Democracy and the Press: A Comparative Analysis of Pluralism in
the International Print Media
Joshua Woods, Dept. of Sociology, Michigan State University, The Social
Science Journal, Vol. 44, Issue 2, 2007, 213-230.
Abstract
The relationship between democracy and press pluralism is assessed in seven
countries: China, Colombia, Egypt, Germany, India, Lithuania, and Russia. The
term “pluralism” is defined as the extent to which diverse and competing views
appear in the content of the mainstream press on a given news topic. Content
analysis of 2,172 articles from the 10 largest newspapers in each country, published
in the first months after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, is used to evaluate
the level of press pluralism. Previous studies have offered conflicting views on the
relationship between democracy and press pluralism. Although this study finds
mixed results, the general tendency, which is based on 10 major news issues
surrounding the events of 9/11, supports the perspective that democracy is not
always positively associated with press pluralism. Much of the debate over 9/11 in
countries ranked as highly democratic was less pluralistic than in countries with
weaker democratic institutions.
1. “Why does the press serve different purposes and appear in widely different forms in
different countries?” This question first appeared in the influential book Four Theories of
the Press by Siebert, Peterson & Schramm, 1956. A half-century later, the same question
set the agenda in Hallin and Mancini's Comparing Media Systems (2004, 1). Both sets of
authors offer models for comparing the differences between media systems across the
globe. This article begins with a similar, if more specific inquiry: How are the political and
economic forces in society related to the level of pluralism in the opinion-leading print
media of each country? My research question involves at least three aspects of the press and
society: the political establishment, the economic system and the level of pluralism in press
content. The goal here is to define these variables, see how they are causally related, and
design an empirical study for testing these assumptions.
1. Freedom, democracy and media
2. Researchers have long understood that the political and economic forces in society
greatly influence the quality of mass media content. According to Siebert et al.(1956),
media content is ultimately determined by where the given country falls on a political
continuum. The authors begin by positioning a centralized, authoritarian society on one side
(the “authoritarian” model), and a free libertarian one on the other side (the “libertarian”
model) of the continuum. Countries closer to the libertarian model, they argue, would
exhibit greater press pluralism than those nearer to the authoritarian model. “Press
pluralism” can be defined as newspaper content that contains an array of opposing
viewpoints.
3. Since the publication of Four Theories, media scholars have criticized the work from all
directions. Some see it as nothing more than a Cold War artifact, an international media
theory based solely on the ideologized models that existed in the Soviet Union and the
United States at mid-century. However, in spite of its rhetorical and normative character,
Four Theories remains influential as a broad framework for understanding the differences
between media systems around the world
4. Interest in the relationship between democracy and media pluralism increased in the late
1990s during the political upheavals in Communist countries. Many authors have suggested
that citizens in the democratizing nations of Central and Eastern Europe gained
unprecedented access to new media outlets and increasingly diverse views of the world.
Millard (1998), for instance, discussed how this process took place in Poland, where a free
media ensured a diversity of viewpoints in the press. Similar studies have considered the
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relationship between democratic transformation and various elements of media quality and
performance in Russia and Tartarstan, Hungary, Romania, Chile, Taiwan, Mali and other
countries.
5. Many of these studies demonstrate that the relationship between democracy and press
pluralism is both positive and reciprocal. In other words, while the laws and principles of
democracy are thought to be essential for free and diverse voices to emerge in the mass
media, these same voices also safeguard and improve the conditions for democracy. A free
press facilitates the flow of information about public events to citizens, exposes politicians
and governments to public scrutiny, clarifies choices during elections and urges people to
participate in the political process.
2. The limits of democracy: ideology, advertisers, ownership and structure
6. Although much has been written in support of the relationship discussed above, some
authors have challenged the idea that the development of free-market democracy results
necessarily in diverse and competing views in the mass media. In this section, we briefly
discuss four closely related factors that may limit the level of press pluralism and other
aspects of media quality: ideology, advertisers, ownership and organizational structure.
