The Functionalist Perspective
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The functionalist perspective attempts to explain social
institutions as collective means to meet individual and social
needs.
KEY POINTS
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In the functionalist perspective, societies are thought to function like organisms,
with various social institutions working together like organs to maintain and reproduce
societies.
According to functionalist theories, institutions come about and persist because
they play a function in society, promoting stability and integration.
Functionalism has been criticized for its failure to account for social change and
individual agency; some consider it conservatively biased.
Functionalism has been criticized for attributing human-like needs to society.
Emile Durkheim's work is considered the foundation of functionalist theory in
sociology.
TERMS
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functionalism
Structural functionalism, or simply functionalism, is a framework for building theory
that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to
promote solidarity and stability.
social institutions
In the social sciences, institutions are the structures and mechanisms of social order
and cooperation governing the behavior of a set of individuals within a given human
collectivity. Institutions include the family, religion, peer group, economic systems,
legal systems, penal systems, language, and the media.
manifest function
the element of a behavior that is conscious and deliberate
latent function
the element of a behavior that is not explicitly stated, recognized, or intended, and is
thereby hidden
Functionalism
The functionalist perspective attempts to explain social institutions as collective means to
meet individual and social needs. It is sometimes called structural-functionalism because it
often focuses on the ways social structures (e.g., social institutions) meet social needs.
Functionalism draws its inspiration from the ideas of Emile Durkheim. Durkheim was
concerned with the question of how societies maintain internal stability and survive over
time. He sought to explain social stability through the concept of solidarity, and
differentiated between the mechanical solidarity of primitive societies and the organic
solidarity of complex modern societies. According to Durkheim, more primitive or
traditional societies were held together by mechanical solidarity; members of society
lived in relatively small and undifferentiated groups, where they shared strong family
ties and performed similar daily tasks. Such societies were held together by shared
values and common symbols. By contrast, he observed that, in modern societies,
traditional family bonds are weaker; modern societies also exhibit a complex division of
labor, where members perform very different daily tasks. Durkheim argued that modern
industrial society would destroy the traditional mechanical solidarity that held primitive
societies together. Modern societies however, do not fall apart. Instead, modern
societies rely on organic solidarity; because of the extensive division of labor, members
of society are forced to interact and exchange with one another to provide the things
they need.
The functionalist perspective continues to try and explain how societies maintained the
stability and internal cohesion necessary to ensure their continued existence over time.
In the functionalist perspective, societies are thought to function like organisms, with
various social institutions working together like organs to maintain and reproduce them.
The various parts of society are assumed to work together naturally and automatically to
maintain overall social equilibrium. Because social institutions are functionally
integrated to form a stable system, a change in one institution will precipitate a change
in other institutions. Dysfunctional institutions, which do not contribute to the overall
maintenance of a society, will cease to exist.
In the 1950s, Robert Merton elaborated the functionalist perspective by proposing a
distinction between manifest and latent functions. Manifest functions are the intended
functions of an institution or a phenomenon in a social system. Latent functions are its
unintended functions. Latent functions may be undesirable, but unintended
consequences, or manifestly dysfunctional institutions may have latent functions that
explain their persistence. For example, crime seems difficult to explain from the
functionalist perspective; it seems to play little role in maintaining social stability.
Crime, however, may have the latent function of providing examples that demonstrate
the boundaries of acceptable behavior and the function of these boundaries to maintain
social norms.
Social Institutions
Functionalists analyze social institutions in terms of the function they play. In other
words, to understand a component of society, one must ask, "What is the function of this
institution? How does it contribute to social stability? " Thus, one can ask of education,
"What is the function of education for society? " A complete answer would be quite
complex and require a detailed analysis of the history of education, but one obvious
answer is that education prepares individuals to enter the workforce and, therefore,
maintains a functioning economy. By delineating the functions of elements of society, of
the social structure, we can better understand social life.
Criticism of Functionalism
Functionalism has been criticized for downplaying the role of individual action, and for
being unable to account for social change. In the functionalist perspective, society and
its institutions are the primary units of analysis. Individuals are significant only in terms
of their places within social systems (i.e., social statusand position in patterns of social
relations). Some critics also take issue with functionalism's tendency to attribute needs
to society. They point out that, unlike human beings, society does not have needs;
society is only alive in the sense that it is made up of living individuals. By downplaying
the role of individuals, functionalism is less likely to recognize how individual actions
may alter social institutions.
