ‘Strategic intent’, Harvard Business Review, 89, 3:
63-76.
Hamel, G.H. and Prahalad, C.K. (1994). Competing for the Future. Boston, MA: Harvard
Business School Press.
Hendry, J., Johnson, G. and Newton, J (eds). (1993). Strategic Thinking: Leadership and the
Management of Change. New York, NY: Wiley
Heslop, L.A. (ed). (1992). The Ties That Bind: Proceedings of the Global Research
Conference on Women and Management. Alberta, Canada: Canadian Consortium of
Management Schools/Faculty of Management.
Hoffarth, V.B. (1989). Corporate Women Managers in Southeast Asia. Makati, Phils: Asian
Institute of Management.
Hoffarth, V.B. (1990). Women Managers in Southeast Asia. Manila, Phils: Women for
Women Foundation (Asia) Inc.
Hoffarth, V.B. (1992). Prospects for Corporate Women Managers in the 1990s: the Case for
the Philippines. In L.A. Heslop (ed). The Ties That Bind: Proceedings of the Global
Research Conference on Women in Management. Calgary, Alberta: Canadian
Consortium of Management Schools, 439-454.
Women Managers and Entrepreneurs in the Philippines: A Comparison with ‘Western’ Theories
20
House, R.J. and Shamir, B. (1993). ‘Towards the integration of transactional, charismatic and
visionary theories’, Leadership Theory and Research. San Diego, CA: Academic
Press: 81-107.
International Labour Organization. (1997). Breaking Through the Glass Ceiling: Women in
Management. Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Office.
Kanter, R.M. (1977). Men and Women of the Corporation. NY: Basic Books.
Kanter, R.M. (1983). The Change Masters: Corporate Entrepreneurs at Work. London:
Unwin.
Kao, J. (1991). The Entrepreneur. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Kelle, U. (1997). ‘Theory building in qualitative research and computer programs for the
management
of
textual
data’
Sociological
Research
Online,
2,
2,
http://www.socresonline.org.uk/socresonline/2/2/1.html
Kidder, L.H. and Judd, C. (1986). Research Methods in Social Relations (5th edition). New
York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Kotter, J.P. (1988). The Leadership Factor. NY: Free Press.
Kotter, J.P. (1990). A Force for Change: How Leadership Differs from Management. NY:
Free Press.
Licuanan, V. (ed). (1992a). Women Entrepreneurs in Southeast Asia. Makati, Phils: Asian
Institute of Management.
Licuanan, V. (ed). (1992b). Beyond Profit: ASEAN Women in Government and Not-for-profit
Organizations. Makati, Phils: Asian Institute of Management.
Licuanan, V. (1992c). Women Managers in Southeast Asia: Factors Related to Success. In
LA Heslop (ed), The Ties That Bind: Proceedings of the Global Research Conference
on Women and Management, Alberta, Canada: Canadian Consortium of Management
Schools/Faculty of Management: 83-90.
Lin, N. (1976). Foundations of Social Research. New York, NY: McGraw Hill.
Miles, M.B. and Huberman, A.M. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis (2nd edition). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
Mintzberg, H. (1973). The Nature of Managerial Work, NY: Harper and Row.
Women Managers and Entrepreneurs in the Philippines: A Comparison with ‘Western’ Theories
21
Mintzberg, H. (1975). ‘The manager’s job: folklore and fact’, Harvard Business Review,
July-August: 49-61.
Mintzberg, H. (1987). ‘Crafting strategy’, Harvard Business Review, July-August, reprinted
in J.B. Quinn, H. Mintzberg and R.M. James (eds). The Strategy Process: Concepts,
Contexts and Cases. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall International.
Mintzberg, H. (1988). Strategy-making in Three Modes. In J.B. Quinn, H. Mintzberg and
R.M. James (eds). The Strategy Process: Concepts, Contexts and Cases ,Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall International.
Mintzberg, H. (1996). The Manager’s Job. In H. Mintzberg and J.B.Quinn (eds). The Strategy
Process: Concepts, Contexts and Cases (3rd edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
Mintzberg, H. and Waters, J.A. (1982), ‘Tracking strategy in an entrepreneurial firm’,
Academy of Management Journal, 25, 3: 465-499.