7. Whether media are controlled by state institutions or private firms, media content is seen
as both expressing the power of elites or propertied classes, which constitute an ideology
that influences the media. Ideological forces may play an especially important role in the
international coverage of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks and the war in
Afghanistan, because much of the debate over these issues falls along ideological lines,
often comparing the interests and values of Western countries with those of the Arab and
Islamic civilization. If a country's press coverage is shaped largely by its geopolitical
interests and its support (or rejection) of Western values, the tension between ideological
forces and the demand for objectivity and fairness would likely be higher in the case of 9/11
coverage.
8. While state-owned media outlets depend on a handful of high officials for their survival,
private media depend on advertisers, which are the second factor that limits the media.
Media content may be influenced directly by the particular demands of large corporate
advertisers and, or indirectly by the general notion that media content must create a “buying
mood” among consumers. The advertising dollars of large multinationals or foreign
corporations with important ties to the U.S. market certainly have the potential to influence
media coverage of 9/11. Moreover, according to some authors, media firms avoid
controversial materials that may disturb or distract the audience from the advertisements.
Both the need for advertising revenue and the forces of ideology may reduce the level of
press pluralism.
9. The third influence on the press, which overlaps with the previous two, is media
ownership concentration. The individual owners of large media companies may influence
content directly by demanding that it become more advertiser-friendly, or more in line with
the owner's personal beliefs or values. While there are several famous cases of deliberate
manipulation of media content by individual owners, the effects of ownership concentration
are more often thought to be indirect. For instance, media ownership concentration may blur
the line between the editorial side and the business side of news organizations, particularly
when revenues are in decline. Commercial considerations rise in importance as media
empires expand. High-level corporate managers become less in tune with the editorial
concerns of media workers, and more concerned about increasing revenues, resulting in
homogenized content that reflects the needs of advertisers and corporate executives to
produce a culture of consumerism at the expense of the informational and knowledge needs
of audiences which would foster diverse and competing viewpoints.
10. The organizational structure of the media is the fourth factor that limits press pluralism.
All members of media organizations, from front-line employees to top-level managers,
perform a particular role or set of functions. The roles people play in media organizations
largely determine their views and shape their orientations toward day-to-day routines,
including those related to journalistic standards. If the structure of any two media
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organizations differs, the practices of media workers may also differ. The present study
compares several newspaper organizations within the given country, and makes crossnational comparisons. Differences between countries in terms of organizational structure,
therefore, may account for differences in the level of press pluralism. Nowhere is this issue
more conspicuous than in the case of China, where the structure of media organizations is
controlled by the Chinese authorities and government censors.
3. The comparative approach and the issue of 9/11
11. While the relationship between press pluralism and democracy rests on contested
ground, much of the controversy is based on studies of Western media systems. In an effort
to broaden the debate, the present study focuses on countries from other regions of the
world, including India, China, Colombia, Russia, Lithuania, Egypt and Germany. The
political and economic circumstances in these nations are varied, providing a fruitful
opportunity for comparative analysis and theory development. Comparing the level of press
pluralism in nations with high and low levels of democratic development will help us
clarify the meaning of this concept and explain why it appears in different forms in different
countries.
12. One of the big challenges of using the comparative approach in media studies, however,
is finding press material for which meaningful comparisons can be made. Our study is
centered on international press coverage of the United States and the war in Afghanistan
following the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. We believe that the issues
surrounding 9/11 are especially appropriate for comparative analysis of press pluralism for
at least three reasons. First, the magnitude of the attacks and the anticipation of the U.S.
response captured the world's attention like few other 1-day events in recent history.
13. Second, the issues surrounding 9/11 are ideal because they provoked a broad range of
viewpoints in the international community. Who carried out the attacks? Why did the
attacks occur in the first place? What should be done in response? How should the
underlying global conflict be framed or described? As this study shows, the press in each of
the project countries offered widely diverging answers to these and several other pertinent
issues associated with 9/11. More importantly, the scope of the debate – that is, the level of
press pluralism – also varied greatly between these nations.
14. Third, the events of 9/11 represent a decisive moment in contemporary history.
September 11, 2001 marked the beginning of a new and more assertive U.S. foreign policy.
In addition, each nation's reaction to the attacks played a role in its future relations with the
U.S. President George W. Bush's famous assertion that countries are either “with us or
against us” in the war on terrorism only intensified the social and political significance of
foreign press representations of 9/11 and the war in Afghanistan.