Critics also argue that functionalism is unable to explain social change because it focuses
so intently on social order and equilibrium in society. Following functionalist logic, if a
social institution exists, it must serve a function. Institutions, however, change over
time; some disappear and others come into being. The focus of functionalism on
elements of social life in relation to their present function, and not their past functions,
makes it difficult to use functionalism to explain why a function of some element of
society might change, or how such change occurs.
The Conflict Perspective
Read Teach3
Conflict theory sees society as a dynamic entity constantly
undergoing change as a result of competition over scarce
resources.
KEY POINTS
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Conflict theory sees social life as a competition, and focuses on the
distribution of resources, power, and inequality.
Unlike functionalist theory, conflict theory is better at explaining social
change, and weaker at explaining social stability.
Conflict theory has been critiqued for its inability to explain social
stability and incremental change.
Conflict theory derives from the ideas of Karl Marx.
TERMS
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conflict theory
A social science perspective that holds that stratification is dysfunctional
and harmful in society, with inequality perpetuated because it benefits the
rich and powerful at the expense of the poor.
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functionalism
Structural functionalism, or simply functionalism, is a framework for building
theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to
promote solidarity and stability.
EXAMPLES
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A conflict theorist might ask, "Who benefits from the current higher
educational system in the U.S.? " The answer, for a conflict theorist attuned
to unequal distributions of wealth, is the wealthy. After all, higher education
in the U.S. is not free. The educational system often screens out poorer
individuals, not because they are unable to compete academically, but
because they cannot afford to pay for their education. Because the poor are
unable to obtain higher education, they are generally also unable to get
higher paying jobs, and, thus, they remain poor. Such an arrangement
translates into a vicious cycle of poverty. While a functionalist might say that
the function of education is to educate the workforce, a conflict theorist
might point out that it also has an element of conflict and inequality,
favoring one group (the wealthy) over other groups (the poor). Thinking
about education in this way helps illustrate why both functionalist and
conflict theories are helpful in understanding how society works.
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The Conflict Perspective
The conflict perspective, or conflict theory, derives from the ideas of Karl Marx, who
believed society is a dynamic entity constantly undergoing change driven
byclass conflict. Whereas functionalism understands society as a complex system
striving for equilibrium, the conflict perspective views social life as competition.
According to the conflict perspective, society is made up of individuals competing for
limited resources (e.g., money, leisure, sexual partners, etc.). Competition over scarce
resources is at the heart of all social relationships. Competition, rather than consensus, is
characteristic of human relationships. Broader social structures and organizations (e.g.,
religions, government, etc.) reflect the competition for resources and the inherent
inequality competition entails; some people and organizations have more resources
(i.e., power and influence), and use those resources to maintain their positions of power
in society.
C. Wright Mills is known as the founder of modern conflict theory. In his work, he
believes social structures are created because of conflict between differing interests.
People are then impacted by the creation of social structures, and the usual result is a
differential of power between the "elite" and the "others". Examples of the "elite" would
be government and large corporations. G. William Domhoff believes in a similar
philosophy as Mills and has written about the "power elite of America".
Sociologists who work from the conflict perspective study the distribution of resources,
power, and inequality. When studying a social institution or phenomenon, they ask, "Who
benefits from this element of society? "
Conflict Theory and Change
While functionalism emphasizes stability, conflict theory emphasizes change. According
to the conflict perspective, society is constantly in conflict over resources, and that
conflict drives social change. For example, conflict theorists might explain the civil
rights movements of the 1960s by studying how activists challenged the racially unequal
distribution of political power and economic resources. As in this example, conflict
theorists generally see social change as abrupt, even revolutionary, rather than
incremental. In the conflict perspective, change comes about through conflict between
competing interests, not consensus or adaptation. Conflict theory, therefore, gives
sociologists a framework for explaining social change, thereby addressing one of the
problems with the functionalist perspective.