Misumi, J. (1985). The Behavior Science of Leadership: an Interdisciplinary Japanese
Research Program. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
Parker, L.D. and Roffey, B.H. (1997). ‘Back to the drawing board: revisiting grounded theory
and the everyday accountant’s reality’, Accounting, Auditing and Accountability
Journal, 10, 1, 212-247.
Pinchot, G. (1985). Intrapreneuring. New York, NY: Harper and Row.
Qualitative Research and Solutions. (1994). Q.S.R. NUDIST Revision 3.0: Qualitative Data
Analysis Software for Research Professionals: Workshop Manual, Melbourne,
Australia: Qualitative Research and Solutions P/L.
Qualitative Research and Solutions. (1995). Workshop Manual for Q.S.R. NUDIST
Qualitative Data Analysis Software, Melbourne, Australia: Qualitative Research and
Solutions P/L.
Qualitative Research and Solutions. (1997). QSR NUD*IST Revision 4: User Guide.
Melbourne, Australia: Qualitative Research and Solutions P/L.
Quinn, J.B, Mintzberg, H. and James R. (1988). The Strategy Process: Concepts, Contexts
and Cases, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall International.
Women Managers and Entrepreneurs in the Philippines: A Comparison with ‘Western’ Theories
22
Roffey, B.H. (1999). ‘Filipina managers and entrepreneurs: what leadership models apply?’,
Asian Studies Review, 23, 3: 375-405.
Samonte, E.L. (1990). Status of Women in the Philippines. Manila, Phils: Psychological
Association of the Philippines Module No. 4.
Senge, P.M. (1990a). The Fifth Discipline: the Art and Practice of the Learning
Organization. New York, NY: Doubleday.
Senge, P.M. (1990b). ‘The leader’s new work: building learning organisations’, Sloan
Management Review, Fall: 7-23.
Soriano, E.V. (1973). A Profile of Philippine Management. In E.V. Soriano and L.C. Nehrt
(eds). Business Policy in an Asian Context. Manila: Sinagtala Publishers.
Soriano, E.V. (1991). Management in Pakikisama Society. In J.M. Putti (ed). Management:
Asian Context. Singapore: McGraw-Hill.
Soriano, E.V. and Nehrt, L.C. (eds). (1989). Business Policy in an Asian Context: Text and
Cases (3rd edition). Manila: Sinag-Tala Publishers.
Strauss, A. (1987). Qualitative Analysis for Social Scientists, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press.
Strauss, A. and Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory
Procedures and Techniques. Newbury Park: Sage.
Strauss, A. and Corbin, J. (1994). Grounded Theory Methodology: An Overview. In N.
Denzin and Y. Lincoln (eds). Handbook of Qualitative Research. Newbury Park, CA:
Sage.
Tan, Q.G. (1995). ‘Corporate entrepreneurs, like business entrepreneurs, are made’, The
Asian Manager, February-March.
Tesch, R. (1990). Qualitative Research: Analysis Types and Software Tools, Hampshire, UK:
Falmer Press.
University Center for Women’s Studies and SGV Foundation Incorporated (1992).
Proceedings of the Seminar Workshop on Women Entrepreneurs. Quezon City, Phils:
University of the Philippines.
Women Managers and Entrepreneurs in the Philippines: A Comparison with ‘Western’ Theories
23
University of the Philippines Institute for Small-Scale Industries (1991). Filipino Women in
Business: A Case Book. Quezon City, Phils: Small Enterprise Research and
Development Foundation.
Van Der Heidjen, K. (1993). Strategic Vision at Work: Discussing Strategic Vision in
Management Teams. In J. Hendry, G. Johnson and J. Newton (eds),
Strategic
Thinking: Leadership and the Management of Change. New York, NY: Wiley: 137150.
Vicente-Wiley, L. (1979) ‘Achievement values of Filipino entrepreneurs and politicians’.
Economic Development and Cultural Change, 27, 3: 467-483.
Vinuya, D.T. (1991). ‘Women entrepreneurs in the Philippines’, Small Business Research
Journal, 3, 2: 49-62.
Yin, H-W. S. (1995). ‘Attitudes and behaviours of entrepreneurs in five ASEAN countries’,
Journal of Small Business and Entrepreneurship, 12, 4: 19-26.
Women Managers and Entrepreneurs in the Philippines: A Comparison with ‘Western’ Theories
24