4. Method
15. This study is based on an international research project that measured the opinionleading print media's reaction to 9/11 in China, Colombia, Egypt, Germany, India,
Lithuania, and Russia. All of the articles were published during three brief periods in the
first months after the attacks. The group of countries selected for the project reflects a
purposive sample based on several criteria, including geopolitical significance, nuclear
capability, as well as the interest in particular cultural, economic, and political differences
between these nations.
5. Findings
16. The level of pluralism varied between countries, as well as across the 10 different issues
listed below. The highest level of pluralism was found in descriptions of the United States
(Issues 9 and 10). In China, for instance, 52% of the press response portrayed the U.S. with
positive words and phrases, such as “united,” “adaptable,” “economically strong,” and
“technologically advanced,” while 48% used negative terms, such as “harsh,” “arrogant”
and “materialistic” to characterize America. A similar split was found in Colombia (53%
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positive, 47% negative) and India (35% positive, 65% negative). Egypt and Russia were
less pluralistic on this issue. The press in these countries leaned decisively toward negative
images of the United States. Lithuania and Germany were equally biased in the opposite
direction, offering predominantly positive descriptions of America. The relatively low
ratings (issue 9) in Germany, Lithuania, Russia and Egypt contrasted somewhat with the
higher scores found in China, Colombia and India. In comparison to other issues, however,
the project countries generally offered diverse and competing views when it came to
describing and evaluating America and its policies.
The 10 Major issues related to 9/11
(1) How should the U.S. respond to 9/11?
(2) How should <given country> respond to 9/11?
(3) Who is the prime suspect of 9/11?
(4) How should 9/11 be described?
(5) What caused 9/11?
(6) How should the global conflict of 9/11 be described?
(7) Why did the U.S. carry out military actions in Afghanistan?
(8) How should the U.S.-led war in Afghanistan be evaluated?
(9) What terms should be used to describe the U.S.?
(10) Coder’s “subjective” assessment of the article’s view of U.S.
17. On the other side of the spectrum, the lowest level of pluralism was found in articles
that described the 9/11 attacks (Issue 4). Few authors strayed from decisively negative
portrayals of the perpetrators and the act itself. In China, Colombia, Germany, Lithuania,
India and Russia, 80% or more of the press responses contained clearly unfavorable terms,
such as “terrible,” “horrible” and “wrong.” Some authors used what we considered
“neutral” terms to describe the perpetrators, including “educated,” “intelligent,” and “well
organized.” President Bush never used neutral or positive terms in his depictions of the
attacks or the attackers. The Egyptian press was a clear leader in offering a neutral portrayal
of 9/11. At the same time, very few authors in any country openly praised or complimented
the attacks or the attackers for their deeds. With the exceptions of the press in India and
Egypt, the level of pluralism on Issue 4 was quite low in all the countries – China,
Lithuania, Russia, Colombia and Germany – especially when compared to Issue 9, the
portrayals of the United States.
18. Although the level of pluralism varied across the different issues, some countries
consistently offered greater levels of pluralism than others. Based on an average, China,
Germany and Lithuania offered the lowest levels of press pluralism on the 10 issues
surrounding 9/11. Colombia and Russia took intermediate positions. The press in Egypt and
India exhibited the highest levels of pluralism.
19. Correlation analysis was used to assess the associations between the level of democracy
in each country and the level of press pluralism. We initially assumed a positive correlation
between these two variables. This assumption, however, was supported on only three of the
10 issues. Countries with high democracy scores tended to offer higher levels of pluralism
on Issue 1 (“How should the U.S. respond to 9/11?”), Issue 2 (“How should the <given
country> respond to 9/11?”), and Issue 5 (“What caused 9/11?”) than countries with low
democracy scores. There was no correlation between democracy and pluralism scores on
Issue 4 (“How should 9/11 be described?”). Democracy was negatively correlated with
press pluralism on six of the 10 issues (Issues 3, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10). On these six issues,
countries with higher democracy scores offered narrower, less balanced interpretations in
the press than countries with lower democracy scores.