Criticism of Conflict Theory
Predictably, conflict theory has been criticized for its focus on change and neglect of
social stability. Some critics acknowledge that societies are in a constant state of change,
but point out that much of the change is minor or incremental, not revolutionary. For
example, many modern capitalist states have avoided a communist revolution, and have
instead instituted elaborate social service programs. Although conflict theorists often
focus on social change, they have, in fact, also developed a theory to explain social
stability. According to the conflict perspective, inequalities in power and reward are
built into all social structures. Individuals and groups who benefit from any particular
structure strive to see it maintained. For example, the wealthy may fight to maintain
their privileged access to higher education by opposing measures that would broaden
access, such as affirmative action or public funding.
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The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective
Symbolic interactionism looks at individual and group meaning-making,
focusing on human action instead of large-scale social structures.
KEY POINTS
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Symbolic interactionism has roots in phenomenology, which emphasizes the
subjective meaning of reality.
Symbolic interactionism proposes a social theory of the self, or a looking glass self.
Symbolic interactionists study meaning and communication; they tend to
usequalitative methods.
Symbolic interactionism has been criticized for failing to take into account largescale macro social structures and forces.
TERMS
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phenomenology
A philosophy based on the intuitive experience of phenomena, and on the premise
that reality consists of objects and events as consciously perceived by conscious
beings.
behaviorism
an approach to psychology focusing on behavior, denying any independent
significance for mind, and assuming that behavior is determined by the environment
role theory
assumes that people are primarily conformists who try to achieve the norms that
accompany their roles; group members check each individual's performance to
determine whether it conforms with that individual's assigned norms, and apply
sanctions for misbehavior in an attempt to ensure role performance.
EXAMPLES
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A good example of the looking glass self is a person trying on clothes before going
out with friends. Some people may not think much about how others will think about
their clothing choices, but others can spend quite a bit of time considering what they
are going to wear. While they are deciding, the dialogue taking place inside their mind
is usually a dialogue between their "self" (that portion of their identity that calls itself
"I") and that person's internalized understanding of their friends and society (a
"generalized other"). An indicator of mature socialization is when an individual quite
accurately predicts how other people think about him or her. Such an individual has
incorporated the "social" into the "self. "
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Symbolic interactionism is a theoretical approach to understanding
therelationship between humans and society. The basic notion of symbolic interactionism
is that human action and interaction are understandable only through the exchange of
meaningful communication or symbols. In this approach, humans are portrayed as
acting, as opposed to being acted upon. The main principles of symbolic interactionism
are:
Human beings act toward things on the basis of the meanings that things have for
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them
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These meanings arise out of social interaction
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Social action results from a fitting together of individual lines of action
This approach stands in contrast to the strict behaviorism of psychological theories
prevalent at the time it was first formulated (the 1920s and 1930s). According to
symbolic interactionism, humans are distinct from infrahumans (lower animals)
because infrahumans simply respond to their environment (i.e., a stimulus evokes a
response or stimulus ⇒ response), whereas humans have the ability to interrupt that
process (i.e., stimulus ⇒ cognition ⇒ response). Additionally, infrahumans are unable to
conceive of alternative responses togestures. Humans, however, can. This understanding
should not be taken to indicate that humans never behave in a strict stimulus ⇒
response fashion, but rather that humans have the capability of responding in a
different way, and do so much of the time.
This perspective is also rooted in phenomenological thought. According to symbolic
interactionism, the objective world has no reality for humans; only subjectively defined
objects have meaning. Meanings are not entities that are bestowed on humans and
learned by habituation; instead, meanings can be altered through the creative
capabilities of humans, and individuals mayinfluence the many meanings that form their
society. Human society, therefore, is a social product.
The Looking Glass Self
Neurological evidence, based on EEGs, supports the idea that humans have a "social
brain," meaning, there are components of the human brain that govern social
interaction. These parts of the brain begin developing in early childhood (the preschool
years) and aid humans in understanding how other people think. In symbolic
interactionism, this is known as "reflected appraisals" or "the looking glass self," and
refers to our ability to think about how other people will think about us. In 1902, Charles
Horton Cooley developed the social psychological concept of the looking glass self. The
term was first used in his work, Human Nature and the Social Order. There are three
main components of the looking glass self:
Charles Cooley
Cooley developed the idea of the looking glass self.