6. Conclusion
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20. One of the central assumptions in many studies on democratization is that countries with
highly developed democratic institutions generally present strong agreements on important
topics in the mainstream press. In our study of the debates surrounding 9/11, we found only
partial support for this conventional wisdom. The press in nations known for their healthy
democracies did indeed provide a diverse discussion on some of the issues surrounding
9/11, particularly on the issue of using military force in response to the terrorist attacks. On
other issues, however, these nations offered less diverse interpretations of the 9/11 events
than in countries with meager democratic reputations. Media in democratic nations were
less likely to question the immediate assertions made by U.S. officials that Osama bin
Laden (or “Islamic radicals”) had orchestrated the 9/11 attacks. These media offered a less
critical exploration of how the events of 9/11 may have been stimulated by past and present
U.S. foreign policies. Discussions of the war in Afghanistan and the broader global conflict
brought to light by 9/11 were narrower than in less-democratic nations. The democratic
press was also less likely to offer a mixed portrayal of the United States and its policies than
the non-democratic press.
21. Deep controversies and conflicts in society, though widely perceived as undesirable, are
important for the maintenance of democracy. As Tichenor wrote, “intense controversies
may lead to greater realization of a general democratic ideal”. While it may seem
reasonable for the press in democratic countries to converge and homogenize in a time of
war and crisis, it is precisely these times when a vigilant press is needed most.
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7. Limitations and future studies
22. This study has several limitations. First, our findings cannot be generalized to the level
of press pluralism on all news issues. There is a need for further research into the level of
press pluralism on other important topics. It may be interesting, for instance, to measure the
level of pluralism in regard to domestic politics, environmental concerns, human rights
issues, international trade and migration. We suspect that there are many issues on which
the democratic press consistently offers greater levels of pluralism than the non-democratic
press—for instance, on the descriptions of leaders.
23. Second, the findings discussed here represent a historical snapshot of international press
coverage (September–December 2001). It is quite likely that the debate over terrorist
activities and the U.S. response to it changed over time. Future studies are needed for
testing not only how the level of press pluralism varies across different issues, but also
across different time periods.
24. Finally, although we hope to have contributed to the understanding of the international
press, we did not consider how the press affects public opinion; nor did we compare the
press representation of 9/11 to the views of the leadership and political elites in each nation.
Future studies should contrast the level of pluralism in the press with the views of the public
and the statements of high officials. Such a study would provide interesting and important
data on the dynamic relationship between the views of the ruling class, the press and the
public.
(3,010 words)
6
Democracy and the Press Print Media
Vocabulary + comprehension exercise
Find a synonym for these words in the text (pp.1-7)
1. evaluate (ab.)
2. world (par. 1)
3. purpose (par. 1)
4. assume (par. 1)
5. varied (par. 3)
6. important (par. 5+13)
7. take part (par. 5)
8. clarify (par. 5)
9. doubt (par. 7)
10. rely (par. 8)
11. specific (par. 8)
12. income (par. 9)
13. powerful (par. 12)
14. claim (par. 14)
15. disadvantages (par. 15)
16. foresee (par. 15)
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
Fill in the blanks with the correct conjugation of the word.
1. The __________ principle in Bible studies maintains that the Bible should be read
____________ (comparatively, comparative, comparison)
2. __________ warming is quite a controversial issue which is discussed across the
__________ without much resolution. (globe, globally, global)
3. People's first language is mainly ____________ by their parents and early
environment, while teachers have more ___________ on people's second language.
(influence, influential, influenced)
4. The president's ___________ seemed apparent to anyone __________ enough to
get tickets to the event. (determination, detrimental, determined)
5. The view points of environmentalists and free-trade supporters are not as
_____________ as one might assume. (dichotomy, dichotomous)
6. ____________ is a key component of any good relationship, since ___________
interactions ensure that both sides of the equation are content. (reciprocal,
reciprocated, reciprocity)
7. If you wish to pass the __________ of the committee members, you must begin by
__________ yourself in order to detect problems beforehand. (scrutinizing,
scrutizingly, scrutiny)
7
8. In all ___________, it is unfathomable for a convicted felon to be a good public
official, since he/she may not be expected to behave in an honest and ___________
manner. (fairly, fairness, fair)
9. The 9/11 media ____________ has been unprecedented due to the enormity of the
event ___________. (cover, covered, coverage)
10. The only ______________ part of English weather is its ________________.
(prediction, predictable, unpredictability)
Comprehension questions
1. What is the paradox presented in the abstract? (quote or explain)
2.