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We imagine how we must appear to others
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We imagine the judgment of that appearance
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We develop our self through the judgments of others
Cooley clarified this concept in his writings, stating that society is an interweaving and
interworking of mental selves.
In hypothesizing the framework for the looking glass self, Cooley said, "the mind is
mental" because "the human mind is social. " As children, humans begin to define
themselves within the context of their socializations. The child learns that the symbol of
his/her crying will elicit a response from his/her parents, not only when they are in need
of necessities, such as food, but also as a symbol to receive their attention.
George Herbert Mead described self as "taking the role of the other," the premise for
which the self is actualized. Through interaction with others, we begin to develop an
identity about who we are, as well as empathy for others. This is the notion of, "Do unto
others, as you would have them do unto you. " In respect to this, Cooley said, "The thing
that moves us to pride or shame is not the mere mechanical reflection of ourselves, but
an imputed sentiment, the imagined effect of this reflection upon another's mind. "
It should be noted that symbolic interactionists advocate a particularmethodology.
Because they see meaning as the fundamental component of the interaction of human
and society, studying human and social interaction requires an understanding of that
meaning. Symbolic interactionists tend to employ morequalitative, rather
than quantitative, methods in their research.
The most significant limitation of the symbolic interactionist perspective relates to its
primary contribution: it overlooks macro-social structures (e.g., norms, culture) as a
result of focusing on micro-level interactions. Some symbolic interactionists, however,
would counter that the incorporation of role theory into symbolic interactionism
addresses this criticism.
KEY TERM GLOSSARY (FOR CONFLICT THEORY AND FUNCTIONALISM)
Conflict Perspective - perspectives in social science based on Conflict Theory, that emphasize
the social, political, or material inequality of a social group.
Appears in these related concepts:
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Social Control
Intergenerational Conflict
Screening and Allocation: Tracking
Conflict Theories - Perspectives in social science that emphasize the social, political, or
material inequality of a social group, critique the broad socio-political system, or otherwise
detract from structural functionalism and ideological conservatism.
Appears in these related concepts:
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Prejudice
Explaining Poverty: The Sociological Debate
Power and Inequality
Cycle of poverty - The idea that poverty operates in a dynamic cycle, with the effects of
poverty increasing the likelihood that it will be transferred between generations.
Appears in these related concepts:
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The Feminization of Poverty
The Dynamics of Poverty
More - A way to refer to norms that are widely observed and have great moral significance.
Mores include an aversion for societal taboos, such as incest or pederasty.
Appears in these related concepts:
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Animals and Culture
Sociology and Science
Norms and Sanctions
The Functionalist Perspective - A broad social theory that sees society as a complex system
whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability.
Appears in these related concepts:
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The Functionalist Perspective of Deviance
The Functionalist Perspective
The Functionalist Perspective
affirmative action - A policy or program providing advantages for people of a minority group
who are seen to have traditionally been discriminated against, with the aim of creating a more
egalitarian society through preferential access to education, employment, health care, social
welfare, etc.
Appears in these related concepts:
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Affirmative Action
Racism
Minority Groups
Class - A person's economic position in society, based on birth and individual achievement.
Appears in these related concepts:
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Religion
World-Systems Theory
Subcultures
conflict perspective - A perspective in the social sciences that emphasizes the social, political
or material inequality of a social group; critiques the broad socio-political system; or otherwise
detracts from structural functionalism and ideological conservativism.
Appears in these related concepts:
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The Conflict Perspective
The Feminist Perspective
The Conflict Perspective on Deviance
Consensus - A process of decision making that seeks widespread agreement among group
members.
Appears in these related concepts:
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Spousal Abuse
Participatory Democracy
Global Consequences of Group Dynamics: Groupthink
Corporation - A group of individuals, created by law or under authority of law, having a
continuous existence independent of the existences of its members, and powers and liabilities
distinct from those of its members.
Appears in these related concepts:
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The Upper-Middle Class
Multinational Corporations
Corporations and Corporate Power
Corporations - Plural of corporation.
Appears in these related concepts:
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Bureaucratization of Schools
Hunger, Malnutrition, and Family
Lobbyists and Special-Interest Groups
Elite - A special group or social class of people which have a superior intellectual, social or
economic status as, the elite of society.