According to the authors' initial premise, an authoritarian society would exhibit
________________________ than a _____________ society.
3. What does the example of Poland (p. 3) illustrate?
4. Name 2 advantages to free press:
5. In "The limits of democracy:…", what is the relationship referred to?
5a. What is the purpose of this section?
6. What does the example of China (p.6) illustrate?
7. According to section 3, what is required for the furtherance of the discussion
regarding press pluralism?
8
7a. What are two challenges to this discussion presented in this section?
8. Name the three reasons for approaching the discussion through the 9/11 example.
8a. Name one of the disadvantages to this choice.
9. What are "coders"?
10. Circle the correct answer:
According to the authors, the existing indexes of democracy are sufficient.
True / False
Justify your answer by quoting from the text.
11. The authors' assumption that a positive correlation exists between
______________ and the level of _______________ was ______________
(p.18)
12. According to the conclusion, _____________
are essential, despite the
difficulty they present (use no more than 3 words)
13. Name two recommendations for future actions presented in the article.
9
Democracy and the Press Print Media
Vocabulary + comprehension exercise
Find a synonym for these words in the text (pp.1-7)
1. evaluate (ab.)
2. world (par. 1)
3. purpose (par. 1)
4. assume (par. 1)
5. varied (par. 3)
6. important (par. 5+13)
7. take part (par. 5)
8. clarify (par. 5)
9. doubt (par. 7)
10. rely (par. 8)
11. specific (par. 8)
12. income (par. 9)
13. powerful (par. 12)
14. claim (par. 14)
15. disadvantages (par. 15)
16. foresee (par. 15)
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
Fill in the blanks with the correct conjugation of the word.
11. The __________ principle in Bible studies maintains that the Bible should be read
____________ (comparatively, comparative, comparison)
12. __________ warming is quite a controversial issue which is discussed across the
__________ without much resolution. (globe, globally, global)
13. People's first language is mainly ____________ by their parents and early
environment, while teachers have more ___________ on people's second language.
(influence, influential, influenced)
14. The president's ___________ seemed apparent to anyone __________ enough to
get tickets to the event. (determination, detrimental, determined)
15. The view points of environmentalists and free-trade supporters are not as
_____________ as one might assume. (dichotomy, dichotomous)
16. ____________ is a key component of any good relationship, since ___________
interactions ensure that both sides of the equation are content. (reciprocal,
reciprocated, reciprocity)
10
17. If you wish to pass the __________ of the committee members, you must begin by
__________ yourself in order to detect problems beforehand. (scrutinizing,
scrutizingly, scrutiny)
18. In all ___________, it is unfathomable for a convicted felon to be a good public
official, since he/she may not be expected to behave in an honest and ___________
manner. (fairly, fairness, fair)
19. The 9/11 media ____________ has been unprecedented due to the enormity of the
event ___________. (cover, covered, coverage)
20. The only ______________ part of English weather is its ________________.
(prediction, predictable, unpredictability)
Comprehension questions
5. What is the paradox presented in the abstract? (quote or explain)
6.
According to the authors' initial premise, an authoritarian society would exhibit
________________________ than a _____________ society.
7. What does the example of Poland (p. 3) illustrate?
8. Name 2 advantages to free press:
5. In "The limits of democracy:…", what is the relationship referred to?
5a. What is the purpose of this section?
6. What does the example of China (p.6) illustrate?
11
7. According to section 3, what is required for the furtherance of the discussion
regarding press pluralism?
7a. What are two challenges to this discussion presented in this section?
8. Name the three reasons for approaching the discussion through the 9/11 example.
8a. Name one of the disadvantages to this choice.
9. What are "coders"?
10. Circle the correct answer:
According to the authors, the existing indexes of democracy are sufficient.
True / False
Justify your answer by quoting from the text.
11. The authors' assumption that a positive correlation exists between
______________ and the level of _______________ was ______________
(p.18)
12. According to the conclusion, _____________
are essential, despite the
difficulty they present (use no more than 3 words)
13. Name two recommendations for future actions presented in the article.
12