Appears in these related concepts:
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Culture and Society
Cultural Evolution
Oligarchy
Equilibrium - In economics, the point at which supply equals demand and prices cease
fluctuating.
Appears in these related concepts:
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Social Darwinism and Spencer
School
Market-Oriented Theories
Group - A number of things or persons being in some relation to one another.
Appears in these related concepts:
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Aging and Race
Secondary Groups
Primary Groups
Inequality - An unfair, not equal, state.
Appears in these related concepts:
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The Conflict Perspective: Class Conflict and Scarce Resources
The Significance of Social Inequality
Stratification
Institution - An established organization, especially one dedicated to education, public service,
culture, or the care of the destitute, poor etc.
Appears in these related concepts:
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The Role of Socialization
The Upper Class
The Functionalist Perspective
Money - A generally accepted means of exchange and measure of value.
Appears in these related concepts:
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Status Inconsistency
Family
The Economy
Mores - A set of moral norms or customs derived from generally accepted practices. Mores
derive from the established practices of a society rather than its written laws.
Appears in these related concepts:
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Confidentiality
Durkheim's Mechanical and Organic Solidarity
Folkways and Mores
Organization - A group of people or other legal entities with an explicit purpose and written
rules.
Appears in these related concepts:
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Deviance and Technology
The Political Participation of Women
Innovation
Particular - A particular case; an individual thing as opposed to a whole class.
Appears in these related concepts:
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Preindustrial Cities
Theory and Practice
Cultural Universals
Poverty - The state of one who lacks material possessions, wealth, or access to social resources
and opportunities.
Appears in these related concepts:
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Relative Deprivation Approach
The Conflict Perspective
Mexico's Economy
Power - The ability to get one's way even in the face of opposition to one's goals.
Appears in these related concepts:
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Weber's View of Stratification
Authority
Power
Relationship -Connection or association; the condition of being related.
Appears in these related concepts:
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Material Culture
Deviance and Social Stigma
Groups
Religion - an organized collection of belief systems, cultural systems, and world views that
relate humanity to spirituality and, sometimes, to moral values
Appears in these related concepts:
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Social Movements
Ethnic Groups
Religion
Resource - Something that one uses to achieve an objective, e.g. raw materials or personnel.
Appears in these related concepts:
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The U.S. Political System
The Conflict Perspective
Revolution - A political upheaval in a government or nation-state characterized by great
change.
Appears in these related concepts:
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Industrial Societies: The Birth of the Machine
Industrial Work
The Marxist Critique of Capitalism
Rewards - A gift given for positive reinforcement.
Appears in these related concepts:
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Religion and Social Control
Exchange
Informal Means of Control
social change - an alteration in the structures, institutions and/or practices of a society
Appears in these related concepts:
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Levels of Analysis: Mirco and Macro
The Four Social Revolutions
Social Integration and Durkheim
social institutions - In the social sciences, institutions are the structures and mechanisms of
social order and cooperation governing the behavior of a set of individuals within a given human
collectivity. Institutions include the family, religion, peer group, economic systems, legal
systems, penal systems, language, and the media.
Appears in these related concepts:
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Tonnie's Gemeinschaft and Gessesschalf
Continuity Theory
Gemeinschaft and Gesselschaft
Society - a long-standing group of people sharing cultural aspects such as language, dress,
norms of behavior and artistic forms
Appears in these related concepts:
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The Law as an Instrument of Oppression
Race and Ethnicity
The Credentialized Society
Sociologist - A social scientist focused on the study of society, human social interaction, and
the rules and processes that bind and separate people not only as individuals, but as members of
associations, groups and institutions.
Appears in these related concepts:
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Social Definition of Race
Cultural Lag
Growing Gap Between Rich and Poor
State - Any sovereign polity. A government.
Appears in these related concepts:
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Family Life
Ideal Versus Real Culture
Politics
Theory - A coherent statement or set of ideas that explains observed facts or phenomena, or
which sets out the laws and principles of something known or observed; a hypothesis confirmed
by observation, experiment, etc.
Appears in these related concepts:
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Value Contradictions
Setting Goals
Studying Sociology
Wealth - the abundance of valuable resources or material possessions
Appears in these related concepts:
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Physical Health
The Functions of a Family
Distribution of Wealth and